This document summarizes a study on metal sculptures created between 1980-2011 at four Nigerian art institutions: Ahmadu Bello University, University of Nigeria, Yaba College of Technology, and Auchi Polytechnic. It provides background on the development of sculpture and art education in Nigeria. The study examines 25 outdoor metal sculptures in terms of iconography, styles, themes, materials, and techniques. It also analyzes changes to the sculptures from weathering and oxidation over 31 years, and provides strategies to prevent damage to metal works. The sculptures reflect both African and Western influences, and new industrial materials like galvanized sheet and iron rods are commonly used.
The document discusses three ancient cultures in Vietnam:
1. The Hoabinh Bacson culture was a stone tool culture dating between 18,000-3,000 years ago that spread throughout Southeast Asia. Characteristics included flaked stone tools trimmed on one or two sides.
2. The Dong Son culture began around 2500 BC and influenced bronze tool development throughout Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Over 50 bronze drums (nekara) of Dong Son origin have been found in Indonesia.
3. The Sa Huynh culture is known from tomb jar burials dating to around 750 BC-200 AD. It influenced the development of pottery traditions in Indonesia and was characterized by decorated pottery and stemmed bronze tools.
This document provides an overview of post-1300 art in the Americas, covering major cultures and artistic traditions. It discusses the Aztec Empire's religious art including sculptures like the Coatlicue statue. Manuscripts and featherworks are described. For the Incas, important cities like Cuzco and Machu Picchu are mentioned as well as textiles, metalwork, and architecture. The impacts of European colonization are also summarized.
This document discusses the development of science and technology across ancient civilizations. It describes contributions from Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese and Aztec civilizations. Some key inventions and discoveries mentioned include the wheel, sexagesimal number system, writing systems, calendars, architecture, gunpowder, tea, and chocolate. The document establishes that discoveries were typically due to meeting human needs and helped civilizations survive while understanding the natural world. Each civilization had unique characteristics and social structures that shaped their distinctive features.
This document provides an overview of Japanese art after 1333 CE across several historical periods. It begins with foundational Japanese culture developed during the Jomon and Yayoi periods and influence of Chinese culture during Asuka and Nara periods. During the Muromachi period, Zen Buddhism was popular and influenced ink paintings and dry gardens. The Momoyama period saw development of castles, shoin rooms, and the tea ceremony. The Edo period was characterized by the shogunate, spread of arts, and ukiyo-e prints. Key artists and their works are discussed for each period.
Submission to the Senate Committee into Australia's Indigenous visual arts an...Alex Malik
I wrote a submission to the Government's inquiry into the indigenous arts sector. My key recommendation: Greater public and private legal enforcement activity with respect to the protection of Indigenous Australian IP rights. It didn't happen.
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
1. Indian culture spread abroad through various means, including traders, teachers, scholars, missionaries and monks who traveled along trade routes like the Silk Road. They introduced Indian religion, philosophy, art, language and other aspects of culture to places in Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.
2. Major universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila played an important role in spreading Indian culture abroad by attracting large numbers of foreign students and scholars. Eminent Indian teachers and scholars like Kumarajiva went abroad and translated Indian texts, establishing Buddhism in countries like China.
3. Indian cultural influence is seen in many regions through remnants like temples, sculptures and manuscripts. Places like K
Paradigmatic appraisal of techniques and technology of adire in the last five...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes research on techniques and technology used in Adire cloth dyeing in southwestern Nigeria over the past 50 years. It discusses how Adire production has evolved through 6 categories of techniques: tying with raffia thread, twisting, pleating, clamping, knotting, and stitching. New techniques like machine stitching and starch resist painting have increased production while maintaining traditional patterns. The document analyzes how Adire artists have adapted techniques and embraced new technologies to ensure the survival and dynamism of their art form in a changing society.
The document discusses three ancient cultures in Vietnam:
1. The Hoabinh Bacson culture was a stone tool culture dating between 18,000-3,000 years ago that spread throughout Southeast Asia. Characteristics included flaked stone tools trimmed on one or two sides.
2. The Dong Son culture began around 2500 BC and influenced bronze tool development throughout Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Over 50 bronze drums (nekara) of Dong Son origin have been found in Indonesia.
3. The Sa Huynh culture is known from tomb jar burials dating to around 750 BC-200 AD. It influenced the development of pottery traditions in Indonesia and was characterized by decorated pottery and stemmed bronze tools.
This document provides an overview of post-1300 art in the Americas, covering major cultures and artistic traditions. It discusses the Aztec Empire's religious art including sculptures like the Coatlicue statue. Manuscripts and featherworks are described. For the Incas, important cities like Cuzco and Machu Picchu are mentioned as well as textiles, metalwork, and architecture. The impacts of European colonization are also summarized.
This document discusses the development of science and technology across ancient civilizations. It describes contributions from Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese and Aztec civilizations. Some key inventions and discoveries mentioned include the wheel, sexagesimal number system, writing systems, calendars, architecture, gunpowder, tea, and chocolate. The document establishes that discoveries were typically due to meeting human needs and helped civilizations survive while understanding the natural world. Each civilization had unique characteristics and social structures that shaped their distinctive features.
This document provides an overview of Japanese art after 1333 CE across several historical periods. It begins with foundational Japanese culture developed during the Jomon and Yayoi periods and influence of Chinese culture during Asuka and Nara periods. During the Muromachi period, Zen Buddhism was popular and influenced ink paintings and dry gardens. The Momoyama period saw development of castles, shoin rooms, and the tea ceremony. The Edo period was characterized by the shogunate, spread of arts, and ukiyo-e prints. Key artists and their works are discussed for each period.
Submission to the Senate Committee into Australia's Indigenous visual arts an...Alex Malik
I wrote a submission to the Government's inquiry into the indigenous arts sector. My key recommendation: Greater public and private legal enforcement activity with respect to the protection of Indigenous Australian IP rights. It didn't happen.
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
1. Indian culture spread abroad through various means, including traders, teachers, scholars, missionaries and monks who traveled along trade routes like the Silk Road. They introduced Indian religion, philosophy, art, language and other aspects of culture to places in Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.
2. Major universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila played an important role in spreading Indian culture abroad by attracting large numbers of foreign students and scholars. Eminent Indian teachers and scholars like Kumarajiva went abroad and translated Indian texts, establishing Buddhism in countries like China.
3. Indian cultural influence is seen in many regions through remnants like temples, sculptures and manuscripts. Places like K
Paradigmatic appraisal of techniques and technology of adire in the last five...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes research on techniques and technology used in Adire cloth dyeing in southwestern Nigeria over the past 50 years. It discusses how Adire production has evolved through 6 categories of techniques: tying with raffia thread, twisting, pleating, clamping, knotting, and stitching. New techniques like machine stitching and starch resist painting have increased production while maintaining traditional patterns. The document analyzes how Adire artists have adapted techniques and embraced new technologies to ensure the survival and dynamism of their art form in a changing society.
Engaging the mundane the art of jerry buhari, kuti usmanAlexander Decker
This document discusses the works of four Nigerian artists - Jerry Buhari, Kuti Usman, Uche Onyishi, and George Osodi - who explore environmental issues through their art. The artists were influenced by experimentation in Nigerian art schools and studios. Their works address topics like environmental degradation, oil spills, deforestation, and global warming. They use various media like painting, installation, and photography to raise awareness about human impacts on the environment and natural resource exploitation.
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia,.docxrossskuddershamus
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South
Africa
Author(s): Ikem Stanley Okoye
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 381-
396
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/991791 .
Accessed: 04/01/2013 12:15
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
.
University of California Press and Society of Architectural Historians are collaborating with JSTOR to
digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded on Fri, 4 Jan 2013 12:15:20 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucal
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=sah
http://www.jstor.org/stable/991791?origin=JSTOR-pdf
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http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa
IKEM STANLEY OKOYE
University of Delaware
Q: Do you think that a modern Nigerian aesthetic is possible? artist Demas Nwoko, for example-to mount a challenge
A: A Nigerian aesthetic? On what would it be based that is as to the fledgling orthodoxy. Nwoko, who in the 1960s, as
solid as that on which Aalto's Finnish tradition or Tange's on the part of the pan-African art group Mbari-Mbayo, wrote
Japanese tradition was? profusely on the significance of Africa's past, was in the
1970s not only commissioned but actually constructed sev-
Maxwell Fry eral important projects. This series of threatening acts nev-
We must ... draw on our traditions. ertheless finally brought legitimacy to the idea that an
understanding of African architectural and art history could David Aradeon
produce buildings that not only would receive critical
Good and up-coming architects are coming to terms with the fact acclaim, but could secure further commissions for one who
that they live in Africa ... you need to look at what's indigenous. was juridically illegitimate.2
Ora Joubert Striving to inculcate an African sensibility in a twenti-
eth-century building, Nwoko created his circa 1967
Dominican chapel (and there is an irony here, of course) in
r~~P~~rer~f~ace~~ ~concrete, capturing the fluidity of an object formed in clay
Interestingly, the A.
This document provides an overview of a seminar on Modern African Art. It will be taught on Tuesdays from 3-6pm in Room 014 Hayden Hall. The instructor is Dr. Onoyom Ukpong and their office hours are Mondays and Wednesdays from 1:30-3:30pm. The seminar will examine crucial questions around the evolution, proliferation, legitimacy and status of modern African art through assigned readings and discussions. It will be structured in three parts - retrospective analysis, active critical writing, and scheduled oral presentations. Students will be graded based on attendance, an oral presentation, and a final seminar paper.
International student exchange is growing, with over 1.5 million foreign students globally, including 138,075 in Japan. Japan appeals to students for its high-quality education in fields like technology, literature, and business. Japanese universities have excellent research facilities and over half of Japanese students continue to university, showing the strong education system. Japan also attracts students through its diverse culture that blends old and new influences, nature, and technological advances.
Native Craft and Tourism: A Study of Ushafa PotteryAI Publications
The main thrust of the paper was to discuss the relationship between indigenous craft and tourism development using Ushafa pottery as the focus of inquiry. Adopting the qualitative approach to enquiry, the study sought to, among other things, study the processes of pottery making, ascertain the challenges which confront potters, and investigate the contributions of pottery to the development of Ushafa. Findings show that the processes of pottery production include collection of clay, breaking of clay into small particles, sun-drying and soaking of clay in water as well as sieving to produce fine clay. Other stages are kneading for plasticity, moulding, application of designs and finally, firing or baking of clay item. Pottery which leads tourism growth in Ushafa has made the following contributions such as improvement in local economy, provision of basic amenities and self-esteem among community members. Challenges of Tourism Development in Ushafa include the deplorable condition of the road leading to the clay mining area; the need for increased marketing outlets for pottery products, corruption and community poor hygiene.
80th ICREA Colloquium "Archaeology and Colonialism: multiple perspectives" by...ICREA
This document summarizes Margarita Díaz-Andreu's talk on archaeology and colonialism from multiple perspectives. She discusses how nationalism and colonialism influenced the development of archaeology as a discipline in the 19th century. Colonialism shaped the organization of archaeological knowledge through discourses, hierarchies between colonial powers and subaltern groups, and the infrastructure developed like museums, universities, and heritage administration. However, patterns of institutionalization varied across colonies. She also examines informal and internal colonialism and how nationalism replaced imperialism after decolonization. While archaeology aims to interpret the past objectively, its knowledge is still culturally interpreted and subject to historical biases.
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2018) 2(1), 84-95. Doi: 10.25034/ijcua.2018.3664
www.ijcua.com
This document provides an overview of Yoruba art and culture from the Newark Museum collection. It discusses how, in Yoruba cosmology, art and life are interconnected. The Supreme Creator commissioned creativity deities to mold the first humans from clay and imbue them with souls. Art is thus integral to humanity and was used to transform the primordial wilderness. The document outlines some of the major Yoruba deities and religious beliefs. It also describes the two main styles of Yoruba art - naturalistic sculptures that capture recognizable likenesses, and stylized sculptures that convey meaning through abstraction. The pieces in the Newark Museum exhibition embody Yoruba spiritual concepts and values.
The Role of UNESCO in the Great Silk Road Program IIJSRJournal
Today, cooperation between Uzbekistan and UNESCO is developing in a progressive manner and contributes to the preservation of the rich spiritual and material culture of our country, the study of the unique heritage of the Great Silk Road.
A HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINESSuzanne Simmons
1) Prior to Spanish colonization, the early Filipinos had attained a basic level of technological development sufficient for their needs, producing simple stone tools, pottery, metal tools, weaving cotton, smelting iron, rice cultivation, and highly developed boat building. 2) They engaged in regional trade with China, Vietnam, and other parts of Southeast Asia as early as the 10th century. 3) While their technology was simpler than Chinese and Japanese, the early Filipinos had thriving, self-sufficient communities and employed techniques like sawing, drilling, polishing stones, producing ornaments, building plank boats, and extracting iron from ore.
The craft industry, oral literature and language in the development of touris...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the role of crafts, oral literature, and language in tourism development in Ghana. It finds that these three areas are important for their economic value, information exchange, sharing of experiences, and reducing biases. However, lack of marketing outlets and product finishing pose major challenges. The document provides historical context on increased interest in Africa after independence, and how crafts, textiles, and traditional attire have helped change perceptions. It discusses how crafts, oral literature, and music are interrelated through their organization and manipulation of sounds to create aesthetic experiences, despite language barriers. This benefits tourism by showcasing Ghana's unique cultural expressions.
A Lesson from Vernacular Architecture in Nigeria
Ph.D. CandidateJoyce Lodson1,* Ph.D. CandidateJOHN EMMANUEL OGBEBA2, Dr. UGOCHUKWU KENECHI ELINWA3
1 Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Bauchi state, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
3Department of Architecture, Cyprus International University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
E mail:joycelodson@yahoo.com E mail: john.ogbeba@emu.edu.tr , E mail:uelinwa@ciu.edu.tr
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
1. The document discusses the Ona artistic movement in Nigeria, which emerged in the late 1950s as artists experimented with motifs and idioms to create art reflecting traditional Yoruba settings. The Ona style facilitated the crystallization of Nigerian visual art.
2. Younger generation Yoruba artists are continuing to revive Yoruba artforms, patterns, and philosophy through experimentation with local materials and modern styles. Through the Ona idiom, Yoruba artists have carved an identity and projected Ona art as a model of artistic expression in Nigeria and worldwide.
3. Keywords discussed are Ona, ornament, pattern, motif, and design.
This document provides information about a Science, Technology, and Society course for second year students at Carmelite College of Siquijor for the 2022-2023 academic year. It includes the course description, learning outcomes, module topics, and a historical overview of the development of science and technology in the world and Philippines. The course aims to help students understand the interactions between science, technology, and society and reflect on related ethical issues. The historical sections describe advances from ancient times through the modern era and under different Philippine administrations.
The document discusses several artworks and cultural groups from Africa and how they were impacted by European contact and colonialism. It describes ivory carvings made by the Sapi people of Sierra Leone that were collected by Portuguese visitors. It also discusses the skilled ivory artists in the Benin Kingdom and how British forces looted the kingdom's artworks. The document also summarizes information about the Fante people of Ghana, Yoruba art from Nigeria including beadwork and textiles, and Guro masks from Côte d'Ivoire along with how their masquerade traditions were impacted by French colonial rule. Finally, it provides background on the Ghanaian artist El Anatsui and his metal scrap installations
This document discusses the history and cultural context of tattoos and bans on tattoos in bathhouses in contemporary Japan. It provides background on the researcher and their work studying Japanese tattooing. It then explores how tattoos have been viewed differently depending on historical periods in Japan, being associated with outlaws, punishment, and later the yakuza organized crime group due to popular media. This led to many bathhouses and beaches posting signs banning those with tattoos, though tattoos are growing in popularity among young people and views may be changing as Japan welcomes more foreign tourists.
This document provides an overview of Korean art and culture for educators. It includes background information on Korean history and religions, an overview of Korean art history, descriptions of key artworks in the Metropolitan Museum's collection, and classroom resources. The materials aim to introduce teachers and students to Korea's rich artistic heritage and encourage the use of the Museum's new Arts of Korea gallery in lessons.
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
Engaging the mundane the art of jerry buhari, kuti usmanAlexander Decker
This document discusses the works of four Nigerian artists - Jerry Buhari, Kuti Usman, Uche Onyishi, and George Osodi - who explore environmental issues through their art. The artists were influenced by experimentation in Nigerian art schools and studios. Their works address topics like environmental degradation, oil spills, deforestation, and global warming. They use various media like painting, installation, and photography to raise awareness about human impacts on the environment and natural resource exploitation.
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia,.docxrossskuddershamus
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South
Africa
Author(s): Ikem Stanley Okoye
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 61, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 381-
396
Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/991791 .
Accessed: 04/01/2013 12:15
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
.
University of California Press and Society of Architectural Historians are collaborating with JSTOR to
digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded on Fri, 4 Jan 2013 12:15:20 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucal
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=sah
http://www.jstor.org/stable/991791?origin=JSTOR-pdf
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
Architecture, History, and the Debate on Identity in
Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa
IKEM STANLEY OKOYE
University of Delaware
Q: Do you think that a modern Nigerian aesthetic is possible? artist Demas Nwoko, for example-to mount a challenge
A: A Nigerian aesthetic? On what would it be based that is as to the fledgling orthodoxy. Nwoko, who in the 1960s, as
solid as that on which Aalto's Finnish tradition or Tange's on the part of the pan-African art group Mbari-Mbayo, wrote
Japanese tradition was? profusely on the significance of Africa's past, was in the
1970s not only commissioned but actually constructed sev-
Maxwell Fry eral important projects. This series of threatening acts nev-
We must ... draw on our traditions. ertheless finally brought legitimacy to the idea that an
understanding of African architectural and art history could David Aradeon
produce buildings that not only would receive critical
Good and up-coming architects are coming to terms with the fact acclaim, but could secure further commissions for one who
that they live in Africa ... you need to look at what's indigenous. was juridically illegitimate.2
Ora Joubert Striving to inculcate an African sensibility in a twenti-
eth-century building, Nwoko created his circa 1967
Dominican chapel (and there is an irony here, of course) in
r~~P~~rer~f~ace~~ ~concrete, capturing the fluidity of an object formed in clay
Interestingly, the A.
This document provides an overview of a seminar on Modern African Art. It will be taught on Tuesdays from 3-6pm in Room 014 Hayden Hall. The instructor is Dr. Onoyom Ukpong and their office hours are Mondays and Wednesdays from 1:30-3:30pm. The seminar will examine crucial questions around the evolution, proliferation, legitimacy and status of modern African art through assigned readings and discussions. It will be structured in three parts - retrospective analysis, active critical writing, and scheduled oral presentations. Students will be graded based on attendance, an oral presentation, and a final seminar paper.
International student exchange is growing, with over 1.5 million foreign students globally, including 138,075 in Japan. Japan appeals to students for its high-quality education in fields like technology, literature, and business. Japanese universities have excellent research facilities and over half of Japanese students continue to university, showing the strong education system. Japan also attracts students through its diverse culture that blends old and new influences, nature, and technological advances.
Native Craft and Tourism: A Study of Ushafa PotteryAI Publications
The main thrust of the paper was to discuss the relationship between indigenous craft and tourism development using Ushafa pottery as the focus of inquiry. Adopting the qualitative approach to enquiry, the study sought to, among other things, study the processes of pottery making, ascertain the challenges which confront potters, and investigate the contributions of pottery to the development of Ushafa. Findings show that the processes of pottery production include collection of clay, breaking of clay into small particles, sun-drying and soaking of clay in water as well as sieving to produce fine clay. Other stages are kneading for plasticity, moulding, application of designs and finally, firing or baking of clay item. Pottery which leads tourism growth in Ushafa has made the following contributions such as improvement in local economy, provision of basic amenities and self-esteem among community members. Challenges of Tourism Development in Ushafa include the deplorable condition of the road leading to the clay mining area; the need for increased marketing outlets for pottery products, corruption and community poor hygiene.
80th ICREA Colloquium "Archaeology and Colonialism: multiple perspectives" by...ICREA
This document summarizes Margarita Díaz-Andreu's talk on archaeology and colonialism from multiple perspectives. She discusses how nationalism and colonialism influenced the development of archaeology as a discipline in the 19th century. Colonialism shaped the organization of archaeological knowledge through discourses, hierarchies between colonial powers and subaltern groups, and the infrastructure developed like museums, universities, and heritage administration. However, patterns of institutionalization varied across colonies. She also examines informal and internal colonialism and how nationalism replaced imperialism after decolonization. While archaeology aims to interpret the past objectively, its knowledge is still culturally interpreted and subject to historical biases.
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2018) 2(1), 84-95. Doi: 10.25034/ijcua.2018.3664
www.ijcua.com
This document provides an overview of Yoruba art and culture from the Newark Museum collection. It discusses how, in Yoruba cosmology, art and life are interconnected. The Supreme Creator commissioned creativity deities to mold the first humans from clay and imbue them with souls. Art is thus integral to humanity and was used to transform the primordial wilderness. The document outlines some of the major Yoruba deities and religious beliefs. It also describes the two main styles of Yoruba art - naturalistic sculptures that capture recognizable likenesses, and stylized sculptures that convey meaning through abstraction. The pieces in the Newark Museum exhibition embody Yoruba spiritual concepts and values.
The Role of UNESCO in the Great Silk Road Program IIJSRJournal
Today, cooperation between Uzbekistan and UNESCO is developing in a progressive manner and contributes to the preservation of the rich spiritual and material culture of our country, the study of the unique heritage of the Great Silk Road.
A HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINESSuzanne Simmons
1) Prior to Spanish colonization, the early Filipinos had attained a basic level of technological development sufficient for their needs, producing simple stone tools, pottery, metal tools, weaving cotton, smelting iron, rice cultivation, and highly developed boat building. 2) They engaged in regional trade with China, Vietnam, and other parts of Southeast Asia as early as the 10th century. 3) While their technology was simpler than Chinese and Japanese, the early Filipinos had thriving, self-sufficient communities and employed techniques like sawing, drilling, polishing stones, producing ornaments, building plank boats, and extracting iron from ore.
The craft industry, oral literature and language in the development of touris...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the role of crafts, oral literature, and language in tourism development in Ghana. It finds that these three areas are important for their economic value, information exchange, sharing of experiences, and reducing biases. However, lack of marketing outlets and product finishing pose major challenges. The document provides historical context on increased interest in Africa after independence, and how crafts, textiles, and traditional attire have helped change perceptions. It discusses how crafts, oral literature, and music are interrelated through their organization and manipulation of sounds to create aesthetic experiences, despite language barriers. This benefits tourism by showcasing Ghana's unique cultural expressions.
A Lesson from Vernacular Architecture in Nigeria
Ph.D. CandidateJoyce Lodson1,* Ph.D. CandidateJOHN EMMANUEL OGBEBA2, Dr. UGOCHUKWU KENECHI ELINWA3
1 Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Bauchi state, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
3Department of Architecture, Cyprus International University, Famagusta, Mersin 10, Turkey
E mail:joycelodson@yahoo.com E mail: john.ogbeba@emu.edu.tr , E mail:uelinwa@ciu.edu.tr
A B S T R A C T
Contemporary architecture has its roots from the vernacular. Every cultural group in the world has its own form of vernacular though the approach may vary from place to place and from people to people. Vernacular architecture has many values which are relevant to contemporary architecture today. This paper looks at vernacular architecture in Nigeria as practiced by two ethnic groups who have varying climatic, religious and socio-cultural practices. The approaches to architecture by these two groups, i.e. the Hausas and Igbos, are looked at with the intention of finding positive values in the vernacular which can be applied to the contemporary. One of such values as seen in this paper is the harmony of traditional building materials with nature. Local building materials are able to meet housing needs without having detrimental effect on the environment. More emphasis should therefore be given to local building materials in the building industry today. The paper concludes by stating that for contemporary architecture to adequately meet the needs of man today, vernacular values which apply to the cultural and climatic needs of such places should be selected and imbibed.
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3. Keywords discussed are Ona, ornament, pattern, motif, and design.
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Iconography, arts and design of metal sculptures in nigerian art institutions (1980 2011)
1. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online)
Vol.3, No.13, 2013
132
Iconography, Arts and Design of Metal Sculptures in Nigerian Art
Institutions (1980-2011)
Oladugbagbe, F. E. A* and Kalilu, R. O. Rom
Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P. M.B. 4000,
Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
* E-mail of the corresponding author: allan4success@yahoo.com
Abstract
Nigeria’s rich and diverse artistic heritage dates back to over 2000 years. The earliest noteworthy art pieces,
according to scholars, are the finely produced terra-cotta sculptures of the Nok culture, together with bronze
heads from Ife dating from the thirteenth century. The bronze plaques, statues and ivory carvings from Benin are
generally considered Nigeria’s most important artistic legacies. These sculptures represent those art forms
rendered at the period when the impact of foreign aesthetics judgment, ideological and religious influences had
not been fully apprehended by the natives, local artisans and craftsmen. With the advent of Western influences,
Nigerian art, to a major extent, gave way to modern tendencies: a modern Nigerian art evolved through formal,
institution training in art. Sculptural expressions manifested in these institutions are depicted in varied styles,
themes, and media such as in cement, metals, marble-stone, fibre-glass, plastics and found-object. With time, a
large number of these sculptures were prone to destruction through the effect of weathering and oxidation;
particularly, those works produced in metal alloys. This study examines sculptures made of metal alloy in these
institutions and looks at some changes that had come up to them as a result of weathering and oxidation over a
period of time and proffer some preventive strategies for the metal works. As globalisation affects every facet of
human life, the whole world becomes one little village. The visual arts, particularly metal sculpture, are not left
out in the benefit of this trend. The study further elucidates on the new aesthetic forms and iconography, styles
and themes, materials and techniques that have evolved from the works and positions the genres in historical
perspective of modern Nigerian art.
Keywords: Iconography, Arts and Design, Metal Sculptures, Nigerian art Institutions.
1. Introduction
Nigeria has a land mass of 910,700 sq. km. that makes up the entire nation known as the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. The country is bounded by four French colonies: Republic of Niger to the north, Republic of Chad to
the north east, Republic of Cameroon to the east and the Republic of Benin to the west. A stretch of the Atlantic
Ocean coastline commonly referred to as the Bight of Benin, Bight of Bonny and Gulf of Guinea runs through
the south. Nigeria falls on the latitudes 40
and 140
North of the equator and within 30
and 140
East of the
Greenwich Meridian (Microsoft Encarta, 2009).
The people are loosely grouped into three major ethnic divisions, which are the Hausa in the north, the Igbo
in the east and the Yoruba in the west. There are nonetheless over 300 ethnic groups and over 300 languages
spoken across the regions. With 2008 estimated population of 138,283,240 (Microsoft Encarta, 2009), the
country is acknowledged to be the most populous nation in Africa. It is a nation rich in mineral resources (the
most noticeable of which is oil) and agricultural produce. It also has a very rich and an enviable cultural and
artistic background. Many of its ancient terra cottas from Nok and Ife, bronze works from Benin and Ife,
priceless ivories from Benin, monoliths from Cross Rivers, stone and wood carvings from Esie and Ekiti, made
these artistically robust people of West Africa the valued-eye of ancient African civilisation and, conversely, are
about the highly exploited and most commercialised of African race by the European explorers in the wake of
the slave commerce.
Nigeria’s rich and diverse artistic heritage dates back more than 2000 years (Eyo 1977). The earliest
noteworthy art pieces according to scholars are the finely produced terra-cotta sculptures of the Nok culture,
together with bronze heads from Ife dating from the thirteenth century. The bronze plaques, statues and ivory
carvings from Benin are generally considered Nigeria’s most important artistic legacies. These sculptures
represent those art forms rendered at the period when the impact of foreign aesthetic judgment, ideological and
2. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online)
Vol.3, No.13, 2013
133
religious influences had not been fully apprehended by the natives, local artisans and craftsmen. With the advent
of Western influence, Nigerian art, to a major extent, gave way to modern tendencies: a modern Nigerian art
evolved through formal training in art.
Western education progresses with civilisation; it steadily envelopes all corners of the globe. This progress,
ultimately, has extended to Nigeria and other parts of Africa. Missionary schools were built. Many successful
Nigerian merchants sent their children overseas for advanced education. As the trend progresses, the desire for
higher education in Nigeria as an inescapable means of national development had become overwhelming since
the periods of the World Wars (Fafunwa, 1971: 135). According to Nakpodia (2009), education historians
confirmed that about one hundred and fifty Nigerians were studying for various first degrees in the United
Kingdom as at 1944, before the establishment of higher institutions in Nigeria. Then by 1948, the University
College, which was awarding degree from University of London, was established by the Nigerian government.
Yaba Technical Institute came next (Jubril, 2004: 492-499). Not until 1960, the two institutes continued as the
only institutions in Nigeria. Today, however, Nigeria has over ninety-six universities (Jamb Brochure, 2012).
2. Foundational development of the selected Art Schools
Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Kaduna State started as Nigerian College of Arts, Science and
Technology in 1953 in Ibadan, Oyo State. The art section was moved in 1955 to Zaria from where the Zaria Art
School evolved. In 1962, the College was upgraded to a university, known as ABU. The products of the art
school were the first driving force in the formation of visual arts departments in most other Nigerian tertiary
institutions. Yaba College of Technology (Yabatech), in Yaba, Lagos State was the second institution established
by the Nigerian government. It started as Technical Institute in 1947 and later renamed Yaba College of
Technology in 1963 (Oshiga, 1988: 12). The College is the foremost technology institution in Nigeria, with a
good historic antecedence.
University of Nigeria (UNN), Nsukka in Enugu State, was established following the Ashby Commission’s
recommendation in 1955. Its foundation was however laid in 1960 (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2009; Nnadozie,
2006: 45). A department of arts, at inception known as the Enwonwu College of Arts, admitted students in 1961
(Oloidi: 1985: 68). The art school, according to Oloidi (1985), chose abstraction as a language of pictorial and
sculptural expression to reflect the philosophy of African art.
Similarly, Auchi Polytechnic (Auchipoly), in Auchi, Edo State was established in 1973. It was an offshoot of
the former Mid-West Technical College that was established in 1964 to produce middle level manpower for the
nation’s economy. The need to expand the institution to higher level was achieved in 1970 when the institution
embarked on a multi-campus system, though retaining its headquarters or main campus in Benin. In 1975, the
institution finally moved from Benin to its permanent site in Auchi. While at Benin, the art School occupied the
premises of New Era College in Benin City (Oladugbagbe, 2012: 63) (A New Era concept was later adopted as a
phrase for the beginning of serious stone sculpting in Auchi art School). In 1994, the Federal Government of
Nigeria took over the control of the institution. In the development of the art School, the department was then
moved to Auchi, its present location in Edo state.
3. Iconography, styles, themes and techniques of metal sculptures in the four Schools
Sculpture has long been noted for its importance as a veritable means of recording people and events in a
two- or three-dimensional form. This function has also not diminished in today’s importance of sculpture, and
even in the other spheres of artistic expression in human evolution. Thus, the modern trends in art in Nigeria (not
to talk about the unimaginable acceleration at which the Western world is deconstructing and constructing
artistic events and cultural philosophies) are nothing more than the attempts to stimulate growth and avoid
sterility through stagnation. The singular effect of modern technology and the unprecedented adventure into
inventions has made the human race more concerned with the environment, positively or otherwise, and
consciously or unconsciously. In this study, the sociological implication of things has regularly come to the fore
among the concerned. This paper, therefore, examines iconography, styles, themes, materials and techniques of
metal alloy sculptures in four higher art institutions, elicits some changes undergone by them as a result of
weathering and oxidation over a period of thirty-one years and proffers some probable preventive strategies for
the metal works. The spatial scope of the study covers metal sculptures in four institutions: two universities and
two polytechnics. They are Ahmadu Bello University (commonly referred to as ABU), Zaria in the northern
region of Nigeria; University of Nigeria (commonly referred to as UNN), Nsukka in the eastern region of
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Nigeria. The other two schools are Yaba College of Technology (commonly referred to as Yabatech), Yaba in the
western region of Nigeria; and Auchi Polytechnic (commonly referred to as Auchipoly), Auchi in the mid-
western region of Nigeria.
Generally, there are literature materials that documented processes of any disciplines’ historical and
developmental past as well as the present state of affairs and the projections into the future. Such literatures also
abound in the Visual Arts. Some fall under the Western perception on traditional and modern sculpture the world
over (Oladugbagbe, 2012: 23). These publications are not specifically concerned about African sculpture or
those of metal sculptures in Nigerian art schools. They are simple syntheses of world artistic notions, influences
and histories. The publications, however, provide useful reference material for general study on sculpture. Other
publications are those that focus on traditional African art and they extol the role of sculpture in traditional
African culture. Williams (1974) discussed the birth and growth of the traditional sacred imagery in the iron
sculpture among the Yoruba in south-west Nigeria and proposed a temporal framework for certain belief related
to the genre by examining the type-motifs associated with the ritualising of iron. Adepegba (1991) researched on
the collection of Yoruba metal artefacts. Without losing sight of the cultural significance of the metal artefacts
among the Yoruba of the Republic of Benin and a large portion of southwestern Nigeria, he focuses specifically
on the aesthetic quality of these objects, thus providing records for broader socio-historical view of Yoruba metal
art. Other unpublished dissertations (Odiboh, 1987, Ikpakoronyi, 1997, Akintonde, 2008 and Odewale, 2009)
cover contemporary outdoor sculptures in public spheres, particularly in the southwest and eastern part of the
country. No specific research has been carried out on the study of metal sculpture in the art departments of these
or any higher institutions or to talk of the effect of weather and other environmental factors on outdoor metal
sculpture that metamorphosed in the last thirty years.
4. Metal as new form of sculpture and contemporary industrial vocabulary
The artistic possibilities of metals as sculpture medium, the new borrowed industrial technology and the
traditional methods of working them came into being when some group of European artists around 1920s sought
for the fundamentals of space and time to interpret the reality of life. A Spanish-born sculptor, Julio Gonzalez
(1876-1942), championed the course of using three-dimensional lines and structures to define volumes in metal
sculpture (Gardner, 1976:841). This innovative idea has been creatively explored by sculptors from the early
1960s to the present. An amalgam of these metal sculptures and techniques has gradually, and with equally
laudable environmental importance, become a regular phenomenon in Nigerian art schools from the early 1980s.
This aspect of sculpture reflects a dual characteristic from African cum Western art schools backgrounds. These
metal sculptures, in structure, approach, subject matter, bits and pieces and procedure have survived for more
than three decades in their respective locations. Researches on them, however, are limited when compared to
other aspects of contemporary outdoor sculpture made in other media such as concrete, wood, stone, fibreglass,
among others. Recent stylistic tendencies found in most of these works show global artistic influence, based on
freedom of artistic expression in its entire ramification.
5. Form, style, theme, material and technique of metal sculpture in the Art Schools
The use of metal as a unique medium of expression in itself became visible in Nigerian art institutions in the
1980s. As at this period, some graduate artists got employment in the universities and polytechnics. Various
experiments were explored freely with these metals and the result eventually became appreciable. Metal is an
essential material and there is a great many varieties of them, but most of these metals are obtained by mixing
elements that made them stronger than other materials. Metals are of many kinds and in some form enter into
every aspect of life. Of the elements in the earth, air and sea form 50% oxygen, 25% silicun and about 14%
metals of which about half is aluminium ( Shirley, 1973:140) The scientists, especially chemists unravel more
than 70% metals today but only few could be named. Accepted distinctions among metals are “metals” and
“alloys”, “ferrous” and “nonferrous” metals, “base” metals, “precious” metals and “rare” metals. Iron is the only
ferrous metal containing iron with a valence of two. Gold, silver and platinium are accepted as treasured metals.
Base metals made of iron, aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, tin and nickel; of these, tin and nickel are the most
expensive. Others are light metal alloys such as brass which is the most popular of the many copper alloys used
in making the works of art. For many years art has been expressed through metals in the hand of craftsmen by
shaping, bending, beating, melting, and by pouring in a molten state into a mould (mould is a shape that gives a
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form to a molten metal). The abundance of iron for construction and the advancement in its manipulation have
particularly tended its usage in creative montage in architecture. Rather than have a regular, plain security gate,
some exemplary architects and building owners now favour artistic wrought iron installations that also act as
security gate for homes (Ogunfuwa, Oladugbagbe and Emeriewen 2013:17).
Galvanize sheet, iron rod and other auto parts are new and industrial materials that predominate and are
accessible to students of these respective art schools. Most metal sculptures in these art institutions, foremost,
serve aesthetic purpose; that is, for pleasurable viewing of passersby and create personal opinions about them.
They also have tactile and sensuous qualities that are sometimes expressed in their varied styles and techniques.
The themes, and sometimes contexts, of these sculptures are either socio-culturally or politically tuned.
Technically, some of the works have been exceptionally handled, thereby becoming exemplary. A few others are
just expression of forms; others are abstract exploration of the mind, the subconscious and the universe.
In the four institutions, there are a total of twenty-five works that are rendered in metal, with a few having the
addition of one or two media, like fibre glass, cement, plastic, and some found objects that are not metal. This
sum is not inclusive of other very small metal works that are indoors. From a general observation of sculpture
activities around these art institutions and from the available dates on the sculptures in these art schools’
surroundings, there is a genuine tendency to state that metal sculpture metamorphosed as a medium in 1980 from
Yaba College of Technology, from the Saxophone (plate 1) done by Sir Victor Uwaifor. It, thus, could be
regarded as the first metal form in any of the institutions. The composition of the Saxophone is basically made of
found objects, which are mostly auto parts. Though small in size, it paved the way for more sophisticated,
elaborate and monumental metal works that now beautify, in one way or the other, all the four art schools.
Vendor (plate 2) and Movement in space (plate 3) are also from Yaba College of Technology. Movement in
space can be considered postmodernist in both its subject and application of materials. Welded from a
combination of iron pipes, fibre glass was made into a ball, which should move along the axis of the poles in
what can be visualised as spatial dynamics. Usually in sculpture, the traditional application of colours is reduced
to the barest minimum. But in this particular work, primary colours, which are basically yellow, red and blue,
have been graphically infused into work’s visual statement of form and material. But the Vendor is a regular
presentation of realism. And like the Movement in space, it is conjoined with another medium fibre. However,
this Vendor hawks his daily newspapers and magazines with the assistance of his vending bicycle. It is the
bicycle that is metal. With his bicycle, the work is a network of welded metal sheets balance by negative and
positive space.
Visual illustrations of people expressing hard labour can be found in many artistic works and in several
media in art Schools in Nigeria. It is part of the illustration of the many economic hardships experienced by the
downtrodden to bridge economic survival and life sustainability. Hard labour (plate 4) is in Ahmadu Bello
University sculpture courtyard. Unlike the Saxophonist and Movement in space in height and mixture of media,
Hard labour is a monumental work in galvanized metal sheet. Articulate in its proportion, it appears a robot-like
structure in its mild cubic forms. The good, technical execution of the work can be compared to any in its
medium category in recent time from across board in the art Schools. The technical understanding in the use of
the medium is exemplary, again with the accentuation of its positive and negative spaces in the work. In eclectic
contrast, the deconstruction of representational sculptures becomes glaring in Structural Adjustment Programme
(plate 5), which also emanates from the same garden in Zaria. The work shows a Volkswagen car scrap body and
two men pushing it, invariably, also, to indicate that suffering abound the crannies of the country. It could
poetically illustrate the pitiable nature of discontentment with oneself or metaphorically demonstrate that man’s
problem could only be solved by the attention he pays to it. The work, nevertheless, straightforwardly direct our
attention to the painful side of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) that plunged people, institutions, and
nations into poverty in the 1990s, because of improper execution of plans as technically instructed by the
proposers of such a programme.
The manifestation of modern thinking and exploration in the limitless possibilities of artistic hybridism has
developed strikingly in the Nsukka art school. Interestingly however, University of Nigeria is notably the first
school, out of the four under study, to start exploring the assemblage technique in metal. They developed and
encouraged aesthetic lore for abstraction, indigenous iconography and symbolism. Their forms in and on
sculpture continue to undergo a distillation process. This is seen in the use of multi-media and kinetic approach
to some sculpture. In the work of Omeh Mathew, Kinetic masquerade (plate 6) and in that of an unidentified
artist, titled Mixed media (plate 7). The duo believes in the fusion of art, science and technology and changed the
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range of sculpture by constructing forms that would be activated by air and also create with other palpable
materials such as jute reinforced with welded iron rods.
Metal sculpture has turned to an exploration ground for those sculptors with zeal and enthusiasm for the wild
and weird. The themes of traditional attire and posture also abound in Auchi Polytechnic. From the visual
presentation of the art school garden, it becomes obvious that working on metal is predominant among students
of the Auchi Polytechnic than students of any other school. Thematic connotation and denotation of the metal
works arise from the socio-cultural and politico-artistic viewpoint of the artist, and invariably the viewer or
contemplator. Edo Royal (plate 8) is, however, hung on a wall in the Art Department. It illustrates the chief in
royal paraphernalia of the Benin Kingdom. The work is also one of the few done in two-dimensional
presentation across many of the art institutions in Nigeria, but not necessarily the most aesthetically imposing.
Tints of colour are also added to selected parts of the surface.
Generally, the art schools of Yaba College of Technology and Auchi Polytechnic are the two polytechnics that
have their departments surrounded with all sorts of metal sculptures that evolve from the 1980s. Some of these
sculptures have good anatomical details, excellent proportion quality and balance. Mild steel, found objects, and
other forms of materials, mixed with the traditionally-used medium, abound in all art schools in Nigeria. In this
age where unconventional sculptures have most times spin pleasant surprises, flexibility in the choice of form,
content and style should be encouraged among students. And where the strength of a student lies, encouragement
in such direction should be given and explored to the fullest. It is to this end that the poetic and postmodernist
inclinations of some of the art schools could be applauded. The “spirit of adventure” is the strongest point of this
era. Space, material, size and permanency should be vigorously explored. This, definitely, will be a good
antecedent laid for the future. But the reverse is the case for these sculptures in the area of locations as surfaces
of many of these works have either flake off or changed in tonal quality due to harsh weathering of intense sun
and rain and, in some cases, water storing at the fissures affect the metal works, which on the long run affect the
aesthetic quality of many of these works.
6. Environmental degradation of metal sculpture
In relation to this therefore, physical documentary of tangible metal sculptures have been relegated for
literary one and a decline in the quality control manifested as a result of the neglect of these works. With time, a
large number of these sculptures were prone to destruction through the effect of weathering and environmental
cracking. Environmental cracking is corrosion processes which occur in metal art works as a result of
environmental conditions such as chemical, temparture and stress-related. Oxidation occurs when two different
types of metal are welded or joined together and left to the exposure of atmosphere moisture. This will
disintegrate and produce a localized galvanic reaction, just like in the Race rider (plate 9) in Auchi Polytechnic
and many others across the art institutions in Nigeria. In consequence, the metal became corrosive and formed
red rust which in due cause became crusty, unattractive and thus loose the aesthetic appeal and quality of the
metal art work. Gbendio, Race rider (plate 9) is made of welded chromium-plated metal from auto parts and
galvanized metal sheets that are uncoated. In such instance, coated plates in some areas prevent substrate
oxidation; while the other galvanized metal parts are exposed to potential danger, despite the brilliant formal and
stylistic execution. Therefore, many of such symbolic, historic and aesthetically pleasing metal sculptures
hopelessly struggle with their environment for survival.
Again, another problem affecting these metal sculptures in their various locations is the attack of fungus and
mosses that inevitably find succour and refuge in the bodies of many of the media, especially found objects that
are of different compositions (plates 10 and 11). Again, there are also hazards created by students themselves
when working on new projects alongside existing ones
With so much hazards that are affecting these metal sculptures from time to time, both in the art schools and
public places, urban cities and towns in Nigeria, a process of protecting and conserving them is required to
stabilise, restore and ensure that they sustain any prevailing problems.
7. Preservation of metal sculptures
Generally, hundreds of materials are found in the earth and sea; but in some cases, a material is altered by
the mixing of one substance with it to make it stronger. Any material that lacks strength may disintegrate and
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succumb easily to the surrounding condition. Metal, a ferrous and non-ferrous medium, is comparatively used in
creating contemporary sculpture in all the art schools in Nigeria, despite the beauty or the repulsive character in
the tactile quality of metal, it loses wholeness with time. Now that some art institutions are making effort to
project and make manifest the economic advantage that can be derived from sculpture, no special consideration
is given to the preservation of metal works among the sculpture genres in the gardens. Generally, maintaining the
physical state of sculpture and to protect its original components from damaging is essentially the work of
conservator. The conservator examines and evaluates an object. He also investigates structure, materials and
condition of the object and understanding of the historical context in which it was created. Many scholars have
been researching on how to prevent these sculptures from ravage of both human and environmental factors.
Major work had been carried out on the sources of urban pollution such as nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide and particles that affect the physical state of outdoor sculptures. From the abstracts of the IIC
Melbourne Congress (2000), Toniolo and Colombo work on sustainability of physical state of stone sculpture,
suggest that stone should be treated with fluorinated acrylic copolymer. Brasstoff, Tara and Shedlosky
investigate the content of accelerated indoor and natural outdoor weathering of coated bronze and copper, they
arrived at treating coated bronze and copper with benzotriazole film (BTA). Tennent, Ankersmit, Graham,
Stirling and Simon researched on tarnish surface of silver object. The research was used to validate effectiveness
of Oxygen-Carbonyl Sulphide (OCS) in removing pollutant gasses from silver collections. Little has been done
in suststaining metal sculptures in Nigeria. Western society currently recognizes age as a value to be preserved
and newness as part of aesthetic function of their art works. Hopeless struggle between metal sculptures and
their environment is still an impediment and remain a formidable task to outdoor metal sculptures in Nigerian art
schools.
8. Conclusion and recommendation
No matter how an artwork is, if neglected it will lose value and may eventually lose the total artistic creation
inputted into it. Therefore, sculpture which takes a fairly longer time to create when compared to other art
specialisations, needs to be adequately catered for. In this regard, a few recommendations will be made. The
West has developed a passionate response to the protection and care of environmental sculptures many centuries
back. For instance, Michelangelo’s David was moved indoors in 1873 and a replica was placed in Florence’s
Piazza della Signoria in 1910 (Pullen and Heuman, 2007). Our society today has acquired new meanings,
functions and values of contemporary outdoor sculptures. Therefore, the need for advocacy, debate, negotiation
and resolution against the neglect of these genres is paramout. Also, grants and other monetary reliefs can be
extended to artists (especially student sculptors) involved in this kind of project. The department can also
develop and equip the sculpture studio and garden with necessary infrastructure.
Sculpture in the art schools should be seen as a breeding venue for environmental and monumental works
that can be commissioned and/or moved to important places around the town or government buildings. The
business of art should be another focus of the art departments of higher instittutions. The departments, in
collaboration with school authorities, can engage the Ministry of Works and Housing and Ministry of
Environment in this development, which can yield positive art growth and enlightenment, on one hand; and
financial uplift for the art departments and the institutions, on the other. A relationship among all that will also
foster stronger ties can be developed among the concerned. All these, in the long run, will give rise to another
social and quality reform in public sculptures. This is because, when ties are built among the three institutions:
the department, school authority and state government, mediocrity and sub-standard sculptures will be eradicated
in public places, and works in the public sphere will be adequately protected and taken care of. This measure,
though long-termed, will, in the future, definitely achieve a better, lasting effect in the image building of
professional and academic artists. However, some typical treatments of the body of sculpture are also proffered
by a group of conservators on outdoor sculptures. These include:
. Removal of surface dirt and old coating such as discoloured varnish
. Stabilizing deteriorating materials
. Repairing damage areas of the work
. Improving the appearance of the object, often by adding new materials
. Displaying the work in such a way as to optimize its appearance and minimize future damage
. Report the conditions of the treatment when the need arises.
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Arts Theatre, Lagos.
Pullen, D and Heuman, J (2007). “Modern and Contemporary Outdoor Sculpture Conservation: Challenges and
Advances”. http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publication resources/newsletters/22_2/
Shirley, S. (1973). Metal Design and Construction. Great Britain: Hulton Educational Publication Limited.
Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia (2008). http://en.Wikipedia.Org/Wiki/Sculpture.
Plate 1 Plate 2
Victor Uwaifor. Saxophone. 1980. Yabatech. Kasali Lateef, Vendor, 2000.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2009. Metal and Fibre-glass. Yabatech.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2010.
Plate 3 Plate 4
Ayoola. Movement in space. 2000. Matthew Ehizele. Hard labour. 1988.
Metal and fibre glass. Yabatech. Galvanize metal sheet ABU.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2002 Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2002
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Plate 5 Plate 6
Bassey Orok. Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). Omeh Mathew. Kinetic masquerade.
1990. Found objects. ABU. 1996. Metal assemlage. UNN.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2010. Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2010.
Plate 7 Plate 8
Unidentified artist. Mixed media. 2006. Igbinedion Duke Osaro. Edo royal. 1981
Metal and jute material. UNN. Metal relief. Auchipoly.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2010. Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2009.
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Plate 9 Plate 10
Julius Gbendio. Race rider. 1982. Akpora John. Common Enemy. 2005.
Metal. Auchipoly. Metal. Auchipoly.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2009. Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2009.
Plate 11
Sanusi Abdulahi, Voice of Africa 1994. Metal. Auchipoly.
Photograph by Allan Oladugbagbe, 2009.
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