This research presents a comprehensive exploration of the impact of modernism on Igala architecture, tracing its evolution from pre-colonial times to the contemporary era. Employing a chronological and narrative approach, the study utilized archival research, field surveys, and interviews with local professionals, indigenous elders, and environmental experts to investigate the transformative effects of modernism on Igala architecture
RESPONSE OF GBAGYI TRADITIONAL BUILDING PATTERN TO MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN ABU...indexPub
This research examines the need to preserve and integrate Nigerian indigenous architecture, specifically focusing on the Gbagyi people's traditional building pattern. The aim of this study is to identify the elements of continuity or transformation within the Gbagyi traditional building pattern which has not been adequately explored. The study selected 100 traditional compounds in four Gbagyi settlements representing different historical periods, and conducted semi-structured interviews with compound heads to gather qualitative data.
DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF HAUSA HOU...Agboola Paul
Traditional buildings across Nigeria’s geographical zones are known to have demonstrated a thorough response to the climate, local technology and socio-economic milieu in which they evolved. The origin of these different traditional building body associates with the natural materials availability to the local builders as well as religious belief, cultural and taboos. The advent of colonialism in Nigeria changed the traditional life and culture of Nigerian which creates a weak connection between traditional architecture and contemporary architecture in Nigeria. Most recent buildings designs across Hausa regions in Nigeria have been built with imported materials and the construction techniques tailored to satisfy the modernity self-ego and aspirations. Thus, traditional architecture ought not to be abandoned and forgotten, hence; experts’ awareness should be tailored to the understanding of its original essence.
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2018) 2(1), 84-95. Doi: 10.25034/ijcua.2018.3664
www.ijcua.com
A Lesson from Vernacular Architecture in Nigeria
Ph.D. CandidateJoyce Lodson1,* Ph.D. CandidateJOHN EMMANUEL OGBEBA2, Dr. UGOCHUKWU KENECHI ELINWA3
1 Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Bauchi state, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
3Department of Architecture, Cyprus International University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
E mail:joycelodson@yahoo.com E mail: john.ogbeba@emu.edu.tr , E mail:uelinwa@ciu.edu.tr
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
Iconography, arts and design of metal sculptures in nigerian art institutions...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on metal sculptures created between 1980-2011 at four Nigerian art institutions: Ahmadu Bello University, University of Nigeria, Yaba College of Technology, and Auchi Polytechnic. It provides background on the development of sculpture and art education in Nigeria. The study examines 25 outdoor metal sculptures in terms of iconography, styles, themes, materials, and techniques. It also analyzes changes to the sculptures from weathering and oxidation over 31 years, and provides strategies to prevent damage to metal works. The sculptures reflect both African and Western influences, and new industrial materials like galvanized sheet and iron rods are commonly used.
Malaysia is not only unique country with a multicultural diversity but also has a rich and numerous culture and heritage treasures. Therefore, as technology growth across world, many cultural heritages might become missing without any effective efforts in preservation and conservation of the culture and heritage. Within this scenario, the qualitative study was conducted through documents review, a field observation followed by a face-to-face interview with corresponding respondents to empirically ascertain the narrative history and uniqueness of Gasing Leper Terengganu which further propose an alternative approach in preserving Gasing Leper Terengganu’s heritage.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
A Strategy Study on Sustainable Rural Ghost Town Revitalization vis New Archi...Teo Kean Hui
Since the last decades, ghost town is town which is rich in history, used to be populated and economic viable. Ghost towns has been created due to abandonment of the local community who are no longer capable to sustain themselves. The depopulations of younger generations, aging, urban migration and decreasing in local businesses profitability contributed large amount in the creation of rural ghost town in Malaysia especially ex-mining town. Therefore, this research paper aim to investigate possible strategies of new architecture that able to contribute to rural ghost town Sungai Lambing revitalization and at the same time allowing community sustainability. To achieve the research aim, literature review on effort and attempt of revitalization to preserve, enhance and treat the historical sites and in the rural context to form a framework of study. Case study as research method to investigate on effort and strategies of ghost town revitalization that has been done internationally supported by interviewing both locals and visitors at Sungai Lembing as primary data will be conducted as quantitative research. A research conclusion could be formed with goal in contributing to designers, planners and academic researchers on approach to rural ghost town revitalization through new architecture. At the same time providing guide for the developers who are interested in this field and benefiting the local communities, visitors and local historical value.
Native Craft and Tourism: A Study of Ushafa PotteryAI Publications
The main thrust of the paper was to discuss the relationship between indigenous craft and tourism development using Ushafa pottery as the focus of inquiry. Adopting the qualitative approach to enquiry, the study sought to, among other things, study the processes of pottery making, ascertain the challenges which confront potters, and investigate the contributions of pottery to the development of Ushafa. Findings show that the processes of pottery production include collection of clay, breaking of clay into small particles, sun-drying and soaking of clay in water as well as sieving to produce fine clay. Other stages are kneading for plasticity, moulding, application of designs and finally, firing or baking of clay item. Pottery which leads tourism growth in Ushafa has made the following contributions such as improvement in local economy, provision of basic amenities and self-esteem among community members. Challenges of Tourism Development in Ushafa include the deplorable condition of the road leading to the clay mining area; the need for increased marketing outlets for pottery products, corruption and community poor hygiene.
RESPONSE OF GBAGYI TRADITIONAL BUILDING PATTERN TO MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN ABU...indexPub
This research examines the need to preserve and integrate Nigerian indigenous architecture, specifically focusing on the Gbagyi people's traditional building pattern. The aim of this study is to identify the elements of continuity or transformation within the Gbagyi traditional building pattern which has not been adequately explored. The study selected 100 traditional compounds in four Gbagyi settlements representing different historical periods, and conducted semi-structured interviews with compound heads to gather qualitative data.
DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF HAUSA HOU...Agboola Paul
Traditional buildings across Nigeria’s geographical zones are known to have demonstrated a thorough response to the climate, local technology and socio-economic milieu in which they evolved. The origin of these different traditional building body associates with the natural materials availability to the local builders as well as religious belief, cultural and taboos. The advent of colonialism in Nigeria changed the traditional life and culture of Nigerian which creates a weak connection between traditional architecture and contemporary architecture in Nigeria. Most recent buildings designs across Hausa regions in Nigeria have been built with imported materials and the construction techniques tailored to satisfy the modernity self-ego and aspirations. Thus, traditional architecture ought not to be abandoned and forgotten, hence; experts’ awareness should be tailored to the understanding of its original essence.
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2018) 2(1), 84-95. Doi: 10.25034/ijcua.2018.3664
www.ijcua.com
A Lesson from Vernacular Architecture in Nigeria
Ph.D. CandidateJoyce Lodson1,* Ph.D. CandidateJOHN EMMANUEL OGBEBA2, Dr. UGOCHUKWU KENECHI ELINWA3
1 Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Bauchi state, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
3Department of Architecture, Cyprus International University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
E mail:joycelodson@yahoo.com E mail: john.ogbeba@emu.edu.tr , E mail:uelinwa@ciu.edu.tr
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
Iconography, arts and design of metal sculptures in nigerian art institutions...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on metal sculptures created between 1980-2011 at four Nigerian art institutions: Ahmadu Bello University, University of Nigeria, Yaba College of Technology, and Auchi Polytechnic. It provides background on the development of sculpture and art education in Nigeria. The study examines 25 outdoor metal sculptures in terms of iconography, styles, themes, materials, and techniques. It also analyzes changes to the sculptures from weathering and oxidation over 31 years, and provides strategies to prevent damage to metal works. The sculptures reflect both African and Western influences, and new industrial materials like galvanized sheet and iron rods are commonly used.
Malaysia is not only unique country with a multicultural diversity but also has a rich and numerous culture and heritage treasures. Therefore, as technology growth across world, many cultural heritages might become missing without any effective efforts in preservation and conservation of the culture and heritage. Within this scenario, the qualitative study was conducted through documents review, a field observation followed by a face-to-face interview with corresponding respondents to empirically ascertain the narrative history and uniqueness of Gasing Leper Terengganu which further propose an alternative approach in preserving Gasing Leper Terengganu’s heritage.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
A Strategy Study on Sustainable Rural Ghost Town Revitalization vis New Archi...Teo Kean Hui
Since the last decades, ghost town is town which is rich in history, used to be populated and economic viable. Ghost towns has been created due to abandonment of the local community who are no longer capable to sustain themselves. The depopulations of younger generations, aging, urban migration and decreasing in local businesses profitability contributed large amount in the creation of rural ghost town in Malaysia especially ex-mining town. Therefore, this research paper aim to investigate possible strategies of new architecture that able to contribute to rural ghost town Sungai Lambing revitalization and at the same time allowing community sustainability. To achieve the research aim, literature review on effort and attempt of revitalization to preserve, enhance and treat the historical sites and in the rural context to form a framework of study. Case study as research method to investigate on effort and strategies of ghost town revitalization that has been done internationally supported by interviewing both locals and visitors at Sungai Lembing as primary data will be conducted as quantitative research. A research conclusion could be formed with goal in contributing to designers, planners and academic researchers on approach to rural ghost town revitalization through new architecture. At the same time providing guide for the developers who are interested in this field and benefiting the local communities, visitors and local historical value.
Native Craft and Tourism: A Study of Ushafa PotteryAI Publications
The main thrust of the paper was to discuss the relationship between indigenous craft and tourism development using Ushafa pottery as the focus of inquiry. Adopting the qualitative approach to enquiry, the study sought to, among other things, study the processes of pottery making, ascertain the challenges which confront potters, and investigate the contributions of pottery to the development of Ushafa. Findings show that the processes of pottery production include collection of clay, breaking of clay into small particles, sun-drying and soaking of clay in water as well as sieving to produce fine clay. Other stages are kneading for plasticity, moulding, application of designs and finally, firing or baking of clay item. Pottery which leads tourism growth in Ushafa has made the following contributions such as improvement in local economy, provision of basic amenities and self-esteem among community members. Challenges of Tourism Development in Ushafa include the deplorable condition of the road leading to the clay mining area; the need for increased marketing outlets for pottery products, corruption and community poor hygiene.
The impact of urban renewal on quality of life (qol) in calabar, nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the impact of urban renewal programs on quality of life in Calabar, Nigeria. The study assessed various urban renewal projects undertaken in Calabar, including road rehabilitation, tree planting, and infrastructure improvements. The study found that urban renewal positively impacted residents' transportation, neighborhood satisfaction, access to water and waste management. However, the document notes that government needs to further improve residents' incomes and implement durable legislation to support sustainable urban renewal programs long-term.
Low cost housing for the urban poor in akure, nigeria-materials and technique...Alexander Decker
This document discusses low-cost housing construction materials and techniques used in Akure, Nigeria. It examines locally available materials like laterite and their potential as affordable building materials. Some key techniques discussed include:
- Using laterite soil stabilized with cement, lime, or bitumen to form blocks with improved strength and durability.
- Firing clay bricks in simple clamp kilns fueled by wood or grass to produce strong, durable bricks for construction.
- Basic construction techniques like digging foundations, walling using hand tools like hoes and spades, and roofing traditionally with thatch but now using corrugated metal.
With the application of local materials and traditional construction knowledge, the document concludes
A B S T R A C T
Aesthetics as a discipline was originally part of philosophy and cosmology, primarily it was used to create a holistic picture of the world. Throughout history, subject and tasks of aesthetics as a discipline have been changing in different historical, cultural, religious and artistic discourses, nature and the beauty of objects intentionally produced by man, but doubts in division of aesthetic experiences in comparison to these variants of beauty. One of the cities where started to rebuild in North Iraq after the Saddam Hussein s regime was Erbil. This fact has evidently started to come out as a problem of urban conservation that results in the loss of architectural and social values of the historical settings. New building in a historical settlement is an urban conservation problem that forms out a methodology of analyzing and evaluating the existing built fabric with a typological study, making an interpretation of it commenting on the legal regulations and introducing new principles that are based on the synthesis of the past and today for providing historical continuity and preserving urban identity despite the continuous change. The study revealed that by using local and traditional elements in modern architecture there is a possibility to protect historical building.
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia,.docxrossskuddershamus
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South
Africa
Author(s): Ikem Stanley Okoye
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 381-
396
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians
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Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa
IKEM STANLEY OKOYE
University of Delaware
Q: Do you think that a modern Nigerian aesthetic is possible? artist Demas Nwoko, for example-to mount a challenge
A: A Nigerian aesthetic? On what would it be based that is as to the fledgling orthodoxy. Nwoko, who in the 1960s, as
solid as that on which Aalto's Finnish tradition or Tange's on the part of the pan-African art group Mbari-Mbayo, wrote
Japanese tradition was? profusely on the significance of Africa's past, was in the
1970s not only commissioned but actually constructed sev-
Maxwell Fry eral important projects. This series of threatening acts nev-
We must ... draw on our traditions. ertheless finally brought legitimacy to the idea that an
understanding of African architectural and art history could David Aradeon
produce buildings that not only would receive critical
Good and up-coming architects are coming to terms with the fact acclaim, but could secure further commissions for one who
that they live in Africa ... you need to look at what's indigenous. was juridically illegitimate.2
Ora Joubert Striving to inculcate an African sensibility in a twenti-
eth-century building, Nwoko created his circa 1967
Dominican chapel (and there is an irony here, of course) in
r~~P~~rer~f~ace~~ ~concrete, capturing the fluidity of an object formed in clay
Interestingly, the A.
This document summarizes a study examining the emergent patterns of residential areas in Akure, Nigeria due to rapid urbanization. It finds that socioeconomic characteristics of residents are significantly related to housing provision and morphology. The study uses surveys of 1,400 households in inner, outer, and peripheral neighborhoods to analyze how quality of neighborhood and housing decreases as density increases. While findings may only be specific to Akure, the issues of inadequate infrastructure, land supply, and housing are likely national problems for developing countries undergoing urbanization. The recommendations emphasize improving housing, infrastructure, and land supply through innovative policy approaches.
A PROJECT DISSERTATION TITLED CONTEXTUALIZING MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA...Sarah Morrow
This document is a project dissertation submitted by Ariku Temitope Ebenezer to the Department of Architecture at Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria. The dissertation examines how modern architecture was contextualized in Nigeria, using Obafemi Awolowo University as a case study. It discusses the introduction and spread of modern architecture in Nigeria under colonialism. It also analyzes some buildings at OAU, including the Amphitheatre and Humanities Building, to understand how their designs addressed tropical climate and cultural expression. The dissertation aims to evaluate the successes and failures of contextualizing modern architecture in Nigeria.
The Casbah of Algiers, in Algeria; From an Urban Slum to a Sustainable Living...drboon
In the face of rapid economic development, people increasing needs and changing lifestyles, most historic centers in the Arab world have experienced problems in making the necessary adaptation to the present needs and change. In the Casbah of Algiers, while the number of houses was reducing due to dereliction the density was rising and reached 4,000 persons/ha, making it one of the highest densities in the world. In addition, lack of services and poor sanitation has accelerated the dilapidation and decline of the Casbah, to become an urban slum in the heart of the capital Algiers. The Casbah of Algiers presents an urgent case for urban conservation. UNESCO inscribed it on the World Heritage list in December 1992, but since then there has been continuous disrepair, from 1,200 historic buildings in 1962 only 400 have remained and the number is still decreasing. The cultural heritage of the Casbah should be recognized as a valuable resource for future development. This paper attempts to propose an urgent integrated urban conservation action to rescue the Casbah from vanishing to become a sustainable living heritage.
A B S T R A C T
Aesthetics is the philosophical study of art and natural beauty and it is indicated by the feelings of pleasure or displeasure which comes from visual and aural elements and artifacts. Hence, aesthetics depends on animate or inanimate organization which can be perceived either subjectively or objectively. This aesthetic element is uniquely present in the traditional buildings and modern buildings of southwestern part of Nigeria. This study is set out to evaluate and bring into lime light the aesthetic characteristics of traditional buildings and that of the modern buildings, how one style or aesthetic element gradually prevail over or transform to another, reasons and consequences of one completely predominating another in Yoruba region of Nigeria. Moreover, this study therefore, is divided into four parts, which are: (a) overview of the history of modern and traditional Architecture of Yoruba land (b) aesthetic characteristics or indicators of traditional and modern architecture in Yoruba land, (c) the differences between the aesthetic of both style of Architecture and what is responsible for this change or transformation in their aesthetic value. The research concludes with recommendations of synchronizing both style of architecture design in getting an optimum aesthetic value, and offers a room for further research and development of a consistent and notable architectural typology for southwest Nigeria.
SRI KSETRA and PYU ANCIENT CITIES: Myanmar’s First World Heritage Sites - U W...Ethical Sector
A multi-stakeholder workshop on Responsible Tourism and Human Rights in Myanmar was held in Naypyidaw from 30 September to 2 October by the Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business and the Hanns Seidel Foundation.
The document discusses archaeological surveys conducted in northern Iraq between 2008-2010 by the US military and State Department to document historic sites in Mosul and the Ninewa province. The surveys mapped sites like Nineveh, Nimrud, Hatra and Khorsabad using techniques like total stations and LIDAR. The intent was to support Iraqi heritage authorities by providing baseline data and monitoring the sites. Local communities were engaged during the surveys. Unfortunately, many of these important sites have since been destroyed by ISIS during the Syrian civil war.
Perceptions of university staff toward on preservation and global accessibili...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research study that examined the perceptions of staff at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka regarding the preservation and global accessibility of Nigerian cultural heritage. The study found that Nigerian cultural materials like songs, music, dance, written languages, and aspects of religion should be globally accessible. Access could be provided through the internet, cultural websites, and networks. However, challenges include a lack of documentation of cultural heritage and an absence of courses in cultural preservation. Improving global access requires strong political will, internet infrastructure, and IT support. The study aims to help librarians understand Nigerian cultural heritage that should be preserved and made globally available.
Conservation of the Urban Heritage to Conserve the Sense of Place, a Case Stu...drboon
The sense of place can only be achieved if the urban heritage is still intact and preserved whilst accommodating for new development. In the past Misurata city center where the traditional areas and historical significance are located did not have any positive consideration and appreciation from government which, were destroyed to build a new commercial buildings within business district area of city center. This paper intends to highlight on urban heritage "historical significance & activity pattern" that still survive in the city center of Misurata and reflects the sense of place. The study adapted the visual survey field method for data collection and this approach adopted techniques namely photograph and diagrams or maps. The results of the study indicate that there are some urban areas and buildings with historical or traditional significance and conducive sense of belonging and identity that must be renewed, restored, reused and conserved; for instance the marketplace, Allfah Square and the old city center.
This document discusses the importance of cultural heritage and preserving built heritage. It defines cultural heritage as traditions, customs, and objects that are passed down through generations which help groups identify with shared histories. Built heritage, such as buildings and structures, are important tangible aspects of cultural heritage that reflect a community's past. It is important to conserve and protect built heritage for future generations by maintaining historic structures and preventing demolition, which can change a city's character. Proper conservation involves preservation, restoration, or reconstruction to retain a structure's historic and cultural significance over time.
Museums and Galleries Attendance Apathy in Nigeria: Advocacy for Inclusive Pu...MuseumInnovation
Museums and art galleries are community oriented institutions and channels of dissemination of information on cultural artifacts and relics. However, empirical observations have revealed an almost zero level of interactivities and visits to these institutions by the public. In Nigeria particularly, visitations to museums and galleries are not popular. There appears to be a kind of detachment between Museum, art gallery and the people, presenting morbid and restrained environments. This trend is alarming and very disturbing, given the significance of Museums and monuments to nation development, especially in Nigeria, a country with high profile socio cultural heritage. Through survey enquiries, the paper seeks to determine the cause of apathy towards public interest in Museum attendance. Could it be the museum organizational defect? It proposes inclusive intervention strategies to promote community integration, collaborations among museums and galleries, creating a database and effective digital access to museums activities that impact the public positively.
The influence of ritual, technology and cultural development on bu.docxarmitageclaire49
The influence of ritual, technology and cultural development on building culture are important. The impact of lifestyle, location, available resources and social hierarchy can be seen in the configuration of cities and buildings. Vernacular architecture means an architecture that is concerned with the domestic and functional, thus differing from monumental buildings.
For this critical essay compare the vernacular architecture (housing) excavated in the Neolithic settlement
Catal Hüyük
(Anatolia, 7500–5700 BCE) to the vernacular dwellings found in
Mohenjo-daro
(2500 BCE, Pakistan). Examine how they relate to the following topics and identify parallels and differences; Structure essay according to the three topics below:
Impact of site, region, geography and climate: Which materials are available, what kind of topography or weather patterns and climate, temperatures are the houses reacting to.?
Settlement patterns: How do the individual houses form an urban context? What kind of infrastructure and which circulation patterns and overall organization can be identified?
Lifestyle/culture: How do the houses reflect people’s living conditions, rituals and social structures? What is the inhabitants’ social/hierarchical organization?
Discuss configurations or conditions the houses share and identify conditions that are specific to the region and its local geographic conditions, technologies available or the social structure present. Document and discuss in writing (1500-2000 words), include a bibliography and a list of image sources if they are not your own sketches. Use Chicago Style as a citation format.
.
IMPACT OF MODERNITY ON MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE OF NORTHERN NIGERIA: A CRITICAL AN...zakari mohammed
Nigeria’s rich historical background has derived an exclusive indigenous Architecture that displays different variations and influences. Mosque Architecture happens to be one of the unique type of architecture for its primary function is a community worshiping centre.
The primary purpose of this article is to study and identify the essential elements of a mosque and their functions, and their development from the precolonial, colonial and post-colonial period as regards to changes in the morphology, symbolism, technology and design of mosques in Northern Nigeria. This article will focus on some selected mosques in Nigeria which represent the original traditional architecture through to the modern.
The changes made were examined based on characteristics of morphology, design articulation and technology based on the history of Hausa mosque architecture.
This was done through existing publication on the subject and the author’s experience.
Findings shows that the emergence of the colonial masters and some of the Arab merchants in Nigeria has affected the existing culture and traditions which obviously weakened the bonds between the traditional and modern architecture. Mosques were not only not conserved in their originality but changed thereby destroying the traditional forms.
A STRATEGY STUDY ON SUSTAINABLE RURAL GHOST TOWN REVITALIZATION VIA NEW ARCHI...Teo Kean Hui
Since the last decades, ghost town is town which is rich in history, used to be populated and economic viable. Ghost towns has been created due to abandonment of the local community who are no longer capable to sustain themselves. The depopulations of younger generations, aging, urban migration and decreasing in local businesses profitability contributed large amount in the creation of rural ghost town in Malaysia especially ex-mining town. Therefore, this research paper aim to investigate possible strategies of new architecture that able to contribute to rural ghost town Sungai Lambing revitalization and at the same time allowing community sustainability. To achieve the research aim, literature review on effort and attempt of revitalization to preserve, enhance and treat the historical sites and in the rural context to form a framework of study. Case study as research method to investigate on effort and strategies of ghost town revitalization that has been done internationally supported by interviewing both locals and visitors at Sungai Lembing as primary data will be conducted as quantitative research. A research conclusion could be formed with goal in contributing to designers, planners and academic researchers on approach to rural ghost town revitalization through new architecture. At the same time providing guide for the developers who are interested in this field and benefiting the local communities, visitors and local historical value.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
Architectural conservation_laws and practices_authenticityJoarder Hafiz Ullah
“Antiquity”
BNBC:
Definitions of Conservation
General Guidelines for Heritage Buildings and Sites
Promote cultural continuity
Integrate development with conservation
Outstanding Universal Value
Authenticity
Aspects of Authenticity
The Role of Tourism in Sustainability of the Rural Settlementfabrics: Cumalık...inventionjournals
The aim of this research is to examine the role of tourism activities on the sustainability of original rural settlement fabrics in the particular example of Cumalıkızık destination. In this research qualitative method has been used and research data were collected using interviews with local directors and observations. In this frame firstly the original fabric of Cumalıkızık destination within the boundaries of Bursa was examined. Then the effects of economic, social and cultural interactions which result from tourism activities on Cumalıkızık destination were considered both with positive and negative aspects. Finally, the effects of tourism activities to the destination on the preservation process of the original fabric were investigated. The data collected were analysed using descriptive analysis technique. From the analysis it was concluded that tourism activities had a significant effect on the sustainability of the original rural settlement fabrics.
USING STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING ON FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT OF INDIAN ECO...indexPub
Purpose: Foreign direct investment (FDI) altogether influences the beneficiary country's financial development, making it more stable, high-quality, and healthy, according to this empirical study based on the present stage of economic development. Thus, every country encountering financial globalization is attempting to lay out a serious business climate to increment worldwide speculation. Design/Methodology/Approach: the main objective of this study is based on Institutional quality or Evidence and I selected 5 factors Institutional Metrics like Voice and Accountability, Civil liberties, Women in parliament, Corruption perceptions, Political rights from DPIIT website (Secondary Data) for the period 2018-2023. Static analysis methods such as the Unit Root Test, the ARDL Approach, and SEM are being used. Originality/Value: The experts in this study used OLS (Least Squares) regression: Foreign direct investment (FDI) streams were the focal point of the exploration. The impact of institutional qualities on unfamiliar direct speculation streams has been explored utilizing the customary least square methodology. Findings: Institutional metrics of government efficacy and corruption have shown a shortrun link with foreign direct investment (FDI) flows, according to the research, which used the ARDL model to find that these indicators had positive coefficient values. As far as institutional markers like law and order, administrative quality, and voice and responsibility, the review found that political stability had a long-term association with foreign direct investment flows (7.4578 > 4.16), placing it above the upper peasant table.
SUSTAINABLE INVESTING UNVEILED: THE ROLE OF BOND RATINGS IN GUIDING GREEN BON...indexPub
The increasing urgency to address climate change has propelled sustainable investing into the spotlight, with green bonds emerging as a pivotal instrument for mobilizing the capital required for environmental projects. This study delves into the critical role that bond ratings play in guiding investments in green bonds, shedding light on how these ratings influence investor confidence and the allocation of funds towards sustainable initiatives. By employing a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of green bond performance with qualitative interviews from industry experts, this research offers a comprehensive overview of the interplay between bond ratings and green bond investments. The findings suggest that higher bond ratings, often indicative of lower risk and better sustainability credentials, significantly impact the attractiveness of green bonds to investors. Additionally, the study examines the evolution of rating criteria to encompass environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors, highlighting the shift towards more holistic assessments of investment risk and potential. This research contributes to the broader discourse on sustainable finance by providing insights into the mechanisms through which bond ratings can facilitate more informed and impactful green bond investments.
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This document discusses a study on the impact of urban renewal programs on quality of life in Calabar, Nigeria. The study assessed various urban renewal projects undertaken in Calabar, including road rehabilitation, tree planting, and infrastructure improvements. The study found that urban renewal positively impacted residents' transportation, neighborhood satisfaction, access to water and waste management. However, the document notes that government needs to further improve residents' incomes and implement durable legislation to support sustainable urban renewal programs long-term.
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This document discusses low-cost housing construction materials and techniques used in Akure, Nigeria. It examines locally available materials like laterite and their potential as affordable building materials. Some key techniques discussed include:
- Using laterite soil stabilized with cement, lime, or bitumen to form blocks with improved strength and durability.
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A B S T R A C T
Aesthetics as a discipline was originally part of philosophy and cosmology, primarily it was used to create a holistic picture of the world. Throughout history, subject and tasks of aesthetics as a discipline have been changing in different historical, cultural, religious and artistic discourses, nature and the beauty of objects intentionally produced by man, but doubts in division of aesthetic experiences in comparison to these variants of beauty. One of the cities where started to rebuild in North Iraq after the Saddam Hussein s regime was Erbil. This fact has evidently started to come out as a problem of urban conservation that results in the loss of architectural and social values of the historical settings. New building in a historical settlement is an urban conservation problem that forms out a methodology of analyzing and evaluating the existing built fabric with a typological study, making an interpretation of it commenting on the legal regulations and introducing new principles that are based on the synthesis of the past and today for providing historical continuity and preserving urban identity despite the continuous change. The study revealed that by using local and traditional elements in modern architecture there is a possibility to protect historical building.
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia,.docxrossskuddershamus
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South
Africa
Author(s): Ikem Stanley Okoye
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 381-
396
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians
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Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa
IKEM STANLEY OKOYE
University of Delaware
Q: Do you think that a modern Nigerian aesthetic is possible? artist Demas Nwoko, for example-to mount a challenge
A: A Nigerian aesthetic? On what would it be based that is as to the fledgling orthodoxy. Nwoko, who in the 1960s, as
solid as that on which Aalto's Finnish tradition or Tange's on the part of the pan-African art group Mbari-Mbayo, wrote
Japanese tradition was? profusely on the significance of Africa's past, was in the
1970s not only commissioned but actually constructed sev-
Maxwell Fry eral important projects. This series of threatening acts nev-
We must ... draw on our traditions. ertheless finally brought legitimacy to the idea that an
understanding of African architectural and art history could David Aradeon
produce buildings that not only would receive critical
Good and up-coming architects are coming to terms with the fact acclaim, but could secure further commissions for one who
that they live in Africa ... you need to look at what's indigenous. was juridically illegitimate.2
Ora Joubert Striving to inculcate an African sensibility in a twenti-
eth-century building, Nwoko created his circa 1967
Dominican chapel (and there is an irony here, of course) in
r~~P~~rer~f~ace~~ ~concrete, capturing the fluidity of an object formed in clay
Interestingly, the A.
This document summarizes a study examining the emergent patterns of residential areas in Akure, Nigeria due to rapid urbanization. It finds that socioeconomic characteristics of residents are significantly related to housing provision and morphology. The study uses surveys of 1,400 households in inner, outer, and peripheral neighborhoods to analyze how quality of neighborhood and housing decreases as density increases. While findings may only be specific to Akure, the issues of inadequate infrastructure, land supply, and housing are likely national problems for developing countries undergoing urbanization. The recommendations emphasize improving housing, infrastructure, and land supply through innovative policy approaches.
A PROJECT DISSERTATION TITLED CONTEXTUALIZING MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA...Sarah Morrow
This document is a project dissertation submitted by Ariku Temitope Ebenezer to the Department of Architecture at Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria. The dissertation examines how modern architecture was contextualized in Nigeria, using Obafemi Awolowo University as a case study. It discusses the introduction and spread of modern architecture in Nigeria under colonialism. It also analyzes some buildings at OAU, including the Amphitheatre and Humanities Building, to understand how their designs addressed tropical climate and cultural expression. The dissertation aims to evaluate the successes and failures of contextualizing modern architecture in Nigeria.
The Casbah of Algiers, in Algeria; From an Urban Slum to a Sustainable Living...drboon
In the face of rapid economic development, people increasing needs and changing lifestyles, most historic centers in the Arab world have experienced problems in making the necessary adaptation to the present needs and change. In the Casbah of Algiers, while the number of houses was reducing due to dereliction the density was rising and reached 4,000 persons/ha, making it one of the highest densities in the world. In addition, lack of services and poor sanitation has accelerated the dilapidation and decline of the Casbah, to become an urban slum in the heart of the capital Algiers. The Casbah of Algiers presents an urgent case for urban conservation. UNESCO inscribed it on the World Heritage list in December 1992, but since then there has been continuous disrepair, from 1,200 historic buildings in 1962 only 400 have remained and the number is still decreasing. The cultural heritage of the Casbah should be recognized as a valuable resource for future development. This paper attempts to propose an urgent integrated urban conservation action to rescue the Casbah from vanishing to become a sustainable living heritage.
A B S T R A C T
Aesthetics is the philosophical study of art and natural beauty and it is indicated by the feelings of pleasure or displeasure which comes from visual and aural elements and artifacts. Hence, aesthetics depends on animate or inanimate organization which can be perceived either subjectively or objectively. This aesthetic element is uniquely present in the traditional buildings and modern buildings of southwestern part of Nigeria. This study is set out to evaluate and bring into lime light the aesthetic characteristics of traditional buildings and that of the modern buildings, how one style or aesthetic element gradually prevail over or transform to another, reasons and consequences of one completely predominating another in Yoruba region of Nigeria. Moreover, this study therefore, is divided into four parts, which are: (a) overview of the history of modern and traditional Architecture of Yoruba land (b) aesthetic characteristics or indicators of traditional and modern architecture in Yoruba land, (c) the differences between the aesthetic of both style of Architecture and what is responsible for this change or transformation in their aesthetic value. The research concludes with recommendations of synchronizing both style of architecture design in getting an optimum aesthetic value, and offers a room for further research and development of a consistent and notable architectural typology for southwest Nigeria.
SRI KSETRA and PYU ANCIENT CITIES: Myanmar’s First World Heritage Sites - U W...Ethical Sector
A multi-stakeholder workshop on Responsible Tourism and Human Rights in Myanmar was held in Naypyidaw from 30 September to 2 October by the Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business and the Hanns Seidel Foundation.
The document discusses archaeological surveys conducted in northern Iraq between 2008-2010 by the US military and State Department to document historic sites in Mosul and the Ninewa province. The surveys mapped sites like Nineveh, Nimrud, Hatra and Khorsabad using techniques like total stations and LIDAR. The intent was to support Iraqi heritage authorities by providing baseline data and monitoring the sites. Local communities were engaged during the surveys. Unfortunately, many of these important sites have since been destroyed by ISIS during the Syrian civil war.
Perceptions of university staff toward on preservation and global accessibili...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a research study that examined the perceptions of staff at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka regarding the preservation and global accessibility of Nigerian cultural heritage. The study found that Nigerian cultural materials like songs, music, dance, written languages, and aspects of religion should be globally accessible. Access could be provided through the internet, cultural websites, and networks. However, challenges include a lack of documentation of cultural heritage and an absence of courses in cultural preservation. Improving global access requires strong political will, internet infrastructure, and IT support. The study aims to help librarians understand Nigerian cultural heritage that should be preserved and made globally available.
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The sense of place can only be achieved if the urban heritage is still intact and preserved whilst accommodating for new development. In the past Misurata city center where the traditional areas and historical significance are located did not have any positive consideration and appreciation from government which, were destroyed to build a new commercial buildings within business district area of city center. This paper intends to highlight on urban heritage "historical significance & activity pattern" that still survive in the city center of Misurata and reflects the sense of place. The study adapted the visual survey field method for data collection and this approach adopted techniques namely photograph and diagrams or maps. The results of the study indicate that there are some urban areas and buildings with historical or traditional significance and conducive sense of belonging and identity that must be renewed, restored, reused and conserved; for instance the marketplace, Allfah Square and the old city center.
This document discusses the importance of cultural heritage and preserving built heritage. It defines cultural heritage as traditions, customs, and objects that are passed down through generations which help groups identify with shared histories. Built heritage, such as buildings and structures, are important tangible aspects of cultural heritage that reflect a community's past. It is important to conserve and protect built heritage for future generations by maintaining historic structures and preventing demolition, which can change a city's character. Proper conservation involves preservation, restoration, or reconstruction to retain a structure's historic and cultural significance over time.
Museums and Galleries Attendance Apathy in Nigeria: Advocacy for Inclusive Pu...MuseumInnovation
Museums and art galleries are community oriented institutions and channels of dissemination of information on cultural artifacts and relics. However, empirical observations have revealed an almost zero level of interactivities and visits to these institutions by the public. In Nigeria particularly, visitations to museums and galleries are not popular. There appears to be a kind of detachment between Museum, art gallery and the people, presenting morbid and restrained environments. This trend is alarming and very disturbing, given the significance of Museums and monuments to nation development, especially in Nigeria, a country with high profile socio cultural heritage. Through survey enquiries, the paper seeks to determine the cause of apathy towards public interest in Museum attendance. Could it be the museum organizational defect? It proposes inclusive intervention strategies to promote community integration, collaborations among museums and galleries, creating a database and effective digital access to museums activities that impact the public positively.
The influence of ritual, technology and cultural development on bu.docxarmitageclaire49
The influence of ritual, technology and cultural development on building culture are important. The impact of lifestyle, location, available resources and social hierarchy can be seen in the configuration of cities and buildings. Vernacular architecture means an architecture that is concerned with the domestic and functional, thus differing from monumental buildings.
For this critical essay compare the vernacular architecture (housing) excavated in the Neolithic settlement
Catal Hüyük
(Anatolia, 7500–5700 BCE) to the vernacular dwellings found in
Mohenjo-daro
(2500 BCE, Pakistan). Examine how they relate to the following topics and identify parallels and differences; Structure essay according to the three topics below:
Impact of site, region, geography and climate: Which materials are available, what kind of topography or weather patterns and climate, temperatures are the houses reacting to.?
Settlement patterns: How do the individual houses form an urban context? What kind of infrastructure and which circulation patterns and overall organization can be identified?
Lifestyle/culture: How do the houses reflect people’s living conditions, rituals and social structures? What is the inhabitants’ social/hierarchical organization?
Discuss configurations or conditions the houses share and identify conditions that are specific to the region and its local geographic conditions, technologies available or the social structure present. Document and discuss in writing (1500-2000 words), include a bibliography and a list of image sources if they are not your own sketches. Use Chicago Style as a citation format.
.
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Nigeria’s rich historical background has derived an exclusive indigenous Architecture that displays different variations and influences. Mosque Architecture happens to be one of the unique type of architecture for its primary function is a community worshiping centre.
The primary purpose of this article is to study and identify the essential elements of a mosque and their functions, and their development from the precolonial, colonial and post-colonial period as regards to changes in the morphology, symbolism, technology and design of mosques in Northern Nigeria. This article will focus on some selected mosques in Nigeria which represent the original traditional architecture through to the modern.
The changes made were examined based on characteristics of morphology, design articulation and technology based on the history of Hausa mosque architecture.
This was done through existing publication on the subject and the author’s experience.
Findings shows that the emergence of the colonial masters and some of the Arab merchants in Nigeria has affected the existing culture and traditions which obviously weakened the bonds between the traditional and modern architecture. Mosques were not only not conserved in their originality but changed thereby destroying the traditional forms.
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Since the last decades, ghost town is town which is rich in history, used to be populated and economic viable. Ghost towns has been created due to abandonment of the local community who are no longer capable to sustain themselves. The depopulations of younger generations, aging, urban migration and decreasing in local businesses profitability contributed large amount in the creation of rural ghost town in Malaysia especially ex-mining town. Therefore, this research paper aim to investigate possible strategies of new architecture that able to contribute to rural ghost town Sungai Lambing revitalization and at the same time allowing community sustainability. To achieve the research aim, literature review on effort and attempt of revitalization to preserve, enhance and treat the historical sites and in the rural context to form a framework of study. Case study as research method to investigate on effort and strategies of ghost town revitalization that has been done internationally supported by interviewing both locals and visitors at Sungai Lembing as primary data will be conducted as quantitative research. A research conclusion could be formed with goal in contributing to designers, planners and academic researchers on approach to rural ghost town revitalization through new architecture. At the same time providing guide for the developers who are interested in this field and benefiting the local communities, visitors and local historical value.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
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Architectural conservation_laws and practices_authenticityJoarder Hafiz Ullah
“Antiquity”
BNBC:
Definitions of Conservation
General Guidelines for Heritage Buildings and Sites
Promote cultural continuity
Integrate development with conservation
Outstanding Universal Value
Authenticity
Aspects of Authenticity
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The aim of this research is to examine the role of tourism activities on the sustainability of original rural settlement fabrics in the particular example of Cumalıkızık destination. In this research qualitative method has been used and research data were collected using interviews with local directors and observations. In this frame firstly the original fabric of Cumalıkızık destination within the boundaries of Bursa was examined. Then the effects of economic, social and cultural interactions which result from tourism activities on Cumalıkızık destination were considered both with positive and negative aspects. Finally, the effects of tourism activities to the destination on the preservation process of the original fabric were investigated. The data collected were analysed using descriptive analysis technique. From the analysis it was concluded that tourism activities had a significant effect on the sustainability of the original rural settlement fabrics.
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The study collects data from a sample of individual investors and analyses their responses to recent financial events, changes in market trends, and economic forecasts. By examining factors such as demographic profiles, financial literacy, risk tolerance, and market perceptions, the research aims to identify significant predictors of investment decisions in this demographic. The findings suggest that investors are predominantly influenced by financial news, peer influence, past investment performance, and the economic stability of the region. This study contributes to the field by highlighting the localized factors impacting investment choices and providing insights for financial advisors and investment firms to tailor their strategies according to investor needs and regional specifics.
GLOBAL RESEARCH TREND AND FUTURISTIC RESEARCH DIRECTION VISUALIZATION OF WORK...indexPub
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to undertake a bibliometric analysis of working capital management. The study examines papers from time period 1974-2023and performed performance analysis, co-citation analysis, bibliographic coupling and scientific mapping. Design/methodology/approach – The study examines 174 articles retrieved from the Scopus database using bibliometric analysis, performance analysis and thematic clustering. The study looked at the scientific productivity of papers, prolific authors, most influencing papers, institutions and nations, keyword co-occurrence, thematic mapping, co-citations and authorship and country collaborations. VOSviewer was as a tool in the research to conduct the performance analysis and thematic clustering.The watchword "Working Capital Management" was used to include only English-language articles. Findings – The most productive year was 2022 with 26 publications. Martínez and García- are the most protuberant authors with 708 citations. The findings of the study shows that the most influential institutions are ‘The Department of Management and Finance, Faculty of Economy andBusiness and Department of Management and Finance, Faculty of Economics and Business, The University of Murcia, Spain with 381 & 297 citations. Among,thecountry analysis,Spain with 744 citations stands first of all other nations for publication on Working Capital Management. Kärri is the most productive author with 7 documents. Country-wise analysis reveals that the United States is the most productive country for Working Capital Management research with 40 documents.The authors also identified seven thematic clusters of Working Capital Management. Research limitations/implications – It informs and directs researchers on the current state of study in the field of Working Capital Management.The present study has quite a few implications forSmall & Medium enterprise managers, entrepreneurs, financial managers, academicians and scholars. It also outlines future research directions in this field.Present study provides an inclusive acquaintance about the working capital management till date. Originality/value – This is the first study which provides the performance analysis and scientific mapping of the all published documents on working capital management between the time periods 1974-2023
A SOCIAL CAPITAL APPROACH TO ENTREPRENEURIAL ECOSYSTEM AND INNOVATION: CASE S...indexPub
Despite being recognised as drivers of innovative development, Micro, Small, and Medium-Sized Enterprises (MSMEs) frequently confront resource limitations. Therefore, enhancing the ecosystem is contingent on the entrepreneurs’ social capital, which is crucial for the success of MSMEs. This study applies the social capital approach to analyse the entrepreneurial ecosystem enrichment and its impact on the innovation process of cosmetics MSMEs. The qualitative case study of six cosmetic manufacturing MSMEs explores that social capital is a multifaceted asset to MSMEs. Through an in-depth thematic analysis of three dimensions of social capital (structural, relational, and cognitive), this study states that the innovation process is supported by the synergistic transformation of one dimension of social capital into another. Entrepreneurs sharing the common norms, rules, and language enrich their cognitive as well as relational aspects of ecosystem. The study suggests that as network ties, trust, and norms collectively influence innovation in firms, hence, social capital needs to be studied with its contextualization in the ecosystem.
ASSESSING HRM EFFECTIVENESS AND PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT MEASURES IN THE BANKI...indexPub
This study employs an exploratory and quantitative research approach to systematically investigate the impact of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices on Organizational Performance within the Indian Banking sector. The research approach combines exploratory research, aimed at gaining insights into HRM practices, with a quantitative approach using a purposive sampling technique. Data is collected through a questionnaire from employees in both public (SBI) and private banks (HDFC Bank) who work in HR departments or are involved in HR activities. The Likert scale is utilized in the questionnaire to measure participant perceptions of HRM practices. The study utilizes two statistical tools: Neural Network and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The findings of the study highlight the significance of promotion and transfer policies, considered paramount in influencing organizational performance in both public and private banks. Additionally, the study underscores the importance of training and development initiatives in enhancing employee skills and competencies. Clear and effective communication within HR policies is identified as pivotal in improving organizational performance. Lastly, aligning HRM practices with sector-specific goals is recognized as a significant contributor to improved employee satisfaction and overall performance in the banking sector. The findings offer guidance for HR practitioners and policymakers in optimizing HRM practices to achieve better organizational performance.
CORRELATION BETWEEN EMPATHY AND FRIENDSHIP QUALITY AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS...indexPub
In this research were used two questionnaires Empathy Formative questionnaire and Friendship Quality Scale. The aim of this study is to see the relationship between empathy and friendship quality among adolescent, to find out if there are gender differences in empathy and friendship quality, and to see if there are any differences between younger and older students on examined variables. This research was done with 65 high school students. Age of the students were 15 to 17 years old. Results show that there is a correlation between empathy and friendship quality. The results of t test show that there are not significant differences between females and males on variable empathy. Girls and boys have significant difference in friendship quality in Kosovo. There are no significant differences between older students and younger students in the level of empathy and also there are no significant differences between older students and younger students in the level of friendship quality.
LEVELS OF DEPRESSION AND SELF-ESTEEM IN STUDENTSindexPub
Introduction: among the most worrying problems in recent years are low self-esteem, family and friends problems, anxiety, stress, and depression, which are taking on alarming proportions in students and young people in general. Purpose: the study is a prediction, which focuses on analyzing and evaluating students' self-esteem and level of depression. Methodology: the population is 332 students (13-15 years old) in high schools in the Gjakova region. The study describes the analysis, classification, and evaluation of the collected data by doing the analysis and real examination of the findings. Results: in terms of gender there is no significant difference in self-esteem, while in depression there is a significant difference. The level of depression is higher in women (11.9) than in men (9.5). Economic status shows that students with employed fathers have lower depression (6.77) compared to those with unemployed fathers (10.80). Conclusions: The level of depression and self-esteem and parental reflection affect students. A link has been found between economic status and emotional problems and student behavior. To prevent it, the psychological service in schools should function, and together with families and the community should be as close as possible to the problems of students.
THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL FACTORS ON INDIVIDUALS DIAGNOSED WITH SCHIZOPHRENIAindexPub
The society with diverse structural and ideological influences, assumes its role in relation to behavior, attitude, belief and relations. The impact can be seen in every society globally, however the western nations have adjusted their social policies to suit these transformations, whereas nations in developing phase have failed to establish suitable systems. In Kosovo, the allocation of funds for mental health services remains insufficient, even though mental health disorders account for 12.3% of overall illnesses and 30.8% of work incapacities! The objective of this study is to examine the impact of society on the decline and recovery of individuals with schizophrenia. The study employs both qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a descriptive-analytical. A study was conducted in four municipalities of Kosovo, using individuals with schizophrenia from psychiatric institutions as subjects along with their caregivers/family members . The research found that social factors greatly contribute to the worsening of schizophrenia patients' condition. The presence of schizophrenia is evident through a higher likelihood of having a low level of education, high unemployment rates, and engaging in harmful behaviors like tobacco and alcohol use, as well as physical inactivity. Significant correlations have been observed in the subscales of positive and negative symptoms using the Self-Report PNS-Q questionnaires. It is crucial for individuals with schizophrenia to have a carefully designed strategy in place, developed in partnership with professionals from various relevant fields such as social protection, psychiatric medical services, education, and social integration plans.
RETURN ON EQUITY (ROE) AS MEDIATION OF BANK'S CAPITAL ADEQUATION RATIO (CAR)indexPub
Banks need to maintain their performance and the level of Capital Adequasi Ratio (CAR). This study wants to see the variables that affect the Capital Adequasi Ratio (CAR) and see ROE as a variable that mediates the Capital Adequasi Ratio (CAR) at Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI). The research method used multiple regression analysis, t-test, Anova test and Coefficient of Determination and the research period for 14 years from 2009 to 2022, by using SPSS Software version 26. The conclusion of the study, only the BOPO variable has a significant effect on the Capital Adequasi Ratio (CAR) and the ROE variable as a variable that can mediate the CAR variable at Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI). Keywords: Capital Adequasi Ratio, Bank Financial Ratio.
INNOVATIVE DESIGN FOR KIDS MASTERY IMPROVEMENT OF LANGUAGE FEATURES IN A STORYindexPub
One of the hardest things for people learning English as a third language is still reading and writing. Because they are still not good enough at language features, they often make big mistakes and assumptions that aren't true. To make learning more fun and useful, visual symbols were made for seven different kinds of language traits. It looks at the Vipicoll form a lot. Visual Symbols media, Picture and picture, and the Collaborative approach are all creatively put together in Vipicoll. This research used Reeve's design method. Research develops Vipicoll learning model, employing interviews, literature reviews, and questionnaires for iterative improvement and validation. Researchers identify problems, create Vipicoll, iteratively refine through trials, forming an effective English Language Education model. Study assesses individual English thinking development, emphasizing interpretive framework, relation, function, and unique visual symbols. From this research, it was found that using Vipicoll really helps improve kids' mastery of language features, especially those in a story. This is proven by the fact that after implementation, kids' correct answers when asked directly by their teachers and their written test answers increased greatly even though many direct answers and test answers used to be wrong and they often didn't understand.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE DETECTION USING MACHINE LEARNING AND RISK CLASSIFICATI...indexPub
The global prevalence of heart disease indicates a major public health issue. It causes shortness of breath, weakness, and swollen ankles. Early heart disease diagnosis is difficult with current approaches. Hence, a better heart disease detection tool is needed. Treatment requires more than just diagnosis. Risk classification is critical for accurate diagnosis and treatment. In this analysis, a novel cardiovascular disease (CVD) detection paradigm using machine learning (ML) and risk classification based on a weighted fuzzy system is proposed. The system is developed based on ML algorithms such as artificial neural network (ANN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and uses standard feature selection techniques knowns as Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Furthermore, the cross-validation method has been used for learning the best practices of model assessment and for hyperparameter tuning. The accuracy-based performance measuring metrics are used for the assessment of the performances of the classifiers. Finally, the outcomes revealed that the proposed model achieved an accuracy of 94.01% which is higher than another conventional model developed in this domain. Additionally, the proposed system can easily be implemented in healthcare for the identification of heart disease.
ANALYSIS OF FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BLOOD THROUGH CURVED ARTERY WITH MIL...indexPub
Narrowing of the arteries caused by atherosclerosis reduces blood flow to the heart, which results shows ischemia, angina pectoris, cerebral strokes, and other coronary artery disease signs and symptoms. Curvature is seen in blood vessels at various locations. The stenotic surface provides an additional curvature and the point of maximum shear which varies with the cross-section. A cylindrical form of the Navier-Stokes equations in polar coordinate system have been extended to include dynamic curvature along the axial direction. The blood flow behavior of taking different values of blood parameters like viscosity, the radius of the artery, and the thickness of the stenosis has been studied with and without curvature by using an extended blood flow model with dynamic curvature. Moreover, the aspects of blood flow, such as dynamic curvature velocity profile, volumetric flow rate, pressure drop, and shear stress, have been studied in relation to blood flow around curved arteries with stenosis, variations in the radii of the artery, thickness of the stenosis, and viscosity. The information may reveal that by increasing the values of curvature, viscosity, and thickness of stenosis, velocity, and volumetric flow rate can be quickly reduced. Increasing the curvature, viscosity, and thickness of stenosis also results in an increase in shear stress and a pressure drop. The presence of curved stenotic arteries has a significant impact on the flow parameters, and it is crucial to know about these dynamics in order to study the cardiovascular system.
ANALYSIS OF STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE USING MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS:– ...indexPub
Student academic performance is the great value of institutes, universities and colleges. All colleges majorly focus on the career development of students. The academic performance of students plays a vital role in the establishment of a bright career. On the basis of better academic performance, the placement of the students will be better and the same will be reflected in the form of better admission and future. Machine learning can be deployed for the prediction of student performance. Various algorithms are playing an important role in the prediction of the accuracy of various machine learning models. These articles discuss various algorithms that can be helpful to deploy for predicting student academic performance. The article discusses various methods, predictive features and the accuracy of machine learning algorithms. The primary factors used for predicting students performance are academic institution, sessional marks, semester progress, family occupation, methods and algorithms. The accuracy level of various machine learning algorithms is discussed in this article.
IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN BLENDED LEARNING MODELS: EFFECTS ON ...indexPub
This study was conducted to identify the influence of computer technology in blended learning on the achievement in the Principles of Accounting subject through of self-directed learning. The research also assessed the relationship of the elements of blended learning on student achievement. Despite the encouragement by the Ministry of Education for the use of Computer Technology In Education, there is a lack of research on a measurable and testable model of the influence of computer technology. In reality, various aspects such as schools, teachers, content, and technology exist to provide and utilize computer technology through learning in Malaysia. A quantitative study using a correlational design was conducted on 400 Form Four students in secondary schools in the Southern Zone of Malaysia, namely in the states of Johor, Melaka, and Negeri Sembilan, to identify the influence of computer technology in blended learning on achievement. Data were collected using adapted and modified questionnaires from previous studies. Descriptive data analysis was performed using SPSS version 28, while inferential analysis was conducted using the Smart PLS analysis technique. Smart PLS version 4.0 software was utilized to test the mediator relationships in the study. The results of the study showed high minimum scores for blended learning through computer technology and self-directed learning, as well as achievement. The influence of blended learning elements also had a significant relationship with student achievement in the Principles of Accounting subject. This study is expected to contribute to the effectiveness of blended learning through information technology on the achievement in the Principles of Accounting subject by enhancing self- directed learning among students. The development of this conceptual model is hoped to serve as a guide for policymakers, the Ministry of Education, teachers, students, and other stakeholders in ensuring that blended learning practices can be implemented more effectively. Furthermore, it is hoped that the achievement and interest in the Principles of Accounting subject can be improved by applying computer technology in learning.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
RESPONSE OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE TO MODERNISM IN NIGERIA: A CHRONOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF IGALA RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE
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RESPONSE OF TRADITIONALARCHITECTURE TO MODERNISM IN
NIGERIA: A CHRONOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF IGALA
RESIDENTIALARCHITECTURE
HENRY EMUSA 1*, WILLIAM BARNABAS QURIX 2 and RUTH MARTINS 3
1, 2, 3
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Bingham University Karu, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author Email: henry.emusa@binghamuni.edu.ng
Abstract
This research presents a comprehensive exploration of the impact of modernism on Igala architecture, tracing its
evolution from pre-colonial times to the contemporary era. Employing a chronological and narrative approach,
the study utilized archival research, field surveys, and interviews with local professionals, indigenous elders, and
environmental experts to investigate the transformative effects of modernism on Igala architecture. Although
limited by unavailable population data and a vast geographical spread, historical records and engagement with the
study area provide valuable insights into the interplay between modernism and Igala building practices. The arrival
of European colonizers in the nineteenth century disrupted indigenous traditions, leading to a fusion of European
architectural styles with traditional Igala residential designs. This research highlights the resilience of the Igala
people in preserving their architectural heritage. It serves as a crucial resource for architects, historians, and
cultural preservationists, emphasizing the importance of preserving indigenous architectural practices amidst
rapid globalization.
Keywords: Igala. Igala Architecture. Traditional Architecture. Nigeria Architecture. Building Pattern.
Colonization. Transformation. European Architecture.
INTRODUCTION
Throughout history, from the late Stone Age when humans first constructed houses using mud
and grasses, architecture has served as a reflection of a society's culture, traditions, and values.
As noted by Okoye and Ukanwa (2019), a people's architectural style is influenced by both
physical and cultural factors that are unique to their community. This sentiment aligns with
McLennen's earlier assertion in 2006 that architecture, as the most conspicuous physical
manifestation of a society, draws inspiration from and adapts to the distinct characteristics of
its surroundings. As a result, the architecture of a place becomes closely intertwined with its
identity, giving rise to designations such as Chinese Architecture, American Architecture, early
Egyptian Architecture, Greek Architecture, Roman Architecture, and many others.
Presently, architecture in Nigeria is characterized by a collection of foreign influences, designs,
motifs, models, and materials that bear little or no connection to the country's rich cultural
heritage. This aligns with the perspective shared by Okere (1996), which suggests that Africa,
including Nigeria, is now a convergence of diverse cultural streams. On one side, there exists
the traditional culture with its various aspects, such as religion, social structure, language,
values, and worldview. On the other side, Western culture, which includes influences from
Christianity and Islam, has also made its way into the country, contributing to the cultural
amalgamation. Consequently, the authentic Nigerian identity faces a crisis, as indigenous
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cultures and traditions are rapidly fading away. Umar et al. (2019) have observed a prevailing
trend where there is a strong preference for foreign architectural styles, aesthetics, elevations,
and materials. Unfortunately, this preference has resulted in the neglect and decline of the use
of local building concepts, leading to the gradual disappearance of traditional architecture along
with its associated values. In essence, the current architectural landscape in Nigeria largely
reflects imported influences, and the desire for foreign aesthetics has overshadowed the
appreciation and continuation of the nation's traditional architectural practices and cultural
values. This situation poses a challenge to preserving Nigeria's unique identity and cultural
heritage in the face of increasing globalization and the dominance of Western influences.
The Igala ethnic group, like many others in Nigeria, possesses a unique and culturally rich
traditional architecture that has undergone significant changes due to external influences and
modernization. The arrival of European colonizers during the 19th century had a profound
impact on the Igala region's architectural landscape, introducing foreign influences and
materials that reshaped traditional building practices. Consequently, the Igala people have
experienced a gradual disconnect from their architectural identity as the distinct elements and
characteristics that once defined their traditional architecture are gradually being eroded.
Although some efforts have been made in the past to document the features and values of
traditional architecture among major ethnic groups like the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo
(Domowchosky, 1990), as well as smaller groups like the Efik (Mbina, 2013) and Benin
(Ekhaese et al., 2015), there has been a lack of conscious endeavors to identify and document
the specific traditional architectural features and values of the Igala people. Additionally, the
changes that have occurred over time, especially from a chronological perspective, have not
been thoroughly studied or recorded.
Similar to the traditional architecture of various ethnic groups across Africa, the Igala
traditional architecture dates back thousands of years before the year 1800 and has experienced
evolutionary transformations. However, the absence of a deliberate effort to comprehensively
document its unique features and the impact of changes over time has left a gap in
understanding and preserving the architectural heritage of the Igala people. According to
Chukwuali's assertion (2005:17), ethnic groups that do not actively and consciously preserve
their cultural and architectural identities are at risk of assimilation by more dominant cultures.
In the case of the Igala people, their architectural identity is distinct and unique. However,
without proper investigation, documentation, preservation, and integration into contemporary
architecture, this identity could be at risk of disappearing. Therefore, this study aims to trace
the historical transformation of Igala traditional building patterns influenced by modernization.
By doing so, it seeks to uncover the complex relationship between modernism and architectural
evolution.
Recognizing the transformative impact of modernization on Igala architecture is vital for
safeguarding Nigeria's indigenous architectural heritage amidst the prevailing forces of
globalization. The study's specific objectives are as follows: (i) to depict the transformation of
traditional architecture in Nigeria, with an emphasis on the role of colonization; (ii) to describe
the inherent features of pre-colonial Igala traditional building patterns; (iii) to explore the
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chronological timeline of transformation in Igala traditional building pattern from pre-colonial
to contemporary times; and (iv) to examine the hybridization in Igala architecture, investigating
how local design elements interacted with foreign influences to create distinctive architectural
forms.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Study Area
The study area is Igala land in Kogi State, North Central Nigeria. Nigeria is a country in West
Africa comprised of thirty-six (36) states with Abuja as her capital (Fig. 1). The home of the
Igala people is situated east of the River Niger and Benue confluence and astride the Niger in
Lokoja, Kogi State of Nigeria. The area is approximately between latitude 6°30 and 8°40 north
and longitude 6°30 and 7°40 east and covers an area of about 13,665 square kilometers
(Oguagha, 1981).
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Showing Kogi State
Source: Kogi State Ministry of Land and Environment (2008
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The Igala people occupy nine Local Government Areas out of the twenty-one Local
Government Areas of Kogi State. The Local Government Areas include; Ibaji, Idah, Igalamela-
Odolu, Ofu, Dekina, Ankpa, Omala, Olamaboro and Bassa Local Government Areas (Fig. 2)
(Egbunu, 2001). The Igala population is estimated at one million, five hundred thousand (1.5
million) according to the 2006 National Population Census, of which over 70% are subsistence
farmers. The traditional Igala society is largely agrarian, although the people are also engaged
in fishing and animal husbandry (Egbunu, 2001).
Figure 2: Map of Kogi State Showing the Local Government Areas Occupied by the
Igala People
Source: Kogi State Ministry of Land and Environment (2008)
Transformation of Traditional Architecture in Nigeria
Several research studies have focused on investigating and documenting the transformations
that have occurred in the traditional architecture of various ethnic groups in Nigeria, along with
the driving forces behind these changes. For instance, Umar (2017) conducted a study on the
Hausa traditional architecture, revealing how it has evolved in terms of geometric shapes,
forms, planning concepts, building materials, and construction methods. The transformation
was attributed to several factors, including socio-economic elements such as income,
inheritance, western education, marriage, and the development of new building materials.
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Likewise, Bert-Okonkwor et al., (2017) conducted research on the Igbo traditional architecture
and reported its transition from the traditional mud and thatch houses of olden days to modern
houses constructed with bricks, blocks, cement, and concrete. They highlighted the significant
influence of environmental and social factors during the colonial and post-colonial periods,
which contributed to the transformation. Notably, the impact of Western architectural designs
during colonial times played a dominant role in shaping the changes in traditional Igbo
architecture. However, Chukwu (2015) observed that despite the intrusion of Western building
designs in Igbo land, traditional Igbo architecture is still prevalent in many communities,
particularly for specific groups of people. This is due to its adaptability and suitability to the
local environmental conditions, its cost-effectiveness, and the easy availability of construction
materials.
Jolaoso et al., (2019) conducted an assessment of the disappearing features of Yoruba
traditional residential architecture in the 21st century. Their findings indicated that Yoruba
traditional architecture has undergone significant changes in terms of spatial organization for
domestic affairs, crafts, ceremonies, and entertainment. Additionally, they observed a
diminishing of the traditional cultural character in Yoruba residential buildings. Despite these
transformations affecting layout-planning, building designs, and the use of local materials, one
enduring feature has been the courtyard element in Yoruba traditional architecture, which has
persisted through the various phases of change. Various factors have contributed to the
transformation in Yoruba traditional domestic architecture. These factors include socio-cultural
infiltration, acculturation, formal development control, the nature of existing buildings, the
practice of self-help housing approaches, increasing economic interests in rental income, a
preference for foreign tastes/materials, and the adoption of new technologies.
Similarly, Ekhaese et al. (2015) highlighted the transformation process of Benin domestic
architecture, which goes beyond mere changes in spatial arrangement. They emphasized that
interactions between spaces and their activities within the domestic environment play a crucial
role in defining new spaces. Factors such as climate change, technological advancements,
socio-economic conditions, and socio-political characteristics of the people have been
identified as key drivers of this transformation.
Colonial Influence on the Transformation of Architecture in Nigeria
As described by Tofa (2011), contemporary Nigerian architecture is characterized by post-
modern buildings that emerged in the 1990s, as well as a burgeoning design concept influenced
by new building materials mainly imported from China and Europe. The arrival of Europeans
in Nigeria and the subsequent colonization of the country brought about significant changes,
with foreign influences playing a vital role in shaping the architectural landscape. Various
European activities contributed to the transformation of traditional architecture in Nigeria, and
these factors have been highlighted in numerous studies. They include the slave trade, policies
implemented by the colonial administration, the introduction of foreign building designs and
construction materials, and the spread of Western religion and culture. European influence also
led to the emergence of a new class of elite professionals, businessmen, and politicians in the
country.
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While the northern part of Nigeria experienced slower changes, the southern region was
quicker in adopting foreign influences. As a result, there was a hybridization of African and
European styles in various aspects of life, including religion, education, social dynamics, and
family structure. This hybridization also extended to architecture, as evident in the adoption of
single-unit houses and the shrinking of family sizes. Notably, the upper class housing in
Nigeria, occupied by wealthy elites, politicians, and professionals, showcased European-
inspired designs and materials introduced by the Europeans. These materials included bricks,
concrete, corrugated iron roofing sheets, processed timber, metal bars, and glass. The ability of
the elite class to afford such housing styles facilitated the adoption of these European-
influenced architectural elements in their buildings (Uchegbu, 2007).
During the colonial period, there was a shift in the residential building style in Nigeria. Families
began to live together in one single housing unit, where a central or focal point, usually a lounge
or sitting room, served as the gathering space for family members to interact. Individual rooms
were provided for each person to have their living space within the same dwelling. While some
aspects of traditional African styles persisted, there were also noticeable changes in building
materials and construction techniques. In this new style, a combination of mud and concrete
was often used for constructing walls and floors. Additionally, corrugated iron roofing
materials became popular due to their durability compared to traditional thatch leaves. Metal
roofing even became a status symbol in some cases, signifying a certain level of wealth or
modernization.
A common sight during this period was buildings with mud walls and floors, which were then
plastered with concrete mortar to provide a smoother and more stable finish. Alternatively,
some buildings had entirely mud walls and floors, but they were topped with corrugated iron
roofing. This blending of traditional and modern materials and techniques represented the
evolving architectural landscape during the colonial era.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sampling Technique
In order to select compounds for survey, nine local government areas were identified, and from
each, a representative sample ward was randomly selected. Furthermore, 30 proficient students
from the Department of Architecture at the Federal Polytechnic Idah were recruited as research
assistants and extensively trained in survey techniques. A purposive sampling method was
employed to purposively select 50 compounds from each ward, leading to a total of 450
compounds surveyed across the study area. This also formed the basis for questionnaire
distribution and physical observation. The compounds were selected considering their
demonstration of building patterns associated with the pre-colonial, colonial, post-colonial, and
contemporary eras.
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Research Design
This study employs a multi-method research design, comprising the following components:
Quantitative Survey Instrument (Questionnaire)
The survey questionnaire consisted of close-ended questions carefully crafted to address the
study objectives and capture crucial aspects related to residential buildings. It sought
information on the occupants' sources of ownership, instances that led to demolition and
subsequent rebuilding (where applicable), past and current building materials, architectural
patterns and forms, recent changes in construction materials and designs, occupancy density
per room and household, reasons behind the shift from traditional to contemporary building
pattern, and the perceived advantages or disadvantages of contemporary buildings compared
to traditional patterns. To ensure inclusivity, questions were translated from English to Igala
language where necessary.
Physical Observation
On-site observations of traditional building elements and construction process were conducted
using observation schedule to complement the interview data. The physical observations
contributed to a deeper understanding of materiality, craftsmanship, and the practical aspects
of Igala architecture. Independent observations were made on the compound and buildings
showing Igala architecture in the pre-colonial, colonial, post-colonial and contemporary
periods. The observations were systematic and logical and were recorded using pencil and
sketch pads. This was complemented with the use of photographic materials and presented as
pictures.
Archival/Historical Research
Extensive reviews of existing literature were undertaken to collect data from relevant historical
documents, texts, photographs, and artefacts related to Igala architecture. This archival research
approach was crucial in offering valuable insights into the historical background and evolution
of Igala residential architecture. The process of extracting information from these archived
materials involved examining scholarly works related to the study, consulting documents
maintained by organizations, and conducting a systematic review and analysis of these sources.
This approach is aimed at identifying the core themes and issues pertaining to the subject of
the study.
Ethnographic Method
Semi-structured interview was utilized to collect first hand narratives and experiences from
key stakeholders, such as environmental professionals, traditional craftsmen, elders, and
members of the Igala community. These interviews offered valuable perspectives on the
interplay between tradition and modernism in the architectural evolution of the Igala people.
The participants were purposively selected considering that they possessed adequate
knowledge of Igala history and building patterns. The interview data was documented
manually.
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Oral Traditions and Cultural Proclivities
The study incorporated oral traditions and cultural proclivities, conveyed through storytelling
and communal narratives, to contextualize the historical and contemporary significance of
Igala architecture. This integration added an authentic cultural dimension to the research.
Verbal interactions between the researcher and the indigenous people were carried out and these
were recorded by taking notes using pen and note pads, this was complemented by anecdotal
evidence based on the experience of the researchers who are indigenous persons to the study
area.
Data Analysis
The collected data was analysed, focusing on identifying recurring themes, significant events,
and transformations in Igala residential architecture over time. The interview data was
subjected to thematic analysis, which involved identifying patterns within the data and
correlating them with structured classifications obtained from the surveys. The narrative was
constructed based on the synthesis of these findings, weaving together the historical context,
cultural significance, and evolution of traditional architecture in response to modernism.
DATA PRESENTATION
Pre-colonial Igala Traditional Building Pattern (Period before 1860)
The Igala people possess a distinctive and culturally significant residential architecture that
reflects their identity. This is evident in the layout of their compounds, the choice of building
materials, and the construction techniques employed. Prior to 1860, during the pre-colonial era,
the circular curvilinear building pattern was prevalent across the Igala region. The compound
had a circular layout, although some regions in Igala land had rectilinear layouts even before
the colonial period when rectangular house forms became prevalent. Each kindred within Igala
land had individual compounds, and the number of houses within a compound was determined
by the number of wives a man had. Agriculture was the primary livelihood, and successful
farmers often married multiple wives to have more children, thereby increasing the labour force
for their farming endeavours.
The Igala residential architecture drew inspiration from the circular house, reminiscent of the
caves that were once inhabited by the Igala ancestors before the development of structured
house-building practices. These caves offered circular voids and hollows, some of which
occurred naturally, while others were carved, providing warmth, shelter, and defence against
wild animals and reptiles. Similarly, the Igala traditional building pattern aimed to offer these
essential requirements for the inhabitants. The houses were constructed with circular plans,
mud walls, thatched roofs covering wooden supports or mud domes, and sometimes wattle and
daub walls. The conical roof shape was a characteristic feature. The buildings stood
independently and typically enclosed a courtyard that housed a reception house known as
Atakpa in Igala language (Figures 3 and 4). This reception house served as a place of hospitality
for visitors, aligning with Igala customs and traditions.
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Figure 3: Plan of Typical Igala Traditional Building Pattern
Source: Emusa and Idakwoji (2023).
Figure 4: Elevation of typical Igala Traditional Building Pattern
Source: Emusa and Idakwoji (2023)
The courtyard, along with the reception house, played a crucial role in the socio-cultural and
socio-economic life of the community, serving as a hub for social activities. Shrines were also
incorporated into the compound to facilitate religious practices.
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Security and privacy were essential aspects of Igala culture. Small windows with limited
numbers were designed to enhance security and privacy within the households. Additionally, a
perimeter fence marked the boundaries of the compound, featuring an entrance or opening
known as ‘Ǫna’ in Igala language. This entrance, usually located close to the head of the
compound's house (the husband), allowed him to screen visitors and trespassers effectively.
The practice of the circular curvilinear building pattern by the Igala people was facilitated by
the availability of locally sourced traditional building materials. These materials were easily
manipulated, making the construction process easy. Moreover, they were environmentally
friendly and culturally significant, reinforcing the preference for traditional architectural
practices that preserved the cultural identity of the people.
The pre-colonial Igala traditional building technology was shaped by tradition, the knowledge
of the builders in accordance with the cultural norms, and the abundance of local building
materials in the region. These materials, mainly obtained from the nearby forests and mangrove
swamps, were employed with consistent application techniques. While each traditional
compound exhibited its unique architecture, it was designed with consideration of its specific
environment and the occupants' needs.
Common traditional building materials in Igala land includ earth/mud (ikętę), timber/wood
(oli), bamboo stem (ǫtachǫ), thatch (egbe), palm frond (im’ękpę), palm stem (oli-ekpe), and
vegetable fiber/bush twine (ikwu). The use of these materials reflected the harmonious
relationship between the Igala people and their natural environment, showcasing a sustainable
and time-tested approach to construction.
Structure of the Pre-colonial Igala Traditional Building Pattern
The size of compounds in Igala land varied among different families, primarily because family
sizes were not uniform. Larger families possessed larger compounds, while smaller families
had relatively smaller ones. The number of houses within a compound corresponded to the size
of the family, with smaller families having fewer houses and larger families having more. The
organic nature of the traditional building pattern allowed for the flexible expansion of the
compound as the family grew in size. Furthermore, the layout and design of the houses were
tailored to accommodate various activities and the number of occupants. These activities
encompassed sleeping, food preparation, food storage, animal husbandry, social interactions,
religious practices, and security. Each activity was allocated a specific space within the
compound, carefully planned to suit its purpose. Consequently, the construction techniques and
layout of the houses varied according to the intended use of the space. The interior furniture
within these traditional houses typically included bamboo beds, wooden logs as seats, and
water pots (Fig. 5).
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Figure 5: Plans of Typical Igala Traditional House
Source: Emusa (2021)
The floor plan and furniture plan depicted a typical example of the Igala traditional thatch
house known as ‘unyi-egbe’ in Igala language. The major spaces in the traditional Igala
building pattern include the following;
The Courtyard (Okolo)
The central courtyard, known as Okolo in the Igala traditional compound, serves as the core
element of the Igala traditional building pattern, reflecting a well-structured social order and
spatial organization that promotes the cultural and religious lifestyle of the community. The
Okolo serves multiple functions; it accommodated the reception house, providing space for
women to engage in household industries, acting as an occasional gathering place for family
members, and serving as a supervised playground for children. Additionally, during the hot
hours of tropical days and nights, the Okolo serves as a designated sleeping area. The size and
boundaries of the Okolo are determined by the arrangement of the surrounding houses. This
central courtyard is a significant aspect of the Igala traditional compound, facilitating essential
aspects of the community's daily life and fostering a sense of cultural unity and identity.
The Reception House (Atakpa)
The Atakpa is a significant feature in the Igala traditional compound, centrally located opposite
the main entrance. This unique space serves multiple purposes, such as welcoming visitors,
hosting social gatherings, and acting as a workspace. Typically, there is one Atakpa in a typical
Igala compound, but multiple Atakpas may indicate a polygamous setup. Similar to other
traditional house forms in Nigeria, such as the Hausa Zaure, Igbo Obi, and Tiv Ate, the Atakpa
stands out with its higher roof and curvilinear shape.
The Atakpa serves as the first point of contact for visitors and is furnished with raised earth
seats and a horizontal timber for support. Although mainly used for relaxation and receptions,
it also plays a role in the burial of deceased family members. Since it is within an enclosed
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compound, privacy features like doors and windows are not necessary. The Igala pre-colonial
Atakpa had a curvilinear shape. The Atakpa’sunique design with its conical thatched roof
supported by timber posts, reflects the cultural identity of the Igala people (Fig. 6).
Figure 6: Igala Traditional Curvilinear Reception House
Source: Author’s Sketch (2023)
Head of the Family’s House (Unyi Ȩnęgbani)
It is essential to highlight that in the Igala building pattern, the sleeping houses maintained a
consistent plan and structure, regardless of the occupants. The husband, known as Ęnęgbani,
who serves as the head of the family, had his sleeping house, referred to as ‘Unyi Ęnḛgbani’ or
‘Unyi-udachi Ęnęgbani’ strategically positioned at the entrance of the enclosed compound,
directly opposite those of his wife or wives. This specific location was chosen for security
purposes, enabling the Ęnęgbani to screen all visitors and intruders while closely overseeing
the activities within the courtyard.
In this arrangement, the wives would enter the Ęnęgbani's house only on invitation, following
the customary practice of the man sleeping with his wives in turns in his house. Beds within
the sleeping house were crafted from stems or midribs of palm fronds, expertly woven into a
mat and placed on a raised frame constructed with bamboo. Typically, a traditional Igala
househad a diameter ranging from 2.4m to 3.5m. A typical example of Unyi Ęnęgbani's can be
observed in Figure 7.
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Figure 7: Igala Traditional Sleeping House
Source: Emusa and Idakwoji (2023)
Wives’ Houses (Unyi Abobulę) and Kitchen (Obuka)
In the pre-colonial period, the Igala society often practiced polygamy, and within such setups,
the wives' houses, known as ‘Unyi Abobulę’ or ‘Unyi-udachi Abobule’.were positioned
opposite their husband's house, on the left and right sides, all facing the courtyard. In Igala
traditional building pattern, sleeping houses all had similar form, materials and construction
method (Fig. 7). Each wife's house accommodated not only herself but also her daughters and
young children. These houses were exclusively designated for sleeping, and a depression on
the earthen floor at the corner served as a water pot holder.
The preparation of food and cooking activities were carried out separately in their individual
cooking places situated outside, adjacent to their houses. However, on certain occasions when
a larger fire was required, cooking would be done in a communal cooking place. These
communal kitchens, called ‘Obuka’, were constructed with timber posts supporting a thatched
roof and walls made from thatch or vegetable materials, sometimes featuring dwarf mud walls.
In the traditional Igala sleeping house, perishable food items and foodstuffs were kept in
baskets and clay pots, strategically placed on platforms at the corner of the room, elevated
above the ground. Seats within the houses were crafted from carved stems of trees, such as the
iroko. Additionally, the grown-up female children resided with their mothers until they were
married. This cultural practice ensured close family ties and support within the household,
fostering a sense of unity and continuity in the Igala community.
Adult Males’ Houses (Unyi Abokęlę)
Younger male children in the traditional Igala setting remained with their mother until they
reached an age where they could share rooms with their older brothers. Upon reaching that
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stage, older males had their houses, referred to as ‘Unyi Abokele’ or ‘Unyi-udachi Abokele’
(Fig. 7), situated at the rear of the courtyard, separate from the women's houses. Unmarried
young men continued to dine with their mothers and maintained their rooms within the
compound until they eventually got married. Upon marriage, their parents allocated a site for
them near their mother's house, resulting in the expansion of the compound in size and
accommodating the newlyweds' needs. This practice allowed for a gradual increase in the
compound's size as new generations were established within the family unit.
Animals’ Pen (Unyi Ęǹu-ǫrę)
In the Igala community, families primarily raised domestic animals like goats, sheep, and
chickens. Occasionally, they constructed frame structures with timber posts, bamboo stems,
and palm fronds for shelter, but this was rare. More commonly, the animals were allowed to
roam freely within the compound without confinement. Chickens sought refuge in their owners'
house, where they also laid eggs and hatched chicks. The number of animals a family owned
was considered a sign of prosperity and success. This practice of free-range rearing showcased
the close bond between the Igala people and their animals, reflecting their sustainable and
adaptive lifestyle in harmony with their natural environment.
Bathrooms (Unyi Ugwǫla) and Toilets (Unyi Ubi-oko)
In the Igala traditional compound, the bathrooms, known as ‘Unyi Ugwǫla’ were strategically
situated near the sleeping houses to ensure privacy and convenience for the occupants.
Typically, one bathroom served the entire compound, although separate bathrooms for males
and females were occasionally constructed. The bathrooms were made of vertical timber posts
held together with midribs or stems of palm fronds, forming a sturdy structure. Horizontal
elements and bush twines were used at different heights to create privacy, and the gaps were
filled with vertically arranged palm fronds. The bathrooms were typically round in shape, with
an open top and a cloth-secured doorway for modesty. In contrast, in the pre-colonial period,
the Igala traditional building pattern did not incorporate toilets (Unyi Ubi-oko), and people
used nearby bushes and farmlands for such purposes. However, over time, toilets were
introduced during the colonial, post-colonial, and contemporary periods, reflecting
advancements in technology.
Food Barns (Aka)
The food barn, known as ‘Aka,’ was of great significance in the Igala traditional compound
(Fig. 8). This importance stemmed from the central role of farming as the primary livelihood
for the Igala people. The aka was constructed in various types and sizes to accommodate
different food crops, with separate barns dedicated to tubers, cereals, and nuts. Strategically
positioned near the compound's entrance, the barns served to display the man's wealth and
success to visitors. In Igala culture, the number and size of the barn in a compound symbolized
an individual's prosperity and achievements, reflecting the cultural value placed on agricultural
success and abundance.
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Figure 8: Igala Traditional Food Barn
Source: Emusa (2021).
Shrine house (Achḛkwu)
In modern times, the major religions practiced by the Igala people are Christianity and Islam,
with only a few areas still adhering to traditional beliefs. In the pre-colonial era, the shrine
house, known as 'Achḛkwu’, held great sacred importance and was positioned approximately
10m to 15m away from the courtyard. Constructed using bamboo stems and timber posts, the
shrine house was occasionally concealed with palm fronds and did not require solid walls. It
had a small floor area of less than 2sqm and housed images representing gods, while the roof
was thatched. Some shrines persisted into the colonial period, adapting to the times by having
corrugated iron sheet roofs. Despite the changes in roofing materials, the shrine's essential
sacred significance remained preserved.
Perimeter fence (Ogba)
In the pre-colonial Igala traditional society, crime was low, and security concerns were limited.
Despite this, individual compounds were protected by the construction of perimeter fences,
serving purposes of privacy, boundary definition, and security. The compound entrance was
controlled, with a primary entrance leading to the reception house and a secondary entrance for
access to farms or bushes (See Figures 3 and 4). The size of the fence varied based on the
compound's boundaries.
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Changes in the Igala Residential Architecture
The study examined the evolution of Igala residential architecture across different historical
periods, including the colonial, post-colonial, and contemporary eras. These transformational
phases were categorized into distinct architectural epochs: the colonial movement, post-
colonial movement, and contemporary movement. Each period was analysed to understand
how Igala residential architecture underwent changes and adaptations over time.
Colonial Movement in Igala Land (1860 - 1960)
During the colonial era, European influence had a profound impact on Igala land, leading to a
shift from communalism to individualism. The introduction of European culture gave rise to a
new class of elite professionals, businessmen, and politicians. This foreign influence resulted
in a hybridization of African and European styles in religion, education, and social life. The
traditional polygamous family structure began to shrink, and single-unit houses emerged. The
upper class adopted European building materials like concrete, corrugated iron roofing sheets,
processed timber, metal bars, and glass, showcasing their wealth and status.
The arrival of Christianity and Islam led to the decline of Igala traditional religion, with shrines
and perimeter fences gradually disappearing. Western architectural designs heavily influenced
Igala traditional building patterns during this period. As European influences continued to take
hold, the Igala people adapted their architectural practices, reflecting the changing dynamics
of their society.
The pre-colonial Igala traditional building pattern persisted with notable modifications. The
main components of the colonial Igala traditional building pattern included the husband's
house, the wife (wives) house(s), adult males' house, animals' pen, courtyard, kitchen, storage
area, impluvium (mainly in the South-east part of Igala land), and bathroom. The bushes were
still used as toilet. These elements formed the essential features of the traditional architecture
during the colonial era, reflecting a blend of traditional and colonial influences.
The changes that happened in the colonial Igala traditional building pattern include the
following;
i. Transition from curvilinear to rectilinear shapes using mud bricks.
ii. Increase in the number of interior spaces within the houses.
iii. Introduction of Christianity and Islam, leading to the eradication of shrines from the
building pattern.
iv. Integration of the reception house into the husband's house as a living room, while in
some areas, it was relocated to the side of the courtyard.
v. Introduction of bucket latrines and pit latrines by the elites, while open defecation
continued in many areas.
vi. Adoption of the impluvium in the south-east region of Igala land.
vii. Elimination of the perimeter fence around compounds.
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viii. An increase in the number and size of windows.
ix. Introduction of metal drums in courtyards to store water collected from corrugated iron
roofs and streams.
x. Replacement of thatch roofs with corrugated iron roofing sheets, resulting in hipped
and pitched roof designs.
xi. Phasing out of barns in favour of incorporating storage spaces within the building
designs.
These changes reflect the influence of colonial practices, materials, and technologies on the
traditional Igala architecture during the colonial era.
In the colonial period, the Igala traditional building materials were influenced by new
construction practices and materials introduced by the Europeans. These included:
i. Building foundation made from mud bricks, laterite/sand, stone aggregates, iron rods,
and cement.
ii. Floors constructed with mud/earth, laterite/sand, stone aggregates, and cement.
iii. Structural frames and walls composed of mud, timber/bamboo, mud bricks, hollow
sandcrete blocks, steel bars, iron rods, stone aggregates, sand, and cement.
iv. Roofing materials such as timber/bamboo, galvanized iron sheets, asbestos roofing
sheets, and steel nails.
v. Ceiling materials including timber, asbestos ceiling sheets, and steel nails.
vi. Doors and windows made from timber, steel, and glazed louver blades.
vii. Building finishes comprising mud plaster, cement, and sand, wood panelling,
PVC/ceramic tiles, stone, and paints.
These materials and techniques were integrated into the traditional Igala building pattern,
reflecting the changing architectural practices and the influence of colonial-era construction
methods.
Post-Colonial Movement in Igala Land (1960-1975)
During the post-colonial period in Igala land, significant changes occurred, driven by rapid
urbanization and modernization. Traditional family units disintegrated into smaller
independent units, leading to a neglect of tradition and culture. Modern building designs and
materials were introduced, including the incorporation of storey buildings. Bungalows became
the prevalent building design, with only a few elites opting for storey buildings.
The post-colonial Igala building pattern featured bungalows enclosed in perimeter fences with
large steel gates. These fences defined the compound and accommodated the main building
and additional facilities like gatehouses, boys' quarters, and suspended water tanks. Elite
Muslims also constructed mosques within their compounds for religious activities. Building
designs during this era typically included living rooms, dining rooms, master bedrooms,
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bedrooms for wives and children, kitchens, storage spaces, bathrooms and water closets. Some
buildings had garages or carports to accommodate vehicles. Toilets and bathrooms were
incorporated into the building interior. In some compounds, exterior pit latrines were retained
because children were sometimes not allowed to use the water closets in the buildings.
Activities such as washing and drying of clothes were carried out outside the building, usually
in a space provided at the rear of the compound. The post-colonial Igala building pattern
marked a shift towards modernization, with more diverse building forms and the integration of
modern amenities and infrastructure.
In the post-colonial period, the Igala traditional building pattern underwent significant changes,
adopting modern building materials such as steel, plastic, and glass. These new materials
allowed for more sophisticated technology and construction methods, resulting in durable and
advanced buildings. The introduction of storey buildings, irregular shapes, and modern
finishing marked a departure from the traditional architectural style. The use of concrete, steel
columns, and beams, as well as mechanical and electrical fittings, contributed to the
modernization of buildings.
Interior spaces now featured kitchens, storage areas, and bathrooms with tubs and water cistern
toilets. Perimeter fences with steel gates, burglary proofs, and steel-framed glass windows were
introduced for security purposes. Asbestos ceiling boards and iron cladding on steel frames
became common in the post-colonial Igala building pattern. Ancillary facilities like gatehouses
and suspended water tanks were also integrated into the compound design.
The increase in fenestrations and the use of hipped roofs with corrugated aluminium roofing
sheets further distinguished the post-colonial Igala building style. Additionally, car garages
were included in the interior of buildings. These changes reflected a departure from traditional
cultural norms and an embrace of modern architectural influences and technology.
The following building materials were identified as the most predominantly used in the
construction of the various building elements in Igala land in the post-colonial era;
i. Foundation: Stone aggregates, sand/laterite, cement, and iron rods.
ii. Floors: Stone aggregates, sand/laterite, cement, and polythene.
iii. Structural frames and walls: Hollow sandcrete blocks, stone aggregates, sand, cement,
iron rods, and timber.
iv. Roof: Timber, galvanized iron sheets, corrugated aluminium sheets, steel, and felt made
from coal tar.
v. Ceilings: Timber, asbestos sheets, and steel nails.
vi. Doors and windows: Aluminium, glass, and steel.
vii. Electrical fittings: Timber poles, concrete poles, copper wire, filament/fluorescent
lamps, ceiling fans, air conditioners, electric cookers, and electronic gadgets.
viii. Mechanical fittings: Ceramic products, steel, plastic/rubber, and aluminium.
ix. Finishing: Cement, sand, wood panelling, ceramic/PVC tiles, stone, and paint.
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These modern materials and fittings were instrumental in transforming the architectural
landscape of Igala land during the post-colonial period, providing greater durability and
functionality to the buildings.
Contemporary Movement in Igala Land (1975 – to Date)
In the contemporary period, the Igala traditional building design underwent significant
changes, embracing new building forms, large fenestrations, and modern construction
techniques. The adoption of foreign building materials and sophisticated technology
transformed the architectural landscape, but it also led to the erosion of the people's cultural
identity. The modernization integrated the Igala people into a global image, but it resulted in a
drift away from their pre-colonial architectural heritage.Contemporary Igala buildings no
longer reflect the communal lifestyle and socio-cultural practices of the past. The traditional
reception houses were replaced by living rooms, compromising privacy and social interactions.
Indoor kitchens replaced outdoor cooking, and toilets were incorporated into living spaces,
contrary to the traditional separation of such areas. The shift to single unit houses disrupted the
communal living arrangements of extended families. The contemporary buildings also lacked
the practicality and affordability of the traditional materials and construction techniques.
Modern HVAC systems were introduced, whereas the traditional design provided natural
temperature regulation suitable for the region's climate. As the Igala people adapted to
modernization, they had to make compromises, leading to the diminishing influence of their
culture and architectural identity.
In the contemporary era, the construction of houses in Igala land involves the use of a variety
of modern building materials. Foundations are built using stone aggregates, sand/laterite,
cement, and iron rods. Floors are constructed with stone aggregates, sand/laterite, cement, and
polythene. For structural frames and walls, hollow sandcrete blocks, stone aggregates, sand,
cement, iron rods, aluminium, glass, and timber are employed.
Roofing materials include timber, aluminium sheets, stone-coated roof tiles,
rubber/polycarbonate materials, and steel. Ceilings can be made from timber, asbestos sheets,
poly vinyl chloride sheet (PVC), and Plaster of Paris (POP). Doors and windows predominantly
use aluminium and glass.
Electrical fittings feature timber poles, concrete poles, copper wire, LEED lamps, ceiling fans,
air conditioners, cookers, heaters, closed-circuit television (CCTV), and electronic gadgets.
Mechanical fittings include ceramic, steel, rubber/PVC, and aluminium components.
Finishing materials consist of cement, sand, wood panelling, vitrified, ceramic/marble tiles,
stone, and paint. These contemporary building materials have transformed the architectural
landscape in Igala land, reflecting the influence of modernization and technological
advancements on construction practices.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study explores the influence of modernization on traditional architecture in Nigeria, with
a focus on Igala residential architecture. Colonial activities, including slave trade,
administrative policies, and the introduction of Western influences, led to a transformation in
architectural practices. Modernization saw the emergence of single unit houses, foreign
building materials like concrete, glass, and steel, and modern construction techniques.
Additionally, the introduction of Western religion eroded traditional beliefs and practices,
affecting architectural elements like shrines. This shift marked a significant evolution from
traditional to modern architecture, reflecting the dynamic interplay between indigenous
cultures and external influences in shaping Nigeria's architectural heritage.
The study identifies three distinct phases of transformation in Igala traditional architecture: the
colonial movement, the post-colonial movement, and the contemporary movement. During the
colonial period, rectilinear houses with mud bricks, timber, and galvanized iron roofing sheets
emerged. In the post-colonial era, single-unit houses dominated, constructed mainly with
sandcrete blocks, concrete, steel, aluminium, timber, and asbestos. The contemporary
movement witnessed a complete departure from the pre-colonial traditional architecture,
adopting new building forms, modern materials, and sophisticated construction techniques.
However, the contemporary design does not reflect the communal lifestyle and cultural identity
of the Igala people, altering their traditional building materials and replacing them with more
durable and modern alternatives. The findings of this study are in line with previous research
by Bert-Okonkwor et al. (2017); Jolaoso et al. (2019); Ekhaese et al. (2015); Emusa, 2021;
Mahbubur R. and Moukhtar M. (2011), which also observed the fusion of African and
European styles in various aspects of life, including religion, education, social dynamics,
family structure, and architecture. The adoption of modern and foreign building materials and
technology, the prevalence of single-unit houses, and the decrease in family sizes are evident
examples of this hybridization.
The research underscores the dynamic relationship between cultural heritage and contemporary
influences in shaping Igala traditional architecture, emphasizing the importance of striking a
harmonious balance between preserving cultural identity and embracing progress in modern
building designs.
This study advocates for further research to explore specific facets of Igala architecture, such
as materials, spatial organization, and socio-cultural influences, in greater depth. A more
comprehensive investigation in these areas would contribute to a deeper understanding of the
evolution of Igala traditional architecture, providing valuable insights into its historical
development and cultural significance. Such research endeavours can enhance the knowledge
base of architectural scholars and practitioners, fostering a more profound appreciation of the
traditional building practices and their relevance in the contemporary context.
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Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate the Bingham University Directorate of Research for creating a supportive environment for
this research.
Statements and Declarations
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.
Funding: No funding was received for conducting this study.
Data Availability: Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the
current study
Code Availability: Not applicable
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