Rice Production | Complete Rice Cultivation

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Rice Production
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................3
2. Origin and History of Rice .................................................................................................................3
3. Distribution, Area and Production of Rice ........................................................................................3
4. Importance of Rice............................................................................................................................4
5. Soil and Climatic Requirements ........................................................................................................4
a) Soil.................................................................................................................................................4
b) Temperature .................................................................................................................................4
c) Rainfall ..........................................................................................................................................4
d) Light...............................................................................................................................................5
e) Relative Humidity..........................................................................................................................5
f) Wind Velocity................................................................................................................................5
6. Varieties ............................................................................................................................................5
7. Morphology, Growth and Development...........................................................................................5
Root system: .........................................................................................................................................5
Shoot system:........................................................................................................................................6
Leaf:.......................................................................................................................................................6
Inflorescence.........................................................................................................................................6
Growth and Development ....................................................................................................................7
8. Manure and Fertilizer Management.................................................................................................9
For Irrigated Rice...................................................................................................................................9
For Rainfed Rice ....................................................................................................................................9
9. Land Preparation.............................................................................................................................10
10. Seed Treatment...........................................................................................................................10
11. Seed Rate ....................................................................................................................................10
12. Transplanting Time .....................................................................................................................10
13. Sowing Methods .........................................................................................................................11
14. Nursery Raising Methods............................................................................................................12
a. Dry bed method ..............................................................................................................................12
b. Wet bed method.........................................................................................................................12

c. Dapog bed method .....................................................................................................................13
d. Modified dapog bed method......................................................................................................14
15. Spacing........................................................................................................................................14
16. Water or Irrigation and Weed Management..............................................................................14
Water Management:...........................................................................................................................14
Weed Management:...........................................................................................................................15
17. Harvesting...................................................................................................................................15
18. Threshing.....................................................................................................................................15
19. Cleaning and Drying....................................................................................................................16
20. Yield.............................................................................................................................................16
21. Storage........................................................................................................................................16
22. Major Constraints and Opportunity of Rice Production in Nepal...............................................16
Constraints of rice production in Nepal:.............................................................................................16
Scope of rice production in Nepal:......................................................................................................16
23. Boro Rice (winter rice) ................................................................................................................17

1. Introduction
Scientific Name: Oryza sativa L.
Nepali Name: Dhan, Chamal
Family: Gramineae / Poaceae
Rice is one of the most important staple foods for more than 3.5 billion people in the
world. of the world. More than 2.7 billion people rely on rice as their major source
of food. The genus Oryza contains 21 wild relatives, and all the members of the
Oryza genus have n=12 chromosomes.
2. Origin and History of Rice
Rice is one of the oldest cultivated crops as evident from Vedic literature and
Archeological excavation. It is being cultivated in India and China for thousands of
years. Rice is the main staple food and the first cultivated crop in Asia long before
the era of which we have the historical evidence (Parthasarathi, 1960 and Ghosh et
al., 1960). No one knows exactly where the first seeds of rice originated. Cultivation
of rice in Tropical Asia probably began about 10,000 years ago (De Datta, 1981). It
is reported that rice in Nepal (and in India and Southeast Asia) was introduced from
mainland China during the late 3rd millennium BC.
There are 20 valid species in Oryza, but only Oryza sativa and Oryza
glaberrima are cultivated. O. sativa is cultivated in Asia while O. glaberrima is in
Africa. Oryza sativa probably evolved from wild rice, Oryza perennis. Oryza
rufipogon is Asian perennial types and Oryza nivara is an annual type. The Oryza
glaberrima might be evolved from Oryza breviligulata or Oryza barthii somewhere
in Sudan or West Africa.
3. Distribution, Area and Production of Rice
Seventeen countries in Asia and the Pacific, nine countries in North and South
America and eight countries in Africa mostly depend on rice for staple food
(ibid). Rice provides 20 percent of the world’s dietary energy supply. The Asian
countries dominate the global rice production. China tops the list of top 10 rice
producing nations with a production of 145,500 million tons. The production
record puts India in the second position as the country produces 103,500 million
tons. The list, which is dominated by the Asian countries, puts Brazil on the 9th
position 8,000 million tons and Japan on the 10th position with 7,900 million tons.
Indonesia, Bangladesh and Vietnam have found place among the top five rice
producing countries. According to USDA projection global rice area, yield and

production will increase by 3.8, 7.2 and 11.3 respectively by 2025/26 (base year
2015/16). In world Area (158.8mh.) and Production about 744.4mt. (2015-16)
Although Nepal contribute very little in global rice production and trade,
but it plays significant role in the national economies. Rice dominates the country’s
crop sector accounting for over 42.5 percent (168,047 ha) of the total area under
food grains and shares 51.6 percent in total food grain production (MOAD,
2017).
4. Importance of Rice
Rice is the staple food for more than 65 % population globally. It has great
importance in Nepali culture and from birth to death its existence always prevails.
The rice is consumed after cooking as Bhat, Pulau, Briyani and so many other ways.
It provides not only staple food grain but also generates additional employment
throughout the world. The by-products are used for preparing various industrial
products, especially in textile industries as it contains a good amount of starch. The
straw of rice is used for packing. It is a good source of fodder and may be used as
litter. Rice bran is a source of edible oil. The bran is also used in manufacturing
cardboard. Rice farming is the largest single use of land for food. It is the single
largest source of energy for the poor. Rice is a synonym with food throughout Asia.
5. Soil and Climatic Requirements
a) Soil
Generally, rice is grown in all types of soils from waterlogged and poorly drained to
well-drained. Soils having good water holding capacity with a good amount of clay
and organic matter are best for rice cultivation. Rice plants can tolerate a wide range
of soil reactions but do best in acidic soil. It grows well in soils having a pH range
between 5.5-6.5.
b)Temperature
The optimum temperature for rice cultivation is between 25C to 35C. The warmer
the temperature the faster the seedling grows. The lower night temperature in
temperate regions is favorable for net assimilation. The favorable temperature ranges
for the physiological process of rice are 15-33C.
c) Rainfall
Rice requires more water than any other crop. Usually, rice is cultivated in those
areas where the minimum rainfall is about 115cm. But most suitable annual rainfall
for rice production is between 175 to 300cm. Rice is commonly cultivated in flooded

conditions with a depth of water of over 25mm at the beginning to as much as
150mm for the growth period.
About 65% of the rice in Nepal is cultivated under rainfed conditions.
d) Light
Solar radiation plays an important role in rice production. The higher the solar
radiation intensity, the greater the yield of rice. However, the requirements of solar
radiation of the rice crop differ from one growth stage to another stage. So, ample
solar radiation in the production, as well as the maturity period, is very much
conducive to high yield.
e) Relative Humidity
Too higher or lower RH is inversely related to the grain yield of rice. The
photosynthesis of rice leaves reaches the maximum at a relative humidity of 50-60%
and above this range decrease slowly with increasing humidity. Higher humidity
favors the incidence of the more disease-causing pathogen. The humid condition
reduces the rate of transpiration, which in turn reduces the intake of CO2. RH more
than 90% during the vegetative phase and below 90% during anthesis is acceptable.
f) Wind Velocity
A gentle wind is proportional to a higher grain yield. Wind speed more than 0.75-
2.25 m/sec has a positive effect on photosynthesis. A gentle wind during the growing
period of rice is known to be conducive to higher grain yield as it maintains the
supply of fresh air and also increases pollination. But high-velocity causes lodging,
especially in tall varieties.
6. Varieties
Released Varieties of Rice in Nepal:
i. Early Rice: Hardinath-1, Chaite-6, Chaite-4, Chaite-2 etc. for Terai, Inner
Terai
ii.Main Season Rice: Khumal-13, Khumal-10, Khumal-4 for mid-hills, other
main season rice varieties of Nepal: Radha-11, Radha-4, Machhapuchhre-3,
Pokhreli Jethobudo, Hardinath-2, Sukha Dhan-1, Sukha Dhan-2, etc.
7. Morphology, Growth and Development
Root system:
The root system is fibrous, which consists of rootlets and root hairs. Soon after
sowing rice seed gives out seminal roots from radical. These are short-lived. the

important functional roots are secondary adventitious that are produced from the
lower nodes of the culm.
Shoot system:
The rice stem referred to as culm is hollow, round, jointed, and is created of a series
of nodes and internodes that are in alternate orders. The basal node on the most culm
bears a leaf and bud, which can grow into a shoot or tiller. Primary tillers grow out
of the most culm. the first tillers give out secondary tillers and also the secondary
tillers branch into tertiary tillers. Tillering continues in rice up to the vegetative
phase. Some tillers die during the reproductive phase because of competition for
water and nutrients. Panicles bearing tillers are called fertile or productive tillers.
Leaf:
Each node of the culm bears a flat-leaf which is borne at an angle of each node. Each
leaf consists of the following parts:
Leaf-sheath: It originates from the node of culm and lots of times enclose it and
sometimes even the following upper node and a component of the leaf sheath of the
upper leaf.
Leaf-blade: it's the upper expanded part of the leaf and begins at a node, where it's
jointed with the leaf sheath. At the joint, there's a thick collar.
Auricles: These are hairy appendages at the bottom of the leafage.
Ligules: it's a thin papery structure just above the auricles. Different parts of the leaf
are of importance in identifying the varieties.
Flag leaf: it's the uppermost leaf just below the panicle. it's generally shorter in
length and remains erect at an angle. the number of leaves on the stem goes on
reducing from the main culm to primary tillers and from primary to secondary so to
tertiary tillers.
Note: The auricles and ligules may be a distinguishing character of rice to
differentiate from Echinochloa sp. (the commonest weed of rice crop).
Inflorescence
Panicle: The inflorescence of the rice plant is borne on a terminal shoot and is
understood as a panicle. it's a determinate type and droops at maturity. Panicle bears
the spikelets.

Spikelet: A spikelet is that the floral unit and consists of two sterile lemmas called
glumes, a lemma, a palea, anthers, and styles.
Lemma: it's a 5 nerved hardened bract with a filiform extension referred to as awn.
Rice varieties may or might not have an awn.
Palea: it's 3 nerved bracts slightly narrower and endorsed within lemma.
Flower: It consists of 6 stamens with two-celled anthers and a pistil with one ovary
and two stigmas. The pistil consists of one ovule.
Grain: Rice grain is the ripened ovary with lemma and palea firmly adhered to that.
The lemma and palea with other smaller components from the hull and are removed
while shelling the paddy. The rice fruit is a caryopsis within which a single seed is
fused with the wall of the ovary (pericarp). The seed consists of an endosperm and
an embryo. The embryo is extremely small and is found on the ventral side of the
caryopsis. It contains plumule (embryonic leaves) and radicle (root primordia). On
submergence in water or on sowing the radicle grows as root and plumule grow as
shoot.
The rice shows considerable variability in grain-size, shape, the color of the hull,
and also the kernel. The kernel size may vary from short bold or short slender to long
bold or long slender. Rice is grouped into 5 classes on the basis of kernel length,
breadth, and length/ breadth ratio.
Growth and Development
Growth stage of rice is mainly composed of three stages, which are vegetative,
reproductive and ripening phases.
A) Vegetative phase
i) Seedling stage
When the seed is placed under favorable environmental condition it starts sprouting
and forming a seedling having seminal and lateral roots and green leaves. The
seedlings draw their food materials from reserved tissues at initial stage i.e., up to
two-leaf stage and after development of 5th leaf of seedling, the reserved food
materials of endosperm is almost exhausted and seedlings become autotrophic.
ii) Transplanting stage
This stage starts from uprooting to transplanting up to the recovery after
transplanting. It is stress-forming stage of the seedlings. The secondary roots or
adventitious roots develop within 4-10 days after transplanting and starts absorbing

moisture and nutrients from the soil. This stage is not found in case of direct seeded
rice, therefore vegetative growth phase is reduced by 4 -10 days.
iii) Tillering stage
Primary tillers come from the main stem and secondary tillers develop from the
primary tillers and tertiary tillers from the secondary tillers. The maximum tillering
starts after the establishment of seedling i.e., 35-40 days after transplanting. After
tertiary tillers are formed, the tillering activities of the plants will be completed.
iv) Vegetative lag phase
This is the period between maximum tillering and panicle initiation stage at which
some of tillers die because of tiller mortality. This is very active for photosynthesis
and is also known as photoperiod sensitive stage. This phase is mainly found in long
duration varieties, but is absent in short duration ones.
B) REPRODUCTIVE PHASE
This stage starts from panicle initiation to the flowering stage of the crop. The
number of days in reproductive phases is more or less fixed. Difference in growth
duration is determined by days in vegetative phase.
i) Panicle initiation stage
This stage comes approximately from 21-25 days prior to heading, but the flower
primordium can be recognized only a week after panicle initiation. This is the
beginning of the reproductive phase and it starts after maximum tillering stage of the
crop.
ii) Booting stage
This stage initiates after panicle initiation where production of auxin increases,
which accelerate the growth of internodes. At booting stage, the developing panicle
causes bulging in the leaf sheath.
iii) Heading stage:
The emergence of panicle takes place after booting stage. This stage starts after 15
days of booting in almost all the rice varieties.
iv) Flowering stage
Flowering occurs after 4-5 days of heading. It continues successively until the
spikelets in the panicle bloom. This stage is followed by pollination and fertilization.

C) Ripening phase
This stage starts from flowering stage to full maturity stage. The number of days in
ripening stages are more or less fixed i.e., 25-35 days after flowering. Ripening phase
passes through the following stages:
i)Milky stage:
This stage starts after anthesis and takes 7-12 days where watery content of the grains
turns to thick milky fluid and this stage called milky stage.
ii) Dough stage:
The milky grains convert first to soft dough and later into hard dough stage in about
2-3 weeks.
iii) Maturity stage
In this stage the grains turn into hard, clear, grain free from greenish tinge. At this
stage moisture content of the grains may be 20-30% and crop can be harvested easily.
After maturity stage, the moisture content of the grains starts decreasing.
8. Manure and Fertilizer Management
Recommended rates and application methods of manure and fertilizers for rice
cultivation in Nepal:
For Irrigated Rice
▪ Organic manure @ 6000kg/ha, application method for organic manure; soil
incorporation and application time; 2-4weeks before planting.
▪ Nitrogen(N) @100kg/ha, application method; Broadcast and application time;
three splits-50% basal and 25% each at maximum tillering and panicle initiation
stages.
▪ Phosphorus(P2O5) @30kg/ha, application method; soil incorporation and
application time; final land preparation.
▪ Potassium(K20) @30kg/ha, application method; soil incorporation and
▪ Zinc (ZnSO4) @25kg/ha, application method soil incorporation and application
time; final land preparation.
▪ N:P:K rate for irrigated rice is 100:30:30 kg/ha
For Rainfed Rice
▪ Organic manure @ 6000kg/ha, application method for organic manure; soil
incorporation and application time; 2-4weeks before planting.

▪ Nitrogen(N) @60kg/ha, application method; Broadcast and application time;
three splits-50% basal and 25% each at maximum tillering and panicle initiation
stages.
▪ Phosphorus(P2O5) @20kg/ha, application method; soil incorporation and
▪ Potassium(K20) @20kg/ha, application method; soil incorporation and
▪ Zinc (ZnSO4) @25kg/ha, application method soil incorporation and application
time; final land preparation.
▪ N:P:K rate for rainfed rice is 60:20:20 kg/ha
9. Land Preparation
Crop residues, weed and stubbles should be destroyed from the field and field should
be leveled for proper stagnation of water. One moth prior to transplanting, construct
the bunds around the main field carefully for stagnation of water. At least 15 days
prior to transplanting, flood the field 2-3 times with water and plough 2-3 times and
give planking operation. During the day of transplanting, plough the field 2-3 times
by plough and give planking operation, this process will help in easy transplanting.
10. Seed Treatment
To remove the unfilled or partially unfilled grains put seed in container, then pour
water slowly in the container until it is about 10cm above the seed. Stir the seeds for
a minute or so unfilled seeds would begin to flood, remove these seeds by draining
water, process is repeated until seeds are removed. Salt water solution with ratio of
salt and water @1:5 helps to separate unwanted(unfilled) seeds easily. Then clean
with fresh water 2-3 times and dry the seed. After Drying, Seed treatment is done
against: Fungal disease by Bavistan WP or Thiram or Dithane M 45 or Cerasan @
2-2.5gm/kg seed 5-7 days before sowing. For Bacterial disease; seed is treated with
Streptocycline or Agrimycin-100@ 1gm/lit of water after salt water treatment.
11. Seed Rate
Seed Rate of about 60 kg seeds are required per hectare for Broadcasting of sprouted
seeds in puddle soil. For sowing of seed behind the plough or drilling about 40-50kg
seed is sufficient for one hectare.
12. Transplanting Time
Optimum planting time depend upon the geographic region:

High hills: Middle Jestha to end of Jesth (June 1st
week to 2nd
week)
Mid Hills: Ashad 1st
week to 3rd
week (3rd
week June to 1st
week July)
Terai/Inner Terai: 2nd
Week Ashad to 2nd
week Shrawan (June 2nd
week to July 2nd
week)
13. Sowing Methods
There are several sowing methods for rice cultivation, some of them are as follows:
i. Broadcasting: Broadcast the seeds in the soil after field preparation and mix
with the help of a local plough or disc harrow. Seed rate depends on varieties but
in general use about 100kg/ha.
ii. Sowing of seed behind the plough or drilling: Sowing of seed by drilling
with seed drill machine or behind the plough in a row. The row spacing should
be 20cm. About 40-50kg seed/ha is sufficient for one hectare.
iii. Wet or lowland condition: In this system of rice culture sprouted seeds may
be directly sown in the puddled field or seedlings raise in a nursery are
transplanted. This is practiced where there is an assured and adequate supply of
water.
iv. Broadcasting of sprouted seeds in puddle soil: This method is generally
applied where there is a shortage of labor or labor is very expensive for
transplanting and also in case of limited time for raising of seedling in the
nursery. In this method, the seed is soaked in water and pre-germinated before
broadcast. The sprouted seeds with radicel lengths of 1-2mm are uniformly
broadcast in a puddled field. About 60kg of seeds is required per hectare.
v. Transplanting: The seedling raised in the nursery are uprooted at the
optimum age of 3-4 weeks (for short duration varieties) and 4-5 weeks (long
duration varieties). Transplanting of the healthy seedling may be done at the 4-5
leaf stage or when they are about 15-20cm. Delay in transplanting leads to poor
tillering, early flowering, and reduction in yield. Transplanting of 2-3 seedlings
per hill at a row spacing of 15-20 * 10cm at 2-3 cm depth. If old seedlings are
used increase the number of seedlings per hill. Optimum planting time depending
upon geographic region.

14. Nursery Raising Methods
a. Dry bed method
This method is practiced in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in
wet nurseries. Plough the field 3-4 times till the soil is thoroughly pulverized. Divide
the nursery area into narrow beds of 1.25m widths and any convenient length
depending upon the slope (generally 8-10m). This facilitates sowing, weeding,
spraying of chemicals, and irrigation operations. Construct the drainage channel 30
cm wide in between the seedbeds and 15 cm high with channels between them.
Apply 1 kg of ammonium sulphate or 0.5 kg of urea per 100 m2 area should be top-
dressed, 2-10 days after seeding. If the second top dressing is required to apply 0.3-
0.6 kg of urea per 100 m2 may be useful in case of N deficiency symptoms. In Zn,
deficiency soils give 2 sprays of zinc sulphate (5 kg zinc sulphate + 2.5 kg calcium
hydroxide mixed in 1000 liters of water for one ha). Apply one spray in 10 days after
sowing and another 20 days after sowing. 50 kg seed per 500 m2 nursery area for
one ha of the main field is recommended.
The sown seed should be covered immediately with a layer of soil. Care should be
taken to protect from birds for 4-5 days. Generally, no need for irrigation under
optimum soil moisture. If dose not so, special care should be taken for water
management not to float the loose beds. Allow the water to run in channels first
and then raise the level of water slowly to saturate the soil's beds. Seedlings would
be ready for transplanting at an age of 20-25 days. During uprooting irrigate the
bed 3-5 days before uprooting which loose the soil and reduces damage to the
seedlings.
b. Wet bed method
Followed when irrigation water is available easily. On rainy days it avoids the
crust forming problem of dry beds. Saturate the field by giving irrigation and the
soil is ploughed 3-4 times by local plough followed by puddling. After one to two
days of puddling, divide the nursery area into narrow beds of 1-1.5m width and
any desirable length upon slope usually 8-10m. Construct the drainage or irrigation
channel of 30- 50cm widths in between the seedbeds thus raising the bed 5-10 cm
from the ground.

Seed incubation: As incubation keeps the seeds warm, increase the growth of an
embryo, and result in uniform germination. Soaked the seed in clean water for
about 24 hours, and then water is drained and spread over a shady place. Seeds
transfer with gunny bags for about 24-36 hours to give sufficient time to sprout
(for dapog method 36-48 hours). Stir the seeds every 12 hours for better air
circulation and sprinkle water over seeds while stirring.
Sowing: Uniformly broadcast about 2-3 handfuls of seed on 1m2 of the seedbed.
Irrigation: Keep the seedbed saturated with water for 5 days and then increase
gradually the level of water up to 5 cm as the seedling grows. Drain the excess
water in a period of heavy rain during the 1st week of sowing.
Uprooting of seedlings: Uproot the seedling taking care to root damage and
transplant within 24 hours. Uprooting is done at 21-25 DAS for early and 30-35
DAS for late varieties.
c. Dapog bed method
Introduced in Nepal from IRRI, Philippines. No need to plough the seedbed and
the bed should be tied or compact. Raised in the polythene sheet or the cemented
floor or aluminum or steel tray. The bed can be prepared the slightly raised (4-5
cm) surface in an open field or on even a cement floor. If the polythene is not
available, then put a banana leaf or old rotten jute bags and cover the surface of the
bed. All the sides of the bed are protected by banana stem cuts or by wood or brick
to protect the seed. The pre-sprouted seeds are broadcasted on the bed. About 50kg
of seeds can be broadcasted on 40 m2 of seedbed for 1 ha transplanting. Sprinkle
water 3 times daily. After 4 days maintain the depth of water up to 1 cm which
should always be 1-2 cm in the seedbed. The seedlings will be ready for
transplanting within 12-14 days.
Advantage of dapog bed method
It requires very less area raising seedlings. Less time is required. No sprouting cost
and roots do not break. No need for nutrients for growing seedlings. Seedlings
grow faster.
Disadvantage of dapog bed method
Seedlings will be weak, thin, slender, and small. Seedlings are not suited in the
field where the amount of water is high. Seedlings cannot be handled roughly.

Seedlings cannot be left in the nursery after 2 weeks. Skilled person is needed.
More time of irrigation should be applied.
d. Modified dapog bed method
In this method, separate beds are prepared with channels all around. The beds are 1-
1.5 m wide and 10 m in length and 10 cm in height. The surface of the bed is packed
tightly and kept at uniform levels. The beds are covered with polythene sheets; sands
or ash up to a thickness of 2.5 cm is spread on the beds. Then sow the pre-sprouted
and pre-incubated seeds on sand or ash medium uniformly at one-grain thickness.
Put the gunny bag over the seedbed and sprinkle water in the morning and the
evening so that the gunny bag should be moist by watering. The channels around the
beds are filled with water up to the brim. Then remove the gunny bag from the
seedbed after 3 days. Thereafter (after 4-5 days) increase the level of water slightly
(1cm). From the 8th day after sowing ammonium sulphate solution (28 gm of A/S +
4 lits of water for 4m2 area) is applied to the seedlings on alternate days up to the
16th day. Thereafter, the seedlings will be ready for transplanting from the 12th day
onwards. If water is not available in the main field for transplanting the life of the
seedlings can be prolonged for more than 3 weeks by keeping them ina nursery bed.
15. Spacing
Generally, in the random method of transplanting, seedlings are transplanted without
a definite distance or space between plants, but it is essential that the estimated
distance should not be too close or too wide (i.e., not less than 10cm and not more
than 30cm). For the straight row method transplant 2-3 seedlings of wet-bed or dry-
bed grown seedling @ 20*20cm spacing. Closer spacing (15 * 15cm or 10*10cm)
may be used depending on the situation.
16. Water or Irrigation and Weed Management
Water Management: In rice, puddling and leveling minimize the water
requirement. At the time of transplanting, a shallow depth of 2cm of water is
adequate since high depth of water will lead to deep planting resulting in reduction
of tillering. Maintain 2 cm of water up to seven days of transplanting. About 5cm
submergence has to be continued throughout the crop period. Moisture stress due to
inadequate water at rooting and tillering stage causes poor root growth leading to
reduction in tillering, poor stand and low yield. Critical stages of water requirement
in rice are, a) panicle initiation, b) booting, c) heading and d) flowering. During these
stages, the irrigation interval should not exceed the stipulated time so as to cause the
depletion of moisture below the saturation level. During booting and maturity stages,

continuous inundation of 5cm and above leads to advancement in root decay and
leaf senescence, delay in heading and reduction in the number of filled grains/panicle
and poor harvest index. Provide adequate drainage facilities to drain excess water or
strictly follow irrigation schedule of one day after disappearance of ponded water.
Last irrigation may be 15 days ahead of harvest.
Weed Management:
Use weed-free seed and keep tools and machinery clean. Manual weeding is also
essential to remove the weeds closer to rice root zone. Weed control can also be done
using weedicides. For Grasses/broadleaf weeds: spray Stam F34 (Propanil) @ 9-11
lit/ha at 3-4 leaf stage. For Broad leaf grasses: spray Rice Spray 70 (MCPA) @ 2-
3lit/ha at 5-6 weeks after sowing. Avoid Rainfall up to 4-8 hours after spraying. Filed
should be completely drained before application of chemicals and flooded 3 days
after spraying,
17. Harvesting
Taking the average duration of the crop as an indication, drain the water from the
field 7 to 10 days before the expected harvest date as draining hastens maturity and
improves harvesting conditions. When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour, the
crop is ready for harvest. Even at this stage, the leaves of some of the varieties may
remain green. Confirm maturity by selecting the most mature tiller and de-husk a
few grains. If the rice is clear and firm, it is in hard dough stage. When most of the
grains at the base of the panicle in the selected tiller are in a hard dough stage, the
crop is ready for harvest. At this stage harvest the crop. Harvesting can be done
manually by cutting the mature panicles and straw above the ground using traditional
tools like sickles, knives etc. Combine harvesting can also be done with combine all
processes: reaping, threshing, and cleaning.
18. Threshing
Threshing is the process of separating the grain from the straw. Threshing can be done by hand,
by using pedal thresher or machine. Some of the common method of threshing are: a) Hand
beating against an object
b) Pedal thresher: Pedal thresher consists of threshing drum, base, transmission unit and a foot
crank. When pedaled, the threshing drum rotates and rice can be threshed when panicles are
applied against the threshing drum.
c) Trampling: Commonly, this method involves animals to thresh the crop. The crop is spread
over a mat or canvass and trample using animals.

19. Cleaning and Drying
Cleaning grains after harvest is important as it removes unwanted materials from the
grain. A clean grain has a higher value than a contaminated grain. Cleaning grains
will improve the drying, and storability of grain. Common method of cleaning is
winnowing and screening/sifting.
It is recommended to dry the grains to 14% moisture level or less for storage. Sun
drying is common method of drying grains.
20. Yield
Rice grain yield varies between 4 to 6 ton/ha depending on the varieties,
management and climatic conditions. Stray yield of about 8 – 10 ton/ha can be
obtained.
21. Storage
Storage of grain is done usually after drying the grains to 14% moisture level or less.
Storage can be done by using following methods: a) Bag storage: Grain is stored in
40-80kg bags made from jute or woven plastic. b) Bulk storage: grain is stored in
bulk at the farm or at commercial collection houses.
22. Major Constraints and Opportunity of Rice Production
in Nepal
Constraints of rice production in Nepal:
i. Limited access to new technology and information
ii. Inappropriate technology
iii. Lack of availability and delivery of inputs
iv. Inadequate pest’s management
v. Poor soil fertility management
vi. Poor management of post-harvest losses
vii. Land fragmentation
viii. Negative effect of subsidy on agricultural production
ix. Poor marketing facility
x. Poor mechanization
Scope of rice production in Nepal:
i. Climatic variability
ii. More demand of food grains
iii. Development of road and infrastructures

iv. Availability of improve technologies
v. Increasing irrigation facilities
vi. Employment opportunity
23. Boro Rice (winter rice)
Boro Rice is commonly known as winter rice. Coarse rice and the quality of rice
grain is poor. Require longer period during seedling stage because of dormant nature
of varieties. Seed sowing time is last week of Oct to first week of Nov and
transplanting is 15th Jan (75 -100 days old seedling) and harvesting is in April to
May. It is common in winter in Bangladesh, Eastern Bihar and West Bengal of
India, Morang and Jhapa districts of Nepal. Boro Rice is cultivated after the harvest
of kharif rice.
Some other similar topics:
1. Barley Production
2. Wheat Cultivation
3. Maize Cultivation
4. Finger Millet Cultivation
5. Buckwheat Cultivation
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Rice Production | Complete Rice Cultivation

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