A collision free path to a target location in a random farm is computed by employing a probabilistic roadmap (PRM) that can handle static and dynamic obstacles. The location of ripened mushrooms is an input obtained by image processing. A mushroom harvesting robot is discussed that employs inverse kinematics (IK) at
the target location to compute the state of a robotic hand for holding a ripened mushroom and plucking it. Kinematic model of a two-finger dexterous hand with 3 degrees of freedom for plucking mushrooms was developed using the Denavit-Hartenberg method. Unlike previous research in mushroom harvesting, mushrooms are not planted in a
grid or some pattern, but are randomly distributed. No human intervention is required at any stage of harvesting
Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse K...BIJIAM Journal
A collision-free path to a destination position in a random farm is determined using a probabilistic roadmap (PRM) that can manage static and dynamic obstacles. The position of ripening mushrooms is a result of picture processing. A mushroom harvesting robot is explored that uses inverse kinematics (IK) at the target
position to compute the state of a robotic hand for grasping a ripening mushroom and plucking it. The DenavitHartenberg approach was used to create a kinematic model of a two-finger dexterous hand with three degrees of freedom for mushroom picking. Unlike prior experiments in mushroom harvesting, mushrooms are not planted in a grid or design, but are randomly scattered. At any point throughout the harvesting process, no human interaction is necessary
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Obstacle detection for autonomous systems using stereoscopic images and bacte...IJECEIAES
This paper presents a low cost strategy for real-time estimation of the position of ob- stacles in an unknown environment for autonomous robots. The strategy was intended for use in autonomous service robots, which navigate in unknown and dynamic indoor environments. In addition to human interaction, these environments are characterized by a design created for the human being, which is why our developments seek morphological and functional similarity equivalent to the human model. We use a pair of cameras on our robot to achieve a stereoscopic vision of the environment, and we analyze this information to determine the distance to obstacles using an algorithm that mimics bacterial behavior. The algorithm was evaluated on our robotic platform demonstrating high performance in the location of obstacles and real-time operation.
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path planning for avoid
obstacles as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper analyzes the
current development of robot and path planning algorithm for path planning to avoid obstacles in practice. We
tried to find a good way in mobile robot path planning by using ant colony algorithm, and it also provides some
solving methods.
Inverse kinematic analysis of 4 DOF pick and place arm robot manipulator usin...IJECEIAES
The arm robot manipulator is suitable for substituting humans working in tomato plantation to ensure tomatoes are handled efficiently. The best design for this robot is four links with robust flexibility in x, y, and z-coordinates axis. Inverse kinematics and fuzzy logic controller (FLC) application are for precise and smooth motion. Inverse kinematics designs the most efficient position and motion of the arm robot by adjusting mechanical parameters. The FLC utilizes data input from the sensors to set the right position and motion of the end-effector. The predicted parameters are compared with experimental results to show the effectiveness of the proposed design and method. The position errors (in x, y, and z-axis) are 0.1%, 0.1%, and 0.04%. The rotation errors of each robot links (θ 1 , θ 2 , and θ 3 ) are 0%, 0.7% and 0.3%. The FLC provides the suitable angle of the servo motor (θ 4 ) responsible in gripper motion, and the experimental results correspond to FLC’s rules-based as the input to the gripper motion system. This setup is essential to avoid excessive force or miss-placed position that can damage tomatoes. The arm robot manipulator discussed in this study is a pick and place robot to move the harvested tomatoes to a packing system.
Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse K...BIJIAM Journal
A collision-free path to a destination position in a random farm is determined using a probabilistic roadmap (PRM) that can manage static and dynamic obstacles. The position of ripening mushrooms is a result of picture processing. A mushroom harvesting robot is explored that uses inverse kinematics (IK) at the target
position to compute the state of a robotic hand for grasping a ripening mushroom and plucking it. The DenavitHartenberg approach was used to create a kinematic model of a two-finger dexterous hand with three degrees of freedom for mushroom picking. Unlike prior experiments in mushroom harvesting, mushrooms are not planted in a grid or design, but are randomly scattered. At any point throughout the harvesting process, no human interaction is necessary
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Obstacle detection for autonomous systems using stereoscopic images and bacte...IJECEIAES
This paper presents a low cost strategy for real-time estimation of the position of ob- stacles in an unknown environment for autonomous robots. The strategy was intended for use in autonomous service robots, which navigate in unknown and dynamic indoor environments. In addition to human interaction, these environments are characterized by a design created for the human being, which is why our developments seek morphological and functional similarity equivalent to the human model. We use a pair of cameras on our robot to achieve a stereoscopic vision of the environment, and we analyze this information to determine the distance to obstacles using an algorithm that mimics bacterial behavior. The algorithm was evaluated on our robotic platform demonstrating high performance in the location of obstacles and real-time operation.
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path planning for avoid
obstacles as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper analyzes the
current development of robot and path planning algorithm for path planning to avoid obstacles in practice. We
tried to find a good way in mobile robot path planning by using ant colony algorithm, and it also provides some
solving methods.
Inverse kinematic analysis of 4 DOF pick and place arm robot manipulator usin...IJECEIAES
The arm robot manipulator is suitable for substituting humans working in tomato plantation to ensure tomatoes are handled efficiently. The best design for this robot is four links with robust flexibility in x, y, and z-coordinates axis. Inverse kinematics and fuzzy logic controller (FLC) application are for precise and smooth motion. Inverse kinematics designs the most efficient position and motion of the arm robot by adjusting mechanical parameters. The FLC utilizes data input from the sensors to set the right position and motion of the end-effector. The predicted parameters are compared with experimental results to show the effectiveness of the proposed design and method. The position errors (in x, y, and z-axis) are 0.1%, 0.1%, and 0.04%. The rotation errors of each robot links (θ 1 , θ 2 , and θ 3 ) are 0%, 0.7% and 0.3%. The FLC provides the suitable angle of the servo motor (θ 4 ) responsible in gripper motion, and the experimental results correspond to FLC’s rules-based as the input to the gripper motion system. This setup is essential to avoid excessive force or miss-placed position that can damage tomatoes. The arm robot manipulator discussed in this study is a pick and place robot to move the harvested tomatoes to a packing system.
Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, RO...Redmond R. Shamshiri
In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose output were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish and subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.
RESEARCH ON THE MOBILE ROBOTS INTELLIGENT PATH PLANNING BASED ON ANT COLONY A...cscpconf
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path
planning as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper
analyzes the current development of robot and path planning algorithm and focuses on the
advantages and disadvantages of the traditional intelligent path planning as well as the path
planning. The problem of mobile robot path planning is studied by using ant colony algorithm, and
it also provides some solving methods.
Research on the mobile robots intelligent path planning based on ant colony a...csandit
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path
planning as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper
analyzes the current development of robot and path planning algorithm and focuses on the
advantages and disadvantages of the traditional intelligent path planning as well as the path
planning. The problem of mobile robot path planning is studied by using ant colony algorithm, and
it also provides some solving methods.
Development of a Field Robot Platform for Mechanical Weed Control in Greenhou...Redmond R. Shamshiri
A prototype robot that moves on a monorail along the greenhouse for weed elimination between cucumber plants was designed and developed. The robot benefits from three arrays of ultrasonic sensors for weed detection and a PIC18 F4550-E/P microcontroller board for processing. The feedback from the sensors activates a robotic arm, which moves inside the rows of the cucumber plants for cutting the weeds using rotating blades. Several experiments were carried out inside a greenhouse to find the best combination of arm motor (AM) speed, blade rotation (BR) speed, and blade design. We assigned three BR speeds of 3500, 2500, and 1500 rpm, and two AM speed of 10 and 30 rpm to three blade designs of S-shape, triangular shape, and circular shape. Results indicated that different types of blades, different BR speed, and different AM speed had significant effects (P < 0.05) on the percentage of weeds cut (PWC); however, no significant interaction effects were observed. The comparison between the interaction effect of the factors (three blade designs, three BR speeds, and two AM speeds) showed that maximum mean PWC was equal to 78.2% with standard deviation of 3.9% and was achieved with the S-shape blade when the BR speed was 3500 rpm, and the AM speed was 10 rpm. Using this setting, the maximum PWC that the robot achieved in a random experiment was 95%. The lowest mean PWC was observed with the triangular-shaped blade (mean of 50.39% and SD = 1.86), which resulted from BR speed of 1500 rpm and AM speed of 30 rpm. This study can contribute to the commercialization of a reliable and affordable robot for automated weed control in greenhouse cultivation of cucumber.
A Robot Collision Avoidance Method Using Kinect and Global VisionTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This paper introduces a robot collision avoidance method using Kinect and global vision to
improve the industrial robot’s security. Global vision is installed above the robot, and a combination of the
background-difference method and the Otsu algorithm are used. Human skeleton detection is then
introduced to detect the location information of the human body. The collided objects are classified into
nonhuman and human obstacle which is further categorized into the human head and non-head areas
such as the arm. The Kalman filter is used to predict the human gesture. The human joints danger index is
used to evaluate the risk level of the human on the basis of human body joints and robot’s motion
information. Finally, a motion control strategy is adopted in view of obstacle categories and the human joint
danger index. Results show that the proposed method can effectively improve robot’s security in real time.
Swarm robotics : Design and implementationIJECEIAES
This project presents a swarming and herding behaviour using simple robots. The main goal is to demonstrate the applicability of artificial intelligence (AI) in simple robotics that can then be scaled to industrial and consumer markets to further the ability of automation. AI can be achieved in many different ways; this paper explores the possible platforms on which to build a simple AI robots from consumer grade microcontrollers. Emphasis on simplicity is the main focus of this paper. Cheap and 8 bit microcontrollers were used as the brain of each robot in a decentralized swarm environment were each robot is autonomous but still a part of the whole. These simple robots don’t communicate directly with each other. They will utilize simple IR sensors to sense each other and simple limit switches to sense other obstacles in their environment. Their main objective is to assemble at certain location after initial start from random locations, and after converging they would move as a single unit without collisions. Using readily available microcontrollers and simple circuit design, semi-consistent swarming behaviour was achieved. These robots don’t follow a set path but will react dynamically to different scenarios, guided by their simple AI algorithm.
A Path Planning Technique For Autonomous Mobile Robot Using Free-Configuratio...CSCJournals
This paper presents the implementation of a novel technique for sensor based path planning of autonomous mobile robots. The proposed method is based on finding free-configuration eigen spaces (FCE) in the robot actuation area. Using the FCE technique to find optimal paths for autonomous mobile robots, the underlying hypothesis is that in the low-dimensional manifolds of laser scanning data, there lies an eigenvector which corresponds to the free-configuration space of the higher order geometric representation of the environment. The vectorial combination of all these eigenvectors at discrete time scan frames manifests a trajectory, whose sum can be treated as a robot path or trajectory. The proposed algorithm was tested on two different test bed data, real data obtained from Navlab SLAMMOT and data obtained from the real-time robotics simulation program Player/Stage. Performance analysis of FCE technique was done with existing four path planning algorithms under certain working parameters, namely computation time needed to find a solution, the distance travelled and the amount of turning required by the autonomous mobile robot. This study will enable readers to identify the suitability of path planning algorithm under the working parameters, which needed to be optimized. All the techniques were tested in the real-time robotic software Player/Stage. Further analysis was done using MATLAB mathematical computation software.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
EFFECTIVE REDIRECTING OF THE MOBILE ROBOT IN A MESSED ENVIRONMENT BASED ON TH...ijfls
The use of fuzzy logic in redirecting mobile robot is based on two sets of received information. First set is the instantaneous distance of the robot from the obstacle and second set is the instantaneous information of the robot's position. For this purpose, the fuzzy rules base consists of forty-two bases, which is extracted based on the robot's distance from obstacles, and the target position relative to the instantaneous orientation of the robot. In the structure of fuzzy systems, minimal inference engine are considered. Also, Extended Kalman filter is used for localization in a noisy environment. Accordingly, the inputs of the fuzzy systems are determined based on the estimation of the localization process, the information of the obstacles center and the target position. Also, the linear acceleration and instantaneous orientation of the mobile robot are determined by the desired fuzzy structures which are applied to its kinematic model.
EFFECTIVE REDIRECTING OF THE MOBILE ROBOT IN A MESSED ENVIRONMENT BASED ON TH...Wireilla
The use of fuzzy logic in redirecting mobile robot is based on two sets of received information. First set is
the instantaneous distance of the robot from the obstacle and second set is the instantaneous information of
the robot's position. For this purpose, the fuzzy rules base consists of forty-two bases, which is extracted
based on the robot's distance from obstacles, and the target position relative to the instantaneous
orientation of the robot. In the structure of fuzzy systems, minimal inference engine are considered. Also,
Extended Kalman filter is used for localization in a noisy environment. Accordingly, the inputs of the fuzzy
systems are determined based on the estimation of the localization process, the information of the obstacles
center and the target position. Also, the linear acceleration and instantaneous orientation of the mobile
robot are determined by the desired fuzzy structures which are applied to its kinematic model.
Optimized Robot Path Planning Using Parallel Genetic Algorithm Based on Visib...IJERA Editor
An analysis is made for optimized path planning for mobile robot by using parallel genetic algorithm. The
parallel genetic algorithm (PGA) is applied on the visible midpoint approach to find shortest path for mobile
robot. The hybrid ofthese two algorithms provides a better optimized solution for smooth and shortest path for
mobile robot. In this problem, the visible midpoint approach is used to make the effectiveness for avoiding
local minima. It gives the optimum paths which are always consisting on free trajectories. But the
proposedhybrid parallel genetic algorithm converges very fast to obtain the shortest route from source to
destination due to the sharing of population. The total population is partitioned into a number subgroups to
perform the parallel GA. The master thread is the center of information exchange and making selection with
fitness evaluation.The cell to cell crossover makes the algorithm significantly good. The problem converges
quickly with in a less number of iteration.
Motion planning and controlling algorithm for grasping and manipulating movin...ijscai
Many of the robotic grasping researches have been focusing on stationary objects. And for dynamic moving
objects, researchers have been using real time captured images to locate objects dynamically. However,
this approach of controlling the grasping process is quite costly, implying a lot of resources and image
processing.Therefore, it is indispensable to seek other method of simpler handling… In this paper, we are
going to detail the requirements to manipulate a humanoid robot arm with 7 degree-of-freedom to grasp
and handle any moving objects in the 3-D environment in presence or not of obstacles and without using
the cameras. We use the OpenRAVE simulation environment, as well as, a robot arm instrumented with the
Barrett hand. We also describe a randomized planning algorithm capable of planning. This algorithm is an
extent of RRT-JT that combines exploration, using a Rapidly-exploring Random Tree, with exploitation,
using Jacobian-based gradient descent, to instruct a 7-DoF WAM robotic arm, in order to grasp a moving
target, while avoiding possible encountered obstacles . We present a simulation of a scenario that starts
with tracking a moving mug then grasping it and finally placing the mug in a determined position, assuring
a maximum rate of success in a reasonable time.
Motion Planning and Controlling Algorithm for Grasping and Manipulating Movin...ijscai
Many of the robotic grasping researches have been focusing on stationary objects. And for dynamic moving
objects, researchers have been using real time captured images to locate objects dynamically. However,
this approach of controlling the grasping process is quite costly, implying a lot of resources and image
processing.Therefore, it is indispensable to seek other method of simpler handling… In this paper, we are
going to detail the requirements to manipulate a humanoid robot arm with 7 degree-of-freedom to grasp
and handle any moving objects in the 3-D environment in presence or not of obstacles and without using
the cameras. We use the OpenRAVE simulation environment, as well as, a robot arm instrumented with the
Barrett hand. We also describe a randomized planning algorithm capable of planning. This algorithm is an
extent of RRT-JT that combines exploration, using a Rapidly-exploring Random Tree, with exploitation,
using Jacobian-based gradient descent, to instruct a 7-DoF WAM robotic arm, in order to grasp a moving
target, while avoiding possible encountered obstacles . We present a simulation of a scenario that starts
with tracking a moving mug then grasping it and finally placing the mug in a determined position, assuring
a maximum rate of success in a reasonable time.
Overview of different techniques utilized in designing of a legged robotNikhil Koli
This paper focuses on the various techniques which are implemented to design a small scale legged robot. It specifies various parameters which play a vital role for designing of robot. It also provides the basic level analysis method which can be used to deal with calculation of force, generation of foot profile, calculating dimension of linkages and different method to help the robot to
navigate across rough terrains using sensors and various other algorithm or programs, which instantly optimises the foot profile of the robot to overcome any obstacle
Scheme for motion estimation based on adaptive fuzzy neural networkTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Many applications of robots in collaboration with humans require the robot to follow the person autonomously. Depending on the tasks and their context, this type of tracking can be a complex problem. The paper proposes and evaluates a principle of control of autonomous robots for applications of services to people, with the capacity of prediction and adaptation for the problem of following people without the use of cameras (high level of privacy) and with a low computational cost. A robot can easily have a wide set of sensors for different variables, one of the classic sensors in a mobile robot is the distance sensor. Some of these sensors are capable of collecting a large amount of information sufficient to precisely define the positions of objects (and therefore people) around the robot, providing objective and quantitative data that can be very useful for a wide range of tasks, in particular, to perform autonomous tasks of following people. This paper uses the estimated distance from a person to a service robot to predict the behavior of a person, and thus improve performance in autonomous person following tasks. For this, we use an adaptive fuzzy neural network (AFNN) which includes a fuzzy neural network based on Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy inference, and an adaptive learning algorithm to update the membership functions and the rule base. The validity of the proposal is verified both by simulation and on a real prototype. The average RMSE of prediction over the 50 laboratory tests with different people acting as target object was 7.33.
AN APPROACH OF IR-BASED SHORT-RANGE CORRESPONDENCE SYSTEMS FOR SWARM ROBOT BA...ijaia
This paper exhibits a short-run correspondence method appropriate for swarm versatile robots application.
Infrared is utilized for transmitting and accepting information and obstruction location. The infrared
correspondence code based swarm signaling is utilized for an independent versatile robot communication
system in this research. A code based signaling system is developed for transmitting information between
different entities of robot. The reflected infrared sign is additionally utilized for separation estimation for
obstruction evasion. Investigation of robot demonstrates the possibility of utilizing infrared signs to get a
solid nearby correspondence between swarm portable robots. This paper exhibits a basic decentralized
control for swarm of self-collecting robots. Every robot in the code based swarm signaling is completely
self-governing and controlled utilizing a conduct based methodology with just infrared-based nearby
detecting and correspondences. The viability of the methodology has been checked with simulation, for a
set of swarm robots.
Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, RO...Redmond R. Shamshiri
In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose output were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish and subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.
RESEARCH ON THE MOBILE ROBOTS INTELLIGENT PATH PLANNING BASED ON ANT COLONY A...cscpconf
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path
planning as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper
analyzes the current development of robot and path planning algorithm and focuses on the
advantages and disadvantages of the traditional intelligent path planning as well as the path
planning. The problem of mobile robot path planning is studied by using ant colony algorithm, and
it also provides some solving methods.
Research on the mobile robots intelligent path planning based on ant colony a...csandit
With the development of robotics and artificial intelligence field unceasingly thorough, path
planning as an important field of robot calculation has been widespread concern. This paper
analyzes the current development of robot and path planning algorithm and focuses on the
advantages and disadvantages of the traditional intelligent path planning as well as the path
planning. The problem of mobile robot path planning is studied by using ant colony algorithm, and
it also provides some solving methods.
Development of a Field Robot Platform for Mechanical Weed Control in Greenhou...Redmond R. Shamshiri
A prototype robot that moves on a monorail along the greenhouse for weed elimination between cucumber plants was designed and developed. The robot benefits from three arrays of ultrasonic sensors for weed detection and a PIC18 F4550-E/P microcontroller board for processing. The feedback from the sensors activates a robotic arm, which moves inside the rows of the cucumber plants for cutting the weeds using rotating blades. Several experiments were carried out inside a greenhouse to find the best combination of arm motor (AM) speed, blade rotation (BR) speed, and blade design. We assigned three BR speeds of 3500, 2500, and 1500 rpm, and two AM speed of 10 and 30 rpm to three blade designs of S-shape, triangular shape, and circular shape. Results indicated that different types of blades, different BR speed, and different AM speed had significant effects (P < 0.05) on the percentage of weeds cut (PWC); however, no significant interaction effects were observed. The comparison between the interaction effect of the factors (three blade designs, three BR speeds, and two AM speeds) showed that maximum mean PWC was equal to 78.2% with standard deviation of 3.9% and was achieved with the S-shape blade when the BR speed was 3500 rpm, and the AM speed was 10 rpm. Using this setting, the maximum PWC that the robot achieved in a random experiment was 95%. The lowest mean PWC was observed with the triangular-shaped blade (mean of 50.39% and SD = 1.86), which resulted from BR speed of 1500 rpm and AM speed of 30 rpm. This study can contribute to the commercialization of a reliable and affordable robot for automated weed control in greenhouse cultivation of cucumber.
A Robot Collision Avoidance Method Using Kinect and Global VisionTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This paper introduces a robot collision avoidance method using Kinect and global vision to
improve the industrial robot’s security. Global vision is installed above the robot, and a combination of the
background-difference method and the Otsu algorithm are used. Human skeleton detection is then
introduced to detect the location information of the human body. The collided objects are classified into
nonhuman and human obstacle which is further categorized into the human head and non-head areas
such as the arm. The Kalman filter is used to predict the human gesture. The human joints danger index is
used to evaluate the risk level of the human on the basis of human body joints and robot’s motion
information. Finally, a motion control strategy is adopted in view of obstacle categories and the human joint
danger index. Results show that the proposed method can effectively improve robot’s security in real time.
Swarm robotics : Design and implementationIJECEIAES
This project presents a swarming and herding behaviour using simple robots. The main goal is to demonstrate the applicability of artificial intelligence (AI) in simple robotics that can then be scaled to industrial and consumer markets to further the ability of automation. AI can be achieved in many different ways; this paper explores the possible platforms on which to build a simple AI robots from consumer grade microcontrollers. Emphasis on simplicity is the main focus of this paper. Cheap and 8 bit microcontrollers were used as the brain of each robot in a decentralized swarm environment were each robot is autonomous but still a part of the whole. These simple robots don’t communicate directly with each other. They will utilize simple IR sensors to sense each other and simple limit switches to sense other obstacles in their environment. Their main objective is to assemble at certain location after initial start from random locations, and after converging they would move as a single unit without collisions. Using readily available microcontrollers and simple circuit design, semi-consistent swarming behaviour was achieved. These robots don’t follow a set path but will react dynamically to different scenarios, guided by their simple AI algorithm.
A Path Planning Technique For Autonomous Mobile Robot Using Free-Configuratio...CSCJournals
This paper presents the implementation of a novel technique for sensor based path planning of autonomous mobile robots. The proposed method is based on finding free-configuration eigen spaces (FCE) in the robot actuation area. Using the FCE technique to find optimal paths for autonomous mobile robots, the underlying hypothesis is that in the low-dimensional manifolds of laser scanning data, there lies an eigenvector which corresponds to the free-configuration space of the higher order geometric representation of the environment. The vectorial combination of all these eigenvectors at discrete time scan frames manifests a trajectory, whose sum can be treated as a robot path or trajectory. The proposed algorithm was tested on two different test bed data, real data obtained from Navlab SLAMMOT and data obtained from the real-time robotics simulation program Player/Stage. Performance analysis of FCE technique was done with existing four path planning algorithms under certain working parameters, namely computation time needed to find a solution, the distance travelled and the amount of turning required by the autonomous mobile robot. This study will enable readers to identify the suitability of path planning algorithm under the working parameters, which needed to be optimized. All the techniques were tested in the real-time robotic software Player/Stage. Further analysis was done using MATLAB mathematical computation software.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
EFFECTIVE REDIRECTING OF THE MOBILE ROBOT IN A MESSED ENVIRONMENT BASED ON TH...ijfls
The use of fuzzy logic in redirecting mobile robot is based on two sets of received information. First set is the instantaneous distance of the robot from the obstacle and second set is the instantaneous information of the robot's position. For this purpose, the fuzzy rules base consists of forty-two bases, which is extracted based on the robot's distance from obstacles, and the target position relative to the instantaneous orientation of the robot. In the structure of fuzzy systems, minimal inference engine are considered. Also, Extended Kalman filter is used for localization in a noisy environment. Accordingly, the inputs of the fuzzy systems are determined based on the estimation of the localization process, the information of the obstacles center and the target position. Also, the linear acceleration and instantaneous orientation of the mobile robot are determined by the desired fuzzy structures which are applied to its kinematic model.
EFFECTIVE REDIRECTING OF THE MOBILE ROBOT IN A MESSED ENVIRONMENT BASED ON TH...Wireilla
The use of fuzzy logic in redirecting mobile robot is based on two sets of received information. First set is
the instantaneous distance of the robot from the obstacle and second set is the instantaneous information of
the robot's position. For this purpose, the fuzzy rules base consists of forty-two bases, which is extracted
based on the robot's distance from obstacles, and the target position relative to the instantaneous
orientation of the robot. In the structure of fuzzy systems, minimal inference engine are considered. Also,
Extended Kalman filter is used for localization in a noisy environment. Accordingly, the inputs of the fuzzy
systems are determined based on the estimation of the localization process, the information of the obstacles
center and the target position. Also, the linear acceleration and instantaneous orientation of the mobile
robot are determined by the desired fuzzy structures which are applied to its kinematic model.
Optimized Robot Path Planning Using Parallel Genetic Algorithm Based on Visib...IJERA Editor
An analysis is made for optimized path planning for mobile robot by using parallel genetic algorithm. The
parallel genetic algorithm (PGA) is applied on the visible midpoint approach to find shortest path for mobile
robot. The hybrid ofthese two algorithms provides a better optimized solution for smooth and shortest path for
mobile robot. In this problem, the visible midpoint approach is used to make the effectiveness for avoiding
local minima. It gives the optimum paths which are always consisting on free trajectories. But the
proposedhybrid parallel genetic algorithm converges very fast to obtain the shortest route from source to
destination due to the sharing of population. The total population is partitioned into a number subgroups to
perform the parallel GA. The master thread is the center of information exchange and making selection with
fitness evaluation.The cell to cell crossover makes the algorithm significantly good. The problem converges
quickly with in a less number of iteration.
Motion planning and controlling algorithm for grasping and manipulating movin...ijscai
Many of the robotic grasping researches have been focusing on stationary objects. And for dynamic moving
objects, researchers have been using real time captured images to locate objects dynamically. However,
this approach of controlling the grasping process is quite costly, implying a lot of resources and image
processing.Therefore, it is indispensable to seek other method of simpler handling… In this paper, we are
going to detail the requirements to manipulate a humanoid robot arm with 7 degree-of-freedom to grasp
and handle any moving objects in the 3-D environment in presence or not of obstacles and without using
the cameras. We use the OpenRAVE simulation environment, as well as, a robot arm instrumented with the
Barrett hand. We also describe a randomized planning algorithm capable of planning. This algorithm is an
extent of RRT-JT that combines exploration, using a Rapidly-exploring Random Tree, with exploitation,
using Jacobian-based gradient descent, to instruct a 7-DoF WAM robotic arm, in order to grasp a moving
target, while avoiding possible encountered obstacles . We present a simulation of a scenario that starts
with tracking a moving mug then grasping it and finally placing the mug in a determined position, assuring
a maximum rate of success in a reasonable time.
Motion Planning and Controlling Algorithm for Grasping and Manipulating Movin...ijscai
Many of the robotic grasping researches have been focusing on stationary objects. And for dynamic moving
objects, researchers have been using real time captured images to locate objects dynamically. However,
this approach of controlling the grasping process is quite costly, implying a lot of resources and image
processing.Therefore, it is indispensable to seek other method of simpler handling… In this paper, we are
going to detail the requirements to manipulate a humanoid robot arm with 7 degree-of-freedom to grasp
and handle any moving objects in the 3-D environment in presence or not of obstacles and without using
the cameras. We use the OpenRAVE simulation environment, as well as, a robot arm instrumented with the
Barrett hand. We also describe a randomized planning algorithm capable of planning. This algorithm is an
extent of RRT-JT that combines exploration, using a Rapidly-exploring Random Tree, with exploitation,
using Jacobian-based gradient descent, to instruct a 7-DoF WAM robotic arm, in order to grasp a moving
target, while avoiding possible encountered obstacles . We present a simulation of a scenario that starts
with tracking a moving mug then grasping it and finally placing the mug in a determined position, assuring
a maximum rate of success in a reasonable time.
Overview of different techniques utilized in designing of a legged robotNikhil Koli
This paper focuses on the various techniques which are implemented to design a small scale legged robot. It specifies various parameters which play a vital role for designing of robot. It also provides the basic level analysis method which can be used to deal with calculation of force, generation of foot profile, calculating dimension of linkages and different method to help the robot to
navigate across rough terrains using sensors and various other algorithm or programs, which instantly optimises the foot profile of the robot to overcome any obstacle
Scheme for motion estimation based on adaptive fuzzy neural networkTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Many applications of robots in collaboration with humans require the robot to follow the person autonomously. Depending on the tasks and their context, this type of tracking can be a complex problem. The paper proposes and evaluates a principle of control of autonomous robots for applications of services to people, with the capacity of prediction and adaptation for the problem of following people without the use of cameras (high level of privacy) and with a low computational cost. A robot can easily have a wide set of sensors for different variables, one of the classic sensors in a mobile robot is the distance sensor. Some of these sensors are capable of collecting a large amount of information sufficient to precisely define the positions of objects (and therefore people) around the robot, providing objective and quantitative data that can be very useful for a wide range of tasks, in particular, to perform autonomous tasks of following people. This paper uses the estimated distance from a person to a service robot to predict the behavior of a person, and thus improve performance in autonomous person following tasks. For this, we use an adaptive fuzzy neural network (AFNN) which includes a fuzzy neural network based on Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy inference, and an adaptive learning algorithm to update the membership functions and the rule base. The validity of the proposal is verified both by simulation and on a real prototype. The average RMSE of prediction over the 50 laboratory tests with different people acting as target object was 7.33.
AN APPROACH OF IR-BASED SHORT-RANGE CORRESPONDENCE SYSTEMS FOR SWARM ROBOT BA...ijaia
This paper exhibits a short-run correspondence method appropriate for swarm versatile robots application.
Infrared is utilized for transmitting and accepting information and obstruction location. The infrared
correspondence code based swarm signaling is utilized for an independent versatile robot communication
system in this research. A code based signaling system is developed for transmitting information between
different entities of robot. The reflected infrared sign is additionally utilized for separation estimation for
obstruction evasion. Investigation of robot demonstrates the possibility of utilizing infrared signs to get a
solid nearby correspondence between swarm portable robots. This paper exhibits a basic decentralized
control for swarm of self-collecting robots. Every robot in the code based swarm signaling is completely
self-governing and controlled utilizing a conduct based methodology with just infrared-based nearby
detecting and correspondences. The viability of the methodology has been checked with simulation, for a
set of swarm robots.
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Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
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Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
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Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
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Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
2. 2 M. G. Mohanan and Ambuja Salgaonkar
is in an obstacle free configuration, and proceeds accord-
ingly. The method is capable of dealing with robots with
many degrees of freedom and having diverse constraints,
and it has been shown to be probabilistically complete,
i.e., the probability of failure for a planner to find a solu-
tion trajectory, if one exists, converges rapidly to zero as
the number of collision-free samplings of the workspace
increases [1–5]. The core of our mushroom harvesting robot
is an algorithm for encountering the static obstacles by a
path finder robot [6–8]. The PRM computes a collision-free
path between two ripened mushrooms with a localplanner.
The basic idea is to check if the roadmap constructed to
avoid the static obstacles also works with dynamic obsta-
cles, i.e., obstacles moving at a given instant. If it works
then the path is built else the edges that meet the mov-
ing obstacles are marked as blocked and construction of
an alternative paths is attempted [1, 2]. A five step proce-
dure for the PRM in such environment has been described
below.
Design of a dexterous robot hand is driven by the task of
plucking the targeted mushoom assigned to it. We propose
a two step process: first, an assembly of two fingers that
is analogous to a thumb and a pointing finger of a human
hand to get a grip on the stem of the mushroom bud that
is to be plucked; in the next step the stem is uprooted. The
joint angles of fingers are calculated by employing Inverse
kinematics.
Advantages of the proposed methods are as follows:
(i) Identification of ripened mushroom by employing
image processing
(ii) Path with minimising collision possibilities by using
dynamic PRM gives a more realistic perspective of
the environment,
(iii) Minimising mushroom damages while plucking
(iv) Cost optimisation in terms of labour, resources and
plucking cycles,
(v) Minimising the Mushroom wastage due to environ-
mental factors like humidity and temperature.
The six steps involved in mushroom farming are: spawn
production, compost preparation, ‘spawning, spawn run-
ning, casing and fruiting. Since these steps are not relevant
for motion planning, we will not consider them here.
A mushroom harvesting robot [Figure 1] consists of
three units: (i) recognition system that identifies mature
mushrooms and confirms their locations, (ii) moving sys-
tem with wheels that moves through the paths to reach the
mature mushrooms and (iii) picking system that grasps and
plucks the mushrooms at the given location [9, 10]. Assum-
ing inputs from a recognition system, this paper presents
and develops a novel robotic model to perform the mov-
ing and picking activities efficiently.
After the literature survey, Section 3 describes the PRM
algorithm and the IK model. The details of our proposed
robotic hand are provided in Section 4 and the harvesting
Figure 1. Schematic of a harvesting Robot.
algorithm in Section 5, followed by a brief cost details, dis-
cussion in Section 7 of the results of this research, and the
conclusion in Section 8.
2 Brief Literature Survey
A maze like structure is conceived for a robot to move
through the field for carrying out harvesting activities.
Given suitable image specifications, e.g., cap-size, prox-
imity to other mushrooms, etc., a typical mushroom har-
vesting system must be able to identify and pick target
mushrooms at suitable times [11]. Even mild damage to
the mushrooms affects the shelf life and selling price. It is a
challenge to design a robotic system with the required pre-
cision in terms of size and location of the mushrooms, so as
to facilitate picking them and carefully placing them into a
container, without producing any damage or contamina-
tion to them or their neighbours [12].
A computer model of a mushroom farm suitable for a
conceived robot was constructed to test the robot’s effi-
ciency. An implementation of the robot was successful in
plucking 80% of the mushrooms in a real farm of the
same specifications [11]. A camera-captured image of a
mushroom farm is processed to identify if some of the
mushrooms in a group or block are ripe and hence ready
for plucking. These mushrooms are picked, while keeping
the damage to the others at a minimum [13].
3 Probabilistic Road Map for Motion
Planning of a Robot Within
a Random Field
First we discuss the probabilistic road map (PRM) method
for the planning of robotic motion with static obstacles.
Then the logic is extended to find a roadmap with dynamic
obstacles.
3. Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse Kinematics 3
PRM is a sampling based 2-step iterative method that
includes roadmap construction and querying [see algo-
rithm and Figures 2 and 3 below]. It checks if a robot is in
an obstacle free configuration space Qfree, [for details see
Figures 2 and 3 below].
The core of our mushroom harvesting robot is a PRM
algorithm for encountering static obstacles [2, 7, 8]. The
following algorithm for navigation of a robot through a
mushroom farm is an implementation of [14–19].
3.1 Algorithm for Static Obstacles
Definitions:
1. A roadmap is an undirected graph G = (V, E), where
the nodes in V represent a set of ripened mushrooms,
and each edge in E is a collision-free path between
two nodes computed by a localplanner. See Figure 2
below.
2. Nodes qinit and qgoal are user-provided inputs. They
are respectively the initial and final nodes in a path
to be discovered by the algorithm,
3. Querying: Let ConnectQinit be a list of neighbouring
nodes in the roadmap in the order of their distances
from qinit, and similarly, let ConnectQgoal be a list
Figure 2. Example of a roadmap for a point robot in two-
dimensional Euclidean space. Shaded areas are obstacles.
The small circles are nodes of a graph, and the edges rep-
resent obstacle-free paths between adjacent nodes.
Figure 3. Example of a query with the roadmap. Nodes
qinit and qgoal are first connected to the existing roadmap
through nodes a0 and a00. The search algorithm returns the
shortest path, denoted by a thick dark line.
of neighbouring nodes in the same roadmap in the
order of their distances from qgoal. Try connecting
qinit to each of its neighbouring nodes, and qgoal to its
neighbouring nodes; call the nodes a0 and a00, respec-
tively. Search the graph G for a sequence of edges
in E connecting a0 to a00 Convert this sequence into
a feasible path for the robot by computing the cor-
responding local paths and concatenating them. The
local paths can be stored in the roadmap. The whole
sequence, qint – a0 – · · · – a00 – qgoal is a feasible path
for a robot. Among the feasible paths, find the short-
est path on the roadmap between qinit and qgoal by
employing an appropriate algorithm—one of the A*,
D and D*Lite algorithms [20–24].
Algorithm for static obstacles
Repeat steps S1 and S2 below, until all mushrooms in the
node set G are covered
S1 (construction). For a given workspace, construct a
roadmap in a probabilistic manner, i.e., randomly select
a configuration of nodes (provided by image processing),
using some sampling distribution.
S2 (querying). Given an initial configuration qinit and goal
configuration qgoal, find the shortest path connecting qinit
and qgoal.
Remark: The robot is supposed to move and pluck all
the mushrooms along this path, and remove them from
the graph. Then the two steps of the algorithm are to be
repeated.
Figures 2 and 3 below illustrate the two phases of the
iterative path finding algorithm. In Figure 3, the shortest
path from qinit to qgoal is marked with thick lines.
3.2 Algorithm for Dynamic Obstacles
The basic idea is to check if the roadmap constructed
to avoid static obstacles also works despite dynamically
moving obstacles at a given instant. If it works then the
path is built. Otherwise the edges that meet the mov-
ing obstacles are marked as blocked and construction of
an alternative path is attempted [25]. The two ends of
the blocked edges are connected locally by employing a
rapidly-exploring random tree (RRT) algorithm: RRT is an
algorithm designed to efficiently search non-convex, high-
dimensional spaces by randomly building a space-filling
tree. The tree is constructed incrementally from samples
drawn randomly from the search space and is inherently
biased to grow towards large unsearched areas of the
problem and widely used in robotic motion planning in
dynamic environments [19, 26–28]. In a dynamic environ-
ment the initial and goal configurations are also moving
entities, and therefore the new path has to be constructed
by considering their new positions.
4. 4 M. G. Mohanan and Ambuja Salgaonkar
A five step procedure for the PRM in dynamic environ-
ments is described below.
1. Roadmap labelling and solution path search.
After receiving the dynamic updates, the planner iter-
atively performs the following two operations alternately
until a valid path is found or all connections are attempted:
(a) connection of a query node (qinit or qgoal) to the nodes
of the roadmap, and
(b) search for a valid path inside the roadmap.
A solution is obtained when, given that the obstacles are
moving, all edges remain collision-free. The edges causing
collisions are blocked and the result is used to reconstruct
that particular part of the dynamic connectivity of the
roadmap. The updated connectivity is then used in the next
iteration to select the best candidate nodes in the roadmap,
in order to find other possible connections of the query
nodes.
2. Query node connections
At each iteration, the candidate nodes are selected by
decomposing each statically connected component into
three sub-components: (i) nodes potentially reachable from
qinit (i.e., there exists a path with no blocked edges), (ii)
nodes potentially reachable from qgoal, and (iii) nodes that
are currently not reachable from the query nodes qinit and
qgoal. This method avoids many costly updates of edges
that are not required to answer the connectivity query.
3. Local reconnections
The details of connectivity-trails in the roadmap from
the qinit and qgoal are maintained in a rapidly exploring
random tree (RRT) structure [27], using which the alter-
nate paths are constructed to connect the end-vertices of
the blocked edges. A new connection from the query nodes
to the static roadmap is attempted when the blocked edge
reconnection fails.
4. Node insertion and cycle creation [28]
In case the roadmap is not able to provide a collision-
free connectivity between qinit and qgoal, then a few nodes
are added to it and the corresponding labelling is carried
out. The disjoint components in the static roadmap are
linked through the connectivity between the new nodes.
This technique achieves efficiency by avoiding the creation
of unnecessary edges and nodes inside the roadmap.
The four steps discussed above are illustrated in
Figure 4.
5. Edge labelling
The current positions of all the moving obstacles are
checked against the edges. An edge is blocked if one or
Figure 4. (a) A static roadmap is completed in the configu-
ration space, (b) During queries, it is found that a link in
a solution path is broken due to a dynamic obstacle, (c)
An RRT technique is used to reconnect edges broken by
dynamic obstacles, and (d) if the existing roadmap does
not yield a solution, new nodes and edges (dotted lines) are
inserted, and thus an obstacle-free path from qinit to qgoal
is found. (Observe that the query nodes qinit and qgoal are
themselves changing dynamically).
Figure 5. Edge-tree structure (indices for edge, moving
obstacle and key position are for the storage structure).
many obstacles are found colliding with it. The labelling
employs the dynamic programming approach. The loca-
tion information and the results of collision tests are
simultaneously stored in an edge-tree structure [Figure 5].
5. Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse Kinematics 5
During the next call to the edge-labelling, if location Mi of
a moving object matches a stored location, further compu-
tation is not necessary: the results of the previous collision
tests are retrieved and further collision tests are cancelled.
Otherwise, the new location Mi is inserted in the edge-tree
structure, while maintaining the details of the last-checked
positions. Older positions are removed from the data struc-
ture in order to reduce the size of the roadmap. When an
obstacle stops moving, it is treated as a static one.
4 Kinematics for Robotic Hand
Motion
Getting a roadmap ready is a task that enables a robot
to reach the ripened mushrooms at the nearest possible
place from its current location. The next task is to model
the motion of the robot hand (the end effector) to reach a
ripened mushroom.
The design of a dexterous robot hand is driven by
the task assigned to it. Diverse models have been dis-
cussed [29, 30]. We discuss an assembly of two fingers
(analogous to a thumb and a pointing finger of a human
hand) that gets a grip on the stem of the mushroom bud to
be plucked, and next, the process of uprooting the stem.
(Arguably, a five-finger hand like that of a human will
be a too-heavy and complicated assembly for the present
purpose, as it would take more space and may harm the
neighbouring buds).
A diagram of this proposed mushroom plucking robot-
hand is shown in Figure 6. The first finger-link in the
structure is known as the base and the end link is known
as the end effector.
The required angular displacements in the finger-links
through the motions at the finger-joints are computed by
employing kinematics, i.e., the study of the motion of
bodies without consideration of the forces that cause the
motion.
Kinematics is of two types, forward and inverse. In the
case of the robotic hand, forward kinematics gener-
ates the location of the end effector given the angular
Figure 6. Model of a two-finger robot hand.
Table 1. D-H parameters of pointing finger (From [35])
# di ai−1 αi−1 θi
Joint (joint (link (link (joint
i distance) length) twist) angle)
1 0 0 0 θ1
2 0 l1 0 θ2
3 0 l2 0 θ3
4 0 l3 0 0
displacement at each joint. On the contrary, if the location
of an end-effector is known, inverse kinematics computes
the required angular displacement at each finger-joint
[31–35].
In the following paragraphs we discuss the design of a
robotic hand for automatic mushroom plucking.
The inverse kinematics computations for the finger sim-
ulating the pointing finger are shown below. The coor-
dinates of a mushroom to be plucked are the driving
parameter. The computation of the thumb follows the same
logic. The difference is that the thumb has one less joint.
The links have an ordered structure in which each link
has its own coordinate system, and is positioned relative to
the coordinate system of the previous link. The position of
the link i in the coordinate system of its ancestor is obtained
by computing the joint angle [34, 36–43].
The transformation matrix between two adjacent con-
necting joints is calculated using the D-H parameters in
Formula (1) and the Table 1, where si indicates sin θi, ci
indicates cos θi (i = 1, 2, 3), αi−1 is the twist angle, ai−1
is the length of linkages, and di is the offset of the link-
ages. The transformation matrix of the manipulator finger
is obtained by multiplying the transformation matrix of
each connecting link i−1
i T (i = 1, 2, 3, 4), which is a function
with the three joint variables (θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4). where θ4 = 0.
Step 1: Holding a mushroom stem:
(Xi, Yi, Zi) represents an axial frame of reference. For i =
0 it represents the coordinates of the base; the value of i
increases by 1 to denote the coordinates of the next joint.
The link after the last joint is the tip, i.e., the end-effector.
Hence (X3, Y3, Z3) is the frame of reference for the end-
effector of a pointing finger (Figure 7), while for the thumb
it is (X2, Y2, Z2).
Step 1.1: Compute the D-H parameters of the pointing
finger, as in Figure 8.
Explanation: The transformation matrix between two adja-
cent connecting joints can be calculated by the D-H param-
eters in Formula (1) and the Table 1. where si indicates sin
θi, ci indicates cos θi (i = 1, 2, 3), αi − 1 is the twist angle,
ai−1 is the length of linkages, and di is the offset of linkages
The transformation matrix of the manipulator finger can be
obtained by multiplying continuously the transformation
6. 6 M. G. Mohanan and Ambuja Salgaonkar
Figure 7. Model of pointing finger.
Figure 8. Denavit Hartenberg (DH) frame for joints.
matrix of each connecting link i−1
i T (i = 1, 2, 3, 4), which
is a function with the three joint variables (θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4).
where θ4 = 0.
Step 1.2: Given the D-H values and the base coordinates of
a rigid body, we compute the coordinates of its tip by gen-
erating the D-H matrices at all joints (matrices (2), (3), (4)
and (5) below) and, taking their product (0
4T = 0
1T1
2T2
3T3
4T).
Note that i − 1 is the base of the link and i is the successor
link.
i−1
i T =
Cθi −Sθi 0 ai−1
SθiCαi−1 CθiCαi−1 −Sαi−1
−SαI−1
di
CθiSαi−1 CθiSαi−1 CαI−1 Cαi−1di
0 0 0 1
(1)
where S and C represent the sine and cosine functions.
Hence we have
0
1T =
Cθ1 −Sθ1 0 0
Sθ1 Cθ1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(2)
1
2T =
Cθ2 −Sθ2 0 l1
Sθ2 Cθ2 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(3)
2
3T =
Cθ3 −Sθ3 0 l2
Sθ3 Cθ3 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(4)
3
4T =
1 0 0 l3
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(5)
0
4T =
C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) −S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0
S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
l1Cθ1 + l2C (θ1 + θ2) + l3C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
l1Sθ1 + l2S (θ1 + θ2) + l3S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
0
1
(6)
IK has multiple solutions for a specific position and ori-
entation of the fingertip. We solve the matrix for a given
position px, py by assuming the following orientation:
n
i T =
C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) −S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0 px
S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0 py
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(7)
Step 1.3: Compute θ
As we want to compute θ1, θ2 and θ3 only, we do not need
to compute 4
0T, but we can work with 3
0T as follows:
3
OT = 0
1T1
2T2
3T =
C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) −S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0
S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
l1Cθ1 + l2C (θ1 + θ2)
l1Sθ1 + l2S (θ1 + θ2)
0
1
(8)
Comparing (7) and (8), we obtain values for px and py
px = l1Cθ1 + l2C (θ1 + θ2) (9)
py = l1Sθ1 + l2S (θ1 + θ2) (10)
7. Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse Kinematics 7
Square both sides of the Equations (9) and (10), add
them and set Cθ2
1 + Sθ2
1 = 1
p2
x + p2
y = l2
1 + l2
2 + 2l1l2Cθ2
Cθ2 =
p2
x + p2
y − l2
1 − l2
2
2l1l2
(11)
Sθ2 = ±
q
1 − Cθ2
2 (12)
θ2 = atan(Sθ2, Cθ2)
Writing Equations (9) and (10) in the form
px = k1Cθ1 + k2Sθ1 (13)
py = k1Sθ1 + k2Cθ1 (14)
where k1 = l1 + l2Cθ2 and k2 = l2Sθ2, and assuming r =
q
k1
2
+ k2
2
, γ = atan(k2, k1), k1 = rCγ and k2 = rSγ.
We substitute these values in (13) and (14), to obtain
px
r
= CγCθ1 + SγSθ1 = C(γ + θ1)
py
r
= CγSθ1 + SγCθ1 = S(γ + θ1)
γ + θ1 = atan(py/r, px/r) = atan(py, px)
θ1 = atan(y, x) − atan(k2, k1)
θ3 can be obtained by using C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) and
S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
Let
(θ1 + θ2 + θ3) = atan(Sω, Cω) = ω
θ3 = atan(Sω, Cω) − (θ1 + θ2),
where
Sω = S(θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
and
Cω = C(θ1 + θ2 + θ3)
Hence the joint angles are
θ1 = atan(py, px) − atan(k2, k1) (15)
θ2 = atan(Sθ2, Cθ2) (16)
θ3 = atan(Sω, Cω) − (θ1 + θ2) (17)
Step 2: Uprooting the stem of a mushroom
Let the upward force to realize the plucking/uprooting
be provided by means of an upward movement of the
hand causing δ change in its y-coordinate; there will be
no change in the x-coordinate of the end-effector’s position
nor in the angles at the finger assembly.
Figure 9. Wrist movement for uprooting mushroom.
Initially the angle ϕ at the joint that connects the assem-
bly of two fingers to the wrist-like structure will have some
value. The elevation in the end-effector’s position modifies
this angle to the one shown in Figure 9.
The inverse kinematic computations letting the robot-
hand to its new position (px, py + δ) are given below:
sinϕ =
py + δ
l0
, cosϕ =
px
l0
where l0 is the length of the joint.
tanϕ =
sinϕ
cosϕ
=
py + δ
px
ϕ = atan(py + δ, px)
Observe that step i and step i + 1 are carried out at
time instances i and i + 1 respectively. These activities on
the time axis facilitate the preservation of the states of the
sub-assemblies while planning the movements at the joints
connecting them. In this case, the position of the fingers
holding the stem remains unchanged in the next step while
the stem is uprooted.
5 Algorithm: Formalization
of Automatic Mushroom
Harvesting Robot
Construction of a collision-free path in a farm of ripened
mushrooms at some time instant
1. //Data:
2. A = ` × d /* the dimension of a rectangular maze
formed by random cultivation of mushrooms that
provides a specific path for a robot to navigate for
plucking mushrooms.
3. */
4. Let c1, c2, c3, . . . , cn cameras in the maze at time
instant tk
8. 8 M. G. Mohanan and Ambuja Salgaonkar
5. {ci}, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, /* images captured by camera ci,
1 ≤ i ≤ n, */
6. V =
Sn
i=1 {ci} /* the vertex set V for a mushroom
plucker to work with.*/
7. //Results:
8. //The average cost of mushroom plucking in this
method
9. //Begin
10. G = resultant subgraph from V
11. /* Employ the construction phase of the PRM to find
out vertex clusters within radius u of the robot such
that there exists a collision free navigation path con-
necting any two vertices of a cluster. The inter-cluster
connectivity is taken care of by a local planner. Let G
be the resultant subgraph */
12. W = cost matrix
13. wi j = cost of traversal /* the cost of traversal from
the i-th pluckable
14. mushroom to the j-th pluckable mushroom */
15. Let Pgoal = {} /* initially. */
16. Let vs and vt be two randomly selected vertices of G
17. Employ PRM querying with vs and vt on G and get
a path P connecting the two. Let Vp be the set of ver-
tices that comprise P.
18. if P is the spanning path:
19. then append P to Pgoal and stop
20. else:
21. G = GVp < G is obtained by deleting the vertices of
Vp from the original G>
22. Select v1 and v2 randomly from the vertex set of G
23. if wt1 > wt2:
24. then vs = v2 and vt = v1
25. else:
26. vs = v1 and vt = v2
27. append vs to Pgoal
28. Go to step 17
29. Compute the total cost of Pgoal, i.e., the summation
of the costs of traversal from i-th vertex to i + 1-th in
Pgoal, where i = 1 to k < k + 1 is the length of the
path Pgoal>
30. /* Reaching, gripping and plucking the mushrooms
on a given path */
31. /* Let v1, v2, . . . , vN be the vertices (of the pluckable
mushrooms) on Pgoal. */ for i = 1 to N:
Traverse vi
Read the elevation of the pluckable mushroom so
that we get its
coordinates in a three-dimensional frame
Employ IK to compute the angles at each joint
of the robot-hand such that the robot-fingers will
reach and hold the pluckable mushroom
Employ a suitable mechanical process to realize
the gripping of the mushroom
Compute the change in elevation of the mush-
room holding hand such that the mushroom will
be uprooted
Employ a suitable process to move the robotic
hand and pluck the mushroom.
The average cost of mushroom plucking in this method
= Average cost of traversal of a node in path Pgoal + cost
of gripping a mushroom + cost of uprooting the mush-
room.
6 Discussion
Below we have presented algorithms for the automation
of mushroom harvesting, with the focus on the following
areas:
(i) Identification of ripened mushroom by employing
image processing
(ii) Using dynamic PRM to obtain a collision-free path
(this is a novel feature not found in the literature),
(iii) No human intervention is required for obstacle
avoidance, as this is done by the PRM algorithm
itself,
(iv) Application of IK to compute the coordinates of a
mushroom plucking robot,
(v) Minimising damage to mushrooms while plucking,
(vi) Cost optimisation in terms of labour, resources and
plucking cycles,
(vi) Minimising mushroom wastage due to environmen-
tal factors like humidity and temperature.
7 Brief Cost Details
Mechanization of operations has arisen in practically every
area of the farming sector. This is a side effect of reduc-
tion in population that engages in farm labour as industrial
development takes place. In other words, machines step in
whenever and wherever human labour becomes unavail-
able, inefficient or expensive.
The all-too-real problem faced by farmers generally—
mushroom farmers in the present case—is the non avail-
ability of labour for the timely harvesting of crops. Due to
this, mushrooms get over-ripe or damaged and result in
losses to farmers.
It is stipulated that the problem can be solved by robotic
automation. The speed of harvesting is more, so the dura-
tion of harvesting is less. Additionally, machines mitigate
human factors like fatigue and lack of diligence. As a result,
large-scale and low-cost farming becomes feasible with
such automation.
9. Robotic Mushroom Harvesting by Employing Probabilistic Road Map and Inverse Kinematics 9
The costs in mushroom farming are as in Table 2.
Table 2. Approximate costs of manual mushroom harvest-
ing on a one acre farm
Recurring costs per harvesting cycle
Item Cost (Rs)
Labour 50,000
Fertiliser and spores 20,000
Electricity and water 30,000
Transportation 20,000
Miscellaneous expenses 5,000
Total per harvesting cycle 1,25,000
These figures can vary depending on the circumstances,
but the order of magnitude is correct. If three crops can be
obtained yearly, the annual profit will be in the range of
Rs. 6,00,000.
Note: It is important to account for the one-time capital
expense of Rs. 3,00,000 towards the raw material for con-
structing the sunshade, and the additional fabrication cost.
In addition, there is a periodic maintenance cost. But we
have not done so, for it will take us far away from our
research. It suffices to note that these costs can be amor-
tized over time and covered by the substantial profits.
It is altogether a different matter to estimate the cost of
designing and fabricating a robotic hand, mounted on a
chassis that can travel on a farm. This too falls well outside
the scope of this research. We assume that as international
products reach our country, and as indigenous R&D activ-
ities take place, such a robot will become available in the
future.
8 Summary and Conclusions
Diverse technologies have been employed in the automa-
tion of agricultural activities. Mushroom harvesting is a
step-by-step procedure, so it is possible to design a har-
vesting robot made out of three major parts: recognition
system, moving system and plucking system.
The recognition system gets photographs of the mush-
rooms from several cameras mounted in the field. Image
processing algorithms are employed to identify ripened
mushrooms. This software coverts the field into a graph,
with individual ripened mushrooms as vertices, and with
edges joining vertices corresponding to neighbouring
mushrooms. (Details of the image processing algorithms
are outside the scope of the present study). This graph
will be altered and traversed by the PRM algorithms so
as to avoid static or dynamic obstacles. The moving sys-
tem is a wheeled chassis controlled by the PRM algorithm.
The plucking system is a robotic hand. Angles at the
different joints of the dexterous robotic fingers are com-
puted by employing IK such that first the fingertips reach
the ripened mushroom bud and hold it; next the fingers
move upwards so that the mushroom is plucked; and third,
the robotic hand places the mushroom in an container
without damaging it.
The novelty of our research is as follows
(i) This is the first time that PRM algorithms are being
proposed for navigation inside mushroom farms.
(ii) Unlike previous research in mushroom harvesting,
mushrooms are not planted in a grid or some pattern,
but are randomly distributed.
(iii) No human intervention is required at any stage of
harvesting.
(iv) Robotic automation reduces crop wastage due to
unavailability of labour and untimely harvesting of
mushrooms.
(v) Harvesting and other expenses are reduced, com-
pared to those with human labour.
(vi) Kinematic model of a two-finger dexterous hand
with 3 degrees of freedom for plucking mush-
rooms was developed using the Denavit-Hartenberg
method.
(vii) Inverse kinematics techniques of reaching the
ripened mushroom give more precision of plucking
(viii) There will be no limitation or restriction on large
scale cultivation and harvesting and this will provide
economies of scale.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states
that there is no conflict of interest.
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