Respond to each item below in 2–3 paragraphs. Use Learning Resources,
· Please copy and number each question. Put your answer below each question.
First: Euthanasia
· What is the argument from nature against euthanasia? What role does religion play in this argument? How might a supporter of euthanasia respond?
· In the argument from practical effects, the author makes points concerning both (1) effects on the medical profession and (2) a slippery slope from voluntary to involuntary euthanasia. Explain.
· What is the pure utilitarian version of the argument from mercy? What are its strengths and limitations?
· What is the modified utilitarian version of the argument from mercy? How does it avoid the flaws of the pure version?
Second: Utilitarianism and World Poverty
· Poverty leads to other issues on the world stage, like crime. Do these associated effects increase the obligation of the wealthy to give to extreme poverty relief? Identify other associated effects of extreme poverty.
· What is the social contract theorist’s position on the idea that we have a duty to give extensive aid to strangers? Why? What is the utilitarian’s position? Why?
· One common critique of utilitarianism is that it is too demanding—that it asks too much of us. What solution does Singer offer to this critique? Do you agree or disagree? Why?
Third: Animal Welfare and Treatment
· Can the moral principle of equality be based on the factual equality of all human beings? Explain. What implications does this have for the equality of animals?
· Why does Singer believe that animals merit moral equality? That is, what morally significant capacity do animals have that they share with humans? Do you agree with Singer? Why?
· Consider Fred’s reason for torturing puppies in Chapter 16? How does Norcross argue that what Fred does is morally equivalent to what we do when we eat meat? Do you agree? Why?
· How does Norcross respond to the objection that one is not obliged to give up eating meat since it would not reduce the number of animals killed? Do you agree with Norcross? Why?
Forth: Environmental Land Ethics
· Explain the ethical sequence discussed in Aldo Leopold’s “Land Ethic.”
· What is the community concept and how does Leopold think it will influence how we tell history?
· Leopold talks about an ecological conscience. What is it and how do farmers show they lack it?
· Why is the purely economic approach to conservation doomed to failure according to Leopold? With what should it be replaced and why?
Last Part:
you will write a 4- to 6-page paper in which you argue for your philosophical views on two of the topics we’ve covered so far.
Your paper should have three sections of approximately equal length as outlined below.
In writing this paper, you must make reference to the arguments and positions we have studied.
· For section 1, you should argue for a position on one of the topics we’ve discussed. Make sure that you consult most if not all of the additional resources lis.
Assessment Should We Withhold Life The Martinez Case.docxbkbk37
Mr. Martinez was a 75-year-old man hospitalized for an upper respiratory infection. He and his wife had requested no CPR. However, his oxygen was increased, causing respiratory failure. The case examines the ethical issues around limiting life support for Mr. Martinez given his directives, quality of life, his family's preferences, and relevant moral principles.
1) Consider two general strategies for living life selfishness or b.docxcuddietheresa
1) Consider two general strategies for living life: selfishness or benevolence. In the first strategy, you act in whatever manner that benefits you taking no notice or heed of other’s interests in doing so. In the second strategy, you balance your interests with those of others in society sometimes acting in their interests rather than your own. The first question is, what is the best way to act and why? Observe, you must also take into account that others will be acting in the world as well and their actions will affect the overall gains or losses of your strategy as well. (NOTE: this scenario is a form of the prisoner’s dilemma and you can read more about this in multiple places on the interwebs). The next question is how does the scenario pictured above please Thomas Hobbes and how does his social contract theory help us to determine how best to proceed? Please be sure to explain Hobbes view in brief and how it would deal with the prisoner’s dilemma situation. Good luck!
2) The ethics of care posits that something other than duties and obligations to others often motivates and justifies our actions. With this in mind, how would a care ethicist perhaps respond differently than a utilitarian or a Kantian in the following scenario. A four year old child with HIV is dying deep in the countryside of Africa, far away from any urban population. The child is not the only one who is very sick in the camp and the resources used to help the child are three times as much as what are needed to keep others with life threatening ailments alive. Furthermore, the camp is about to run out of basic medical supplies for at least two weeks unless multiple patients are rationed supplies needed to keep them alive. Would a care ethicist continue providing treatment and supplies for the HIV child? How might the answer be different for a Kantian or utilitarian? Does your first answer change if the child is in fact your own child? What about a Kantian? A utilitarian? Why or why not?
Directions:
Please provide detailed and elaborate responses to the following questions.
Your responses should include examples from the reading assignments.
Each response should be at least one half of one page in length and utilize APA format.
1.
What is the role of the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls's theory?
2.
Define constructivism.
3.
What is the 'prisoner's dilemma?'
4.
In what ways does Gauthier's contract approach differ from that of Rawls?
In what ways are they similar?
Explain.
5.
Define care ethics.
6.
What is a "feminine" ethic?
PART I:
Directions:
The following problems ask you to evaluate hypothetical situations and/or concepts related to the reading in this module.
While there are no "correct answers" for these problems, you must demonstrate a strong understanding of the concepts and lessons from this module's reading assignment.
Please provide detailed and elaborate responses to the following problems.
Your responses should include exam.
Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Es...Debbie Huston
Should The Death Penalty Be Abolished? Free Essay Example. Death Penalty Essay Essay on Death Penalty for Students and Children .... Should the Death Penalty be Abolished Essay Example Topics and Well .... Argumentative Against Death Penalty - PHDessay.com. Death Penalty - Should it be abolished? - GCSE Religious Studies .... Death Penalty Persuasive Essay Essay on Death Penalty Persuasive for .... Death Penalty Should be Abolished: Essay Example, 789 words EssayPay. Death Penalty - For and Against - Summary Capital Punishment .... Death penalty reduces crime essay. Essay About Death Penalty English. Abolishment of death penalty essay against. Death Penalty Essay Writing Guide - Aceyourpaper.com. Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished Essay Example GraduateWay. death penalty - agree/disagree - GCSE Religious Studies Philosophy .... The Death Penalty - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Essay Thatsnotus. How states abolish the death penalty by International Commission .... Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Wonderful Death Penalty Essay Against Argumentative Thatsnotus. ANTI Death Penalty Argumentative Essay - ANTI-DEATH PENALTY .... Anti Death Penalty Essay Deterrence Legal Capital Punishment. Argumentative Essay. Death Penalty / Essays / ID: 462589. Pro death penalty essay - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Arguments Against Death Penalty Essay. ENGLCOM finale: Abolish Death Penalty argumentative essay. The death penalty debate essay. Essay Agree Or Disagree With The .... Death Penalty Argument Essay - BBC - Ethics - Capital Punishment .... Why death penalty should be abolished Essay Example Topics and Well .... Writing to Argue- Should the death penalty be reinstated? - GCSE .... Death penalty argumentative essay - College Homework Help and Online ... Abolish Death Penalty Essay Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Essay Thatsnotus
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology Name _____________________________ChantellPantoja184
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
Name: _________________________________________ Date: _______________
1. Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2. What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3. List and describe the major characteristics of life.
4. What are five components of our metabolism?
5. Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6. Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an example.
7. List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what their functions are.
8. Describe the anatomical position.
9. Start with the DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10. Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
11. Use the tRNA strand and the chart below to tell me the final amino acid sequence from the tRNA strand
12. Where is DNA found in a cell?
13. Where in the cell is protein made?
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
N
ame: _________________________________________
Date: _______________
1.
Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2.
What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3.
List and describe the major
characteristics
of life.
4.
What are five components of our metabolism?
5.
Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6.
Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an
example.
7.
List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what
their functions
are.
8.
D
escribe the anatomical position.
9.
S
tart with the
DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10.
Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
Name: _________________________________________ Date: _______________
1. Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2. What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3. List and describe the major characteristics of life.
4. What are five components of our metabolism?
5. Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6. Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an
example.
7. List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what their functions
are.
8. Describe the anatomical position.
9. Start with the DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10. Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
1
Women and family
Aakil Patel
PHL 106
Eduardo O Frajman
Short Paper #4
Women and family
Unlike the early contractual models that were developed of “equal men” where women were not allowed to claim equal treatment in the public sphe ...
ToK Essay May 2013 - The Possesssion of Knowledge carries an Ethical Responsi...Raevenn Breen
This document is a 1,399 word Theory of Knowledge essay evaluating the claim that "the possession of knowledge carries an ethical responsibility." The essay provides several examples from history and science to support this, such as Einstein sharing his knowledge of relativity which led to the atomic bomb, and the responsibility of scientists discovering cures or technologies to consider consequences. The essay concludes that while knowledge possession does require ethical responsibility, deciding what to do with knowledge and whether to share it depends on considering all possible consequences.
Free Essay Thomas Jefferson. Online assignment writing service.Lisa Young
The document discusses similarities between the novels The Great Gatsby and Goodbye Columbus. Both novels explore the American dream and how the pursuit of sex, money and power can cause problems in achieving the dream. They also examine the divide between old and new worlds/money. In Goodbye Columbus, this is shown through the contrast of immigrant and established families, while in The Great Gatsby it is the old vs new money divide. Wealth and status are used to represent power in both novels.
This document discusses several perspectives on the nature of morality:
1. Moral skepticism argues that morality is subjective and there is no objective moral truth. Moral statements are merely expressions of preference.
2. Moral relativism claims that morality is determined by one's society or culture and there are no universal moral values. However, this view faces issues with tolerating intolerant practices.
3. Some philosophers like Kant have argued that morality can be known through reason and deriving universal moral rules and duties. However, critics argue this view faces counterexamples where following one's duty seems to lead to immoral outcomes.
4. Utilitarianism holds that the morally right action is one
Effective Altruism Essay
The Causes of Altruism Essay
Altruism In Nursing Essay
Reflection On Altruism
Altruism in Everyday Life Essay
What Is Altruism?
Assessment Should We Withhold Life The Martinez Case.docxbkbk37
Mr. Martinez was a 75-year-old man hospitalized for an upper respiratory infection. He and his wife had requested no CPR. However, his oxygen was increased, causing respiratory failure. The case examines the ethical issues around limiting life support for Mr. Martinez given his directives, quality of life, his family's preferences, and relevant moral principles.
1) Consider two general strategies for living life selfishness or b.docxcuddietheresa
1) Consider two general strategies for living life: selfishness or benevolence. In the first strategy, you act in whatever manner that benefits you taking no notice or heed of other’s interests in doing so. In the second strategy, you balance your interests with those of others in society sometimes acting in their interests rather than your own. The first question is, what is the best way to act and why? Observe, you must also take into account that others will be acting in the world as well and their actions will affect the overall gains or losses of your strategy as well. (NOTE: this scenario is a form of the prisoner’s dilemma and you can read more about this in multiple places on the interwebs). The next question is how does the scenario pictured above please Thomas Hobbes and how does his social contract theory help us to determine how best to proceed? Please be sure to explain Hobbes view in brief and how it would deal with the prisoner’s dilemma situation. Good luck!
2) The ethics of care posits that something other than duties and obligations to others often motivates and justifies our actions. With this in mind, how would a care ethicist perhaps respond differently than a utilitarian or a Kantian in the following scenario. A four year old child with HIV is dying deep in the countryside of Africa, far away from any urban population. The child is not the only one who is very sick in the camp and the resources used to help the child are three times as much as what are needed to keep others with life threatening ailments alive. Furthermore, the camp is about to run out of basic medical supplies for at least two weeks unless multiple patients are rationed supplies needed to keep them alive. Would a care ethicist continue providing treatment and supplies for the HIV child? How might the answer be different for a Kantian or utilitarian? Does your first answer change if the child is in fact your own child? What about a Kantian? A utilitarian? Why or why not?
Directions:
Please provide detailed and elaborate responses to the following questions.
Your responses should include examples from the reading assignments.
Each response should be at least one half of one page in length and utilize APA format.
1.
What is the role of the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls's theory?
2.
Define constructivism.
3.
What is the 'prisoner's dilemma?'
4.
In what ways does Gauthier's contract approach differ from that of Rawls?
In what ways are they similar?
Explain.
5.
Define care ethics.
6.
What is a "feminine" ethic?
PART I:
Directions:
The following problems ask you to evaluate hypothetical situations and/or concepts related to the reading in this module.
While there are no "correct answers" for these problems, you must demonstrate a strong understanding of the concepts and lessons from this module's reading assignment.
Please provide detailed and elaborate responses to the following problems.
Your responses should include exam.
Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Es...Debbie Huston
Should The Death Penalty Be Abolished? Free Essay Example. Death Penalty Essay Essay on Death Penalty for Students and Children .... Should the Death Penalty be Abolished Essay Example Topics and Well .... Argumentative Against Death Penalty - PHDessay.com. Death Penalty - Should it be abolished? - GCSE Religious Studies .... Death Penalty Persuasive Essay Essay on Death Penalty Persuasive for .... Death Penalty Should be Abolished: Essay Example, 789 words EssayPay. Death Penalty - For and Against - Summary Capital Punishment .... Death penalty reduces crime essay. Essay About Death Penalty English. Abolishment of death penalty essay against. Death Penalty Essay Writing Guide - Aceyourpaper.com. Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished Essay Example GraduateWay. death penalty - agree/disagree - GCSE Religious Studies Philosophy .... The Death Penalty - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Essay Thatsnotus. How states abolish the death penalty by International Commission .... Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Wonderful Death Penalty Essay Against Argumentative Thatsnotus. ANTI Death Penalty Argumentative Essay - ANTI-DEATH PENALTY .... Anti Death Penalty Essay Deterrence Legal Capital Punishment. Argumentative Essay. Death Penalty / Essays / ID: 462589. Pro death penalty essay - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Arguments Against Death Penalty Essay. ENGLCOM finale: Abolish Death Penalty argumentative essay. The death penalty debate essay. Essay Agree Or Disagree With The .... Death Penalty Argument Essay - BBC - Ethics - Capital Punishment .... Why death penalty should be abolished Essay Example Topics and Well .... Writing to Argue- Should the death penalty be reinstated? - GCSE .... Death penalty argumentative essay - College Homework Help and Online ... Abolish Death Penalty Essay Abolish Death Penalty Essay. Outstanding Death Penalty Should Be Abolished Essay Thatsnotus
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology Name _____________________________ChantellPantoja184
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
Name: _________________________________________ Date: _______________
1. Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2. What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3. List and describe the major characteristics of life.
4. What are five components of our metabolism?
5. Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6. Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an example.
7. List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what their functions are.
8. Describe the anatomical position.
9. Start with the DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10. Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
11. Use the tRNA strand and the chart below to tell me the final amino acid sequence from the tRNA strand
12. Where is DNA found in a cell?
13. Where in the cell is protein made?
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
N
ame: _________________________________________
Date: _______________
1.
Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2.
What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3.
List and describe the major
characteristics
of life.
4.
What are five components of our metabolism?
5.
Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6.
Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an
example.
7.
List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what
their functions
are.
8.
D
escribe the anatomical position.
9.
S
tart with the
DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10.
Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
BIO 229 Anatomy and Physiology
Name: _________________________________________ Date: _______________
1. Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.
2. What is the largest organ we have and how does it protect us from disease?
3. List and describe the major characteristics of life.
4. What are five components of our metabolism?
5. Why is pressure and important requirement for living organisms?
6. Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together, use an
example.
7. List three organ systems in the human body, include the components, and tell what their functions
are.
8. Describe the anatomical position.
9. Start with the DNA sequence below and show me the mRNA strand.
ATG GCG CGC ACG AGC TAG
10. Use the mRNA strand and show me the corresponding tRNA strand
1
Women and family
Aakil Patel
PHL 106
Eduardo O Frajman
Short Paper #4
Women and family
Unlike the early contractual models that were developed of “equal men” where women were not allowed to claim equal treatment in the public sphe ...
ToK Essay May 2013 - The Possesssion of Knowledge carries an Ethical Responsi...Raevenn Breen
This document is a 1,399 word Theory of Knowledge essay evaluating the claim that "the possession of knowledge carries an ethical responsibility." The essay provides several examples from history and science to support this, such as Einstein sharing his knowledge of relativity which led to the atomic bomb, and the responsibility of scientists discovering cures or technologies to consider consequences. The essay concludes that while knowledge possession does require ethical responsibility, deciding what to do with knowledge and whether to share it depends on considering all possible consequences.
Free Essay Thomas Jefferson. Online assignment writing service.Lisa Young
The document discusses similarities between the novels The Great Gatsby and Goodbye Columbus. Both novels explore the American dream and how the pursuit of sex, money and power can cause problems in achieving the dream. They also examine the divide between old and new worlds/money. In Goodbye Columbus, this is shown through the contrast of immigrant and established families, while in The Great Gatsby it is the old vs new money divide. Wealth and status are used to represent power in both novels.
This document discusses several perspectives on the nature of morality:
1. Moral skepticism argues that morality is subjective and there is no objective moral truth. Moral statements are merely expressions of preference.
2. Moral relativism claims that morality is determined by one's society or culture and there are no universal moral values. However, this view faces issues with tolerating intolerant practices.
3. Some philosophers like Kant have argued that morality can be known through reason and deriving universal moral rules and duties. However, critics argue this view faces counterexamples where following one's duty seems to lead to immoral outcomes.
4. Utilitarianism holds that the morally right action is one
Effective Altruism Essay
The Causes of Altruism Essay
Altruism In Nursing Essay
Reflection On Altruism
Altruism in Everyday Life Essay
What Is Altruism?
Effective Altruism Essay
The Causes of Altruism Essay
Altruism In Nursing Essay
Reflection On Altruism
Altruism in Everyday Life Essay
What Is Altruism?
This document provides an overview of ethical theories and their application to business, including:
- Utilitarianism as formulated by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, which evaluates actions based on their consequences and maximizing happiness. It supports market economics but faces challenges in measurement and balancing individual freedom.
- Deontology focuses on duties and obligations over consequences. Divine Command Theory holds that our duty is to obey God's commands.
- Both theories can inform business policy, with utilitarianism emphasizing experts, efficiency and aggregate welfare and deontology emphasizing duties to stakeholders. Overall the document examines how ethical theories underpin discussions of business ethics and governance.
Critical Analysis Essay. 4 Easy Ways to Write a Critical Analysis with PicturesRoberta Turner
Critical Analysis Essay Examples for Students. 009 Critical Review Essay Example Sample Analysis Paper Thatsnotus. Writing a Critical Essay Structure and Tips Pro Essay Help. How to write a critical analysis essay example - Critical Analysis .... How to Write a Critical Essay: Ultimate Guide by Bid4Papers. Critical Analysis Essay: Full Writing Guide with Examples EssayPro .... How to Write Critical Analysis Essay with Examples. 017 Critical Essay Example Thatsnotus. Example of a critical analysis essay. Critical Analysis Essay: Full .... 006 Critical Analysis Essay 130885 Review Thatsnotus. Critical Response Essay : How to write a research paper for thesis. 003 Essay Example Critical Review Analysis Resume Acierta Us Picture .... Essay outline: What is critical analysis essay. How to write a critical analysis essay key - Key Critical Thinking .... Critical Analysis Essay 101: How to Write a Literary Analysis
ElasticityUnit I introduced the benefits of markets to impEvonCanales257
Elasticity
Unit I introduced the benefits of markets to improving outcomes for producers and consumers. Unit II examined the role of costs and prices in decision-making. For this assignment, you will answer a series of questions in the form of an essay. Support your answers with research from at least three peer-reviewed journal articles
Research elasticity information for two particular goods: one with an elastic demand and one with an inelastic demand. Using elasticity information you gather, predict changes in demand. The United States Department of Agriculture website has a good resource to help with this.
1. Describe how marginal analysis, by avoiding sunk costs, leads to better pricing decisions.
2. Explain the importance of opportunity costs to decision-making and how opportunity costs lead to trade.
3. Evaluate how better business decisions can benefit not just the producer but the consumer and society as a whole. In your evaluation, contrast the deontology and consequentialism approaches to ethics.
Your essay must be at least three pages in length (not counting the title and references pages) and include at least three peer-reviewed resources. Adhere to APA Style when writing your essay, including citations and references for sources used. Be sure to include an introduction. Please note that no abstract is needed
Instructions
This unit’s readings included information on pricing. You are introduced to the shutdown price, using elasticity to determine the effects of price changes, and cost-based pricing. Discuss the importance of considering elasticity in pricing decisions and the danger of relying solely on costs.
Journal entry must be at least 200 words in length. No references or citations are necessary.
Journal at Personality and Social Psycholoty
1968, Vol. 10, No. 3, 215-221
GROUP INHIBITION OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION
IN EMERGENCIES l
BIBB LATANfi 2
Columbia University
AND JOHN M, DARLEY »
New York University
Male undergraduates found themselves in a smoke-filling room either alone,
with 2 nonreacting others, or in groups of 3. As predicted, Ss were less likely to
report the smoke when in the presence of passive others (10%) or in groups of
3 (38% of groups) than when alone (75%). This result seemed to have been
mediated by the way 5s interpreted the ambiguous situation; seeing other
people remain passive led Ss to decide the smoke was not dangerous.
Emergencies, fortunately, are uncommon
events. Although the average person may read
about them in newspapers or watch fictional-
ized versions on television, he probably will
encounter fewer than half a dozen in his life-
time. Unfortunately, when he does encounter
one, he will have had little direct personal
experience in dealing with it. And he must
deal with it under conditions of urgency, un-
certainty, stress, and fear. About all the indi-
vidual has to guide him is the secondhand
wisdom of the late movie, which is often as
useful as "Be brave" or as applic ...
You Decide - Choices and ConsequencesAssignmentThe You Decid.docxmaxinesmith73660
You Decide - Choices and Consequences
Assignment:
The "You Decide" assignment presents a difficult and painful dilemma, with you in an imagined professional role. Go through the You Decide presentation, make the decision it calls for, meet you’re your team or partner to discuss, and compose a paper and presentation that explains your decision and your reasoning and justification for it.
You are called upon to make a painful medical decision and to explain it both orally and in writing. Who benefits from what you decided, who gets denied a needed benefit, and why? You will compose an official memorandum that will be kept for the record and could potentially be read not only by your Peer Review Committee, but also by those involved in charitable fundraising, which supports hospital development, as well as by others with financial interests in the decision.
You will see notice that there is time pressure in the simulated situation, so remember that you would not have the luxury to dawdle in the decision-making process, and as the decision-maker, you would not have the luxury of consulting a broad spectrum of advisors. It falls on you and your team or partner to decide!
Include in the document and presentation the utilitarian ethical philosophy of John Stuart Mill (from attached) and one other ethical philosopher of your choosing that we have studied to date, and use both of those philosophies to bolster your decision. This paper will be at least 2 pages and no more than 3 pages with a 2-3 minute oral presentation on which you and your team or partner may (ideally and preferably) collaborate. Remember, both professional written form and potential audience, as well as tone when writing this sensitive memorandum.
Scenario
Ok, Lead Surgeon, it is time to do what you do best! There is a lot at stake. The decision must be made almost immediately. Like all actions, you will need to write your decision into medical documentation before you begin. Yes, that means YOU! In the limited time before you would begin surgery, you need to consider the cases; the technical issues involved also, and write a Memorandum for the Record to document what decision you made and what considerations you included in your process. This will be on the record, so it needs to be thorough in case it needs to justify your actions at a later date.
Role
You are the Lead Surgeon in a major hospital, and by virtue of your seniority you are also the key decision maker for transplant cases. Right now you have three people who are waiting and hoping for a suitable heart to become available. Your cell phone rings suddenly, and you are notified that a heart has become available-meaning that you need to make a quick yet sound decision about which patient will receive the heart and then schedule surgery for today.
Players
Jerry
Male, 55 year old family man, mid-level manage
Jerry, a father of 3 children and at the age of 55, is in the Ward awaiting a suitable heart for transplanting. Hi.
Ashley Waddy
English 112
November 23, 2015
Poverty 2
What I Know, Assume, or Imagine
Poverty is the state of lacking something. Personally, I view poverty as the lack of ability in monetary terms. This is conveyed about by, one being declared bankrupt or unemployment or even one being lazy. These factors have led to people reoccupying their households and dwelling in the slums.
Not everyone though, who lives in the slums is poor and not everyone who also lives well is rich. From what I have learned, everyone who lives below one Dollar a day is poor.The Search
According to the dictionary, poverty is the state of lacking a social or common acceptable amount of material possessions or money. World Bank describes poverty as a deprivation of one’s wellbeing which comprises many dimensions. This is the inability of acquiring the basic goods and services and low incomes
Also, poverty girdles inadequate security, lack of a voice or say, low opportunity and capacity to better one’s livelihood, poor access to sanitation and clean water, and low levels of education and health.
Poverty is measured as either relative poverty or absolute poverty also known as extreme poverty. The Copenhagen Declaration focuses only on absolute poverty. Absolute poverty is the condition brought about by severe lack of basic human needs. These are food, clothing, shelter and security. Education, health and information are also included.
Absolute poverty is the state where one lives below one Dollar a day and relative poverty is the state by which one lives below two Dollars a day.
Relative poverty on the other hand is the state in which an individual lives within a society. This varies in most countries, but as stated above, anyone who lives below two Dollars a day is termed to be relatively poor.
According to a survey conducted by the World Bank Development Indicators in 2008, 12% of the world’s population are extremely poor. This means that these people live below one Dollar a day. 8% of the same population lived on 1.25 Dollars a day, 6% at 1.45 Dollars and 14% at 2 Dollars a day. This means that 28% of the world’s population are relatively poor. Generally, less than 80% of the population live below 10 Dollars a day.
The main causes of poverty around the World are, bad government policies, lack of individual responsibility, power and influence among businesses and exploitation of people. There are more factors like, agricultural cycles, warfare, natural disasters, power centralization, corruption and environmental degradation.
However, each of the causes above has a solution. In agricultural cycles, there are people in many parts of the world who rely solely on agriculture as their source of wealth and basic commodities. Normally, all consumption commodities will rely on the agricultural cycles. Take an example of fruits and vegetables. For the families who rely on these commodities, there are periods wh ...
Gordon McManus Ch 11, 12 ,13 'From Communism to Schizophrenia'Andrew Voyce MA
This document summarizes chapters from the book "From Communism to Schizophrenia and Beyond". Chapter 11 discusses nomothetic and ideographic approaches in psychiatry. Chapter 12 discusses the importance of employment in recovery from mental illness. Unemployment can worsen mental health conditions and lead to social exclusion. Chapter 13 emphasizes the power of personal narratives and stories in the recovery process for both patients and practitioners. Chapter 14 discusses how one man's recovery journey can inspire others and the need for both medical and recovery-focused approaches in mental healthcare.
The document discusses several philosophical approaches to ethics, including moral relativism, emotivism, religious ethics, deontological ethics as proposed by Kant, and utilitarianism as proposed by Bentham and Mill. It raises objections to each approach and discusses how they would apply to various moral scenarios. While no theory is perfect, considering ethical issues from different perspectives can help us make reasoned decisions and justify our actions.
Respond 1For better detection of the specific fraud I wou.docxpeggyd2
Respond 1:
For better detection of the specific fraud I would have done an intensive approach of the top down structure of the company. While having assessment of the different structural analysis as well as having electronic data management system which can be analyzed plea for observing any kind of destructions into the company would have been my choice for early detection of the specific scandal. By having multiple financial analysis and also having a specific team to analyses the situation as well as having a find eye on the investment from the company would also have been my main motive to create more ethical working environment without any standard.
By implementing new accounting methods and implementing the new risk management strategies would also have been my main concern. Be specific technological advancements as well as implementation of newer strategies into the organization would have directly helped me too early detect this is specific scandal and to overcome the situation.
While having intense Research and analysis over the financial structure of the company, I would have directly increase the level of implementation of risk management strategies as well as analysis strategies which would have been reduced or stopped the specific situation.
Respond 2:
For this weeks discussion, I decided to tackle the Wells Fargo Account Scandals that rocked us back in 2016 that started with then WF CEO Tim Sloan. There were millions of fake accounts that were created so that the bank would look more profitable, all while the higher ups were also taking this money. Many employees were fired as the accounts were created by them under what was dubbed extreme pressure but regardless, employees knew exactly what they were doing was immoral and also very illegal. Personal information was taken from WF customers and credit cards were opened, accounts were opened and the customers didn't find out until they were no longer able to utilize their accounts. What a scummy thing to do and what a terrible way to find out. I have since terminated my banking with WF because I didn't like their customer service and how unhelpful they usually always were. I have also heard from many sources that individuals that work at WF are treated poorly, have poor insurance and the morale is extremely low. So how does it still stay as one of the largest banks? Whistleblowers alerted authorities of stuff like this happening years prior to the scandal. I think that whistleblowers are effective because they never have to feel like there will be repercussions or negativity and it is a way to report and protect your family.
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Respond to 1 peers Discussion 6200Choose a colleague’s post .docxpeggyd2
Respond to 1 peers Discussion 6200
Choose a colleague’s post and widen the discussion by offering two additional responses to noted indicators. Please use the Learning Resources to support your answer.
Ashleigh Discussion
· After learning about the character in the Parker Family case study, imagine that you were the school social worker. Which indicators would you have looked for and why.
There were several indicators discussed in the Parker Family video. The fact that she was a teenager, depressed, and had a lack of family support are three factors that stood out to me. “Suicide among adolescents continues to be a national concern, with over 1,900 children in the United States under the age of 20 dying by suicide annually” (Miers, Abbott, & Springer, 2012). She was also displaying signs of being depressed with her friends by losing interest in activities. This is a big indicator for possible suicide because she isn’t thinking clearly. Finally, after the attempted suicide, not only is she prone to try again but her family didn’t seem to care and acted like everything was fine. Her cry for help was not heard.
· How would you have responded to each of those indicators?
If I knew she was depressed I would have tried to get her in to see her doctor and possibly suggest an antidepressant. With the lack of family support, she could do individual counseling and group therapy to listen to other survivors of attempted suicide and work on an outside support system for herself.
· What kinds of questions would you have asked and why?
I would ask Stephanie about what kinds of things make her sad and happy. Also asking about what she does to help cope with stressful situations. Being able to learn how cope with stress can help to create healthy habits later on.
SOCW 6051 2 PEERS
Respond
to at least two colleagues who visited a different site and note similarities and differences between what you had learned and what your colleagues had shared about steps for becoming an ally to that group. Explain the impact of what your colleagues shared in their post.
Ashleigh Discusson post
Post a brief description of the website you visited.
The website I chose to visit was called Thorn. This website was created by Ashton Kutcher and Demi Moore in 2012 that helped to create one solution via technology for catching child human trafficking. They are “able to quickly assess whether new technologies can be repurposed to protect children from sexual exploitation through one of our three strategic pillars: 1) accelerating victim identification 2) equipping platforms, and 3) empowering the public” (Defending Children From Sexual Abuse).
Explain how you might support Veronica and other human trafficking victims incorporating the information you have found.
I would help to support Veronica and other victims by working on building trust and working on the issues of PTSD. Since there are no young support groups, I would create a support group specific fo.
Respond substantively to the initial posts of at least two of your p.docxpeggyd2
Respond substantively to the initial posts of at least two of your peers. Use the links provided by your peers to review their programs’ outcomes and their institutions’ missions, visions, and goals. Do you agree with each peer’s evaluation of the alignment? Do you see any opportunities to improve the alignment?
I have attached 2 classmates discussions for you to respond to
Please respond in 1st person to each classmate
.
Respond 1The AICPA Code of Conduct is based on six princi.docxpeggyd2
Respond 1:
The AICPA Code of Conduct is based on six principles; (1) responsibilities (2) serve the public interest (3) integrity (4) objectivity and independence (5) due care and (6) scope and nature of services. These principles are required practices for all certified public accountants who are members of the AICPA.
1. Responsibilities: Every professional has the obligation and duty to perform every action in order to complete the tasks that were assigned. All members need to work together to ensure that all responsibilities are met in a timely and respective manner.
2. Integrity: This principle can be easily violated by professionals as they can perform actions that are deemed inappropriate. Professionals need to be honest in their work and follow the code of conduct principles. Integrity also is a characteristic of the person performing the action.
Respond 2
The Professional conduct standards that the AICPA members must adhere to are Responsibilities, The Public Interest, Integrity, Objectivity and Independence and Due Care. In my opinion the most violated standards are Responsibility and objectivity and independence.
Responsibility: Often times people forget the responsibility they have to report certain things to shareholders and the general public. Sometimes accountants get caught up in pleasing certain shareholders or even trying to gain from a company that they violate the responsibility of reporting the truth and doing what they were hired to do! They have a responsibility to report on mishandling of money or any issues that may raise a red flag, but often times they just turn a blind eye.
Objectivity and independence: Under the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct, in the performance of any professional service, a member must maintain objectivity and integrity, shall be free of conflicts of interest, and shall not knowingly misrepresent facts. It is really hard to be objective and not biases in this day and age. With the internet and social media, you often come across information that causes you to be objective without even realizing it. But they should try not to have conflict of interest and this is the part that most people violate. Conflict of interest can be as simple as having stock in the company you are an accountant for.
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Respond in the following waysAsk a probing question.Share a.docxpeggyd2
Respond in the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
You can respond by providing a summary and reference to research in the literature.
.
Respond in a paragraph to the discussion board. In your response.docxpeggyd2
1) The document discusses various methods for analyzing qualitative data collected from student interviews at Highland Park High School, including identifying themes by carefully reading interview transcripts, developing a coding scheme, and sorting data by themes.
2) It also discusses using concept maps to visualize major influences on the study from different perspectives like students, parents, teachers and administrators.
3) The analysis process included connecting findings to personal experiences of the researchers and seeking insights from critical friends to further interpret and clarify the data.
Respond in a paragraph the discussion board. In your response,.docxpeggyd2
The researcher faced an ethical dilemma in their study due to a lack of informed consent when only one of the intended three classes participated. This compromised the study results, as the data did not represent all three classes as intended. To resolve this, the researchers should have obtained proper informed consent from participants and ensured the data collection process represented all classes to avoid biasing the results. A researcher's roles include obtaining informed consent, accurately reporting data, avoiding deception, and following ethical principles of beneficence, justice and respecting participants' autonomy.
RESPOND EACH STUDENT 200 WORDSRonnie Sims Week 4 Rodgers vs..docxpeggyd2
RESPOND EACH STUDENT 200 WORDS
Ronnie Sims
Week 4 Rodgers vs. Mackey
Top of Form
Maximizing long term shareholder value is one of the objectives many businesses have in determining their growth and success. Shareholders are regarded as the owners of the companies and so, their worth should always be given the top priority before any other business is considered. However, when corporations act ethically by contributing towards their immediate societies through corporate social responsibility initiatives, they are seen to disregard the shareholder wealth maximization objective. Organizations should strike a balance between community based charity initiatives and taking care of their real owners. Firms that fail to maximize the wealth of their owners have always been at loggerheads and may end up losing their worth in the market. Adding more value to the society than it is to the company may mean lack of understanding of the company and its objectives which is also another recipe for long term failure.
This concept is far more important to businesses, society and individuals in that its understanding facilitates proper coordination between the three extremes. The best position to approach this issue is from Mackey whose ideas stress on the need to balance between organizational objectives and societal needs. According to Hartman, DesJardins, & MacDonald, (2018). When the long-term shareholder value is fully maximized, attention should then focus on the societal needs based on their urgency. Individuals will have a better understanding of the firm, its objectives and the focal areas before its attention is shifted to those outside its realms. Additionally, the society will know where the focus of the organization is and develop a framework that will cater for their needs, instead of depending on the corporation for all their needs.
Bottom of Form
Miguel Bernal
Week 4 Discussion
Top of Form
There are many corporations throughout the world that are successful and some that go under. The ones that survived are the ones that create items that society needs, but also sell their product at a price that people can afford. The job of business managers is to make sure that the company’s investing in technology, buying or maintaining equipment, process running correctly, people are working efficiently, and facilities are in working order. On top of that, workers need to be provided with fair wages and good benefits. If workers feel that they are not getting treated right, they might refuse to work for the company or go on strike. These means that products for that company will not be created and the stock prices start falling. All of these items required money, money helps create the products and money in needed to pay workers. Some of the money is from shareholders, which could also be used for investments. The more shareholders buy stocks, the more money than can flow into the company for expansion of facilities, equipment, human capital, an.
Respond for this posting one paragraph with two references and cita.docxpeggyd2
Respond for this posting one paragraph with two references and citation
Agenda setting is a huge process that involves many steps. According to (Cobb, 2020), agenda setting takes three “streams”, these streams have to work together before a policy problem makes it on the agenda. These three streams are a problem, the solution presented, and the “political will to deal with it.” These three streams can involve a lot of work. First you have a problem, this problem is determined to be a problem by the citizens, government, etc. They prove it is a problem with data to support as evidence. This process alone is lengthy, requires a lot of research and data collection. Next is the solution, sometimes this may be the hardest part. We can have issues with a current policy but, not have a solution to change the policy. Then last you have to have the political support and willingness to deal with the issue. After these three streams are working together, then getting it put on the agenda take persistence and someone to push for it.
Who would be an agenda maker? This could be several people. For one, progressives, these people feel strong about an issue and are persistent to push for change. Senate members also set agendas. They are presented with the problem and solution by regional government officials from state to state. These issues may include for example, the need for a COVID vaccine in Kentucky. This is the problem, with evidence of the number of COVID cases in the region. The solution is to obtain the vaccines, providing the statistics and resources to get them. Then the willingness for the senate member to work with this issue. According to (Milken, 2020), there are several different vaccines available, one being DNA based vaccination and another being inactivated virus. These are two vaccines that will be available in the next couple weeks. This agenda setting was successful, vaccines are being distributed now. The reason for the success was due to the mass casualties and illnesses reported all over the region.
References
Whitman Cobb, W. N. (2020).
Political science today.
(1st ed.). Washington, DC: Sage, CQ Press
Milken Institute. (2020).
Covid-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker.
Retrieved from
Milken Institute’s COVID-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker tracks the development of treatments and vaccines for COVID-19 at covid-19tracker.milkeninstitute.org #COVID19 #coronavirus #COVID19treatment #COVID19vaccine @MilkenInstitute @FirstPersonSF (Links to an external site.)
.
Respond by Day 7 to at least one of your colleagues postings .docxpeggyd2
Respond by Day 7
to at least
one
of your colleagues' postings in one or more of the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Validate an idea with your own experience.
Make a suggestion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
Classmate: Tcj
The two influences that have changed the nature of work are the continually evolving technology and all kinds of researched and invented tests. In the 1990s job performance was still searching for predictors that show workplace standard performance (Borman, Ilgen, & Klimoski, 2003). The world of work most importantly in the industrial and organizational psychology field focuses on human behavior in the workplace with the help of technology. New software’s and fast technologies have made an incredible change in the workplace and how the roles become more efficient and cost-effective in organizations. Databases and networking technology make it possible for operations to function effectively (Bridges, 1994). Additionally, new technology allows us to create automate both assembly and production lines to help cut human labor to increase production. As we grow in our work environments, services and technologies along with new trends have allowed the workforce to emerge and grow. The economy is on the rise with different organizations and firms
Historically providing testing for different reasons still questions the data obtained and the variables. Researchers have done very well isolating tests to perform what it is intended to measure. Testing is used widely to fill certain job positions and seek certain characteristics in an individual for specialized careers. Mr. Alfred Binet who invented the first intelligence test commonly known today as the Binet-Simon scale. The French doctor specialized in a neurological lab in Paris then went to explore the field of psychology (Binet’s Intelligence Test, n.d.).
.
Respond by providing at least two contributions for improving .docxpeggyd2
Respond
by providing at least two contributions for improving or including in their Parent Guide and at least two things that you like about their guide.
NOTE: Positive comment
Main Discussion
ADHD Parent Guide
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined as a chronic neurological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity. In 2016, it is estimated that 6.1 million or 9.4% of children had a diagnosis of ADHD (
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
, n.d.). A diagnosis of ADHD can be both confusing and welcomed. Confusing because the details of the diagnosis are unknown but welcomed because the parents and child finally have a “why” for the child’s difficulties. This parent guide will discuss the pathophysiolology, diagnosing, signs/symptoms, treatment options, and other aspects involved in an ADHD diagnosis.
Pathophysiology
Many research studies suggest ADHD may be caused by interactions between genes and environmental or non-genetic factors. Many cases of ADHD have a genetic origin. A child is 50% more likely to have ADHD if their parent was diagnosed with the condition and 25% of the children with ADHD have parents who have met the criteria for a diagnosis of ADHD. Other factors that can contribute to ADHD is substance use, low birth weight, brain injuries and exposure to some environmental toxins.
ADHD is a result of neurotransmitter disease dysfunction, that effect dopamine and norepinephrine. Dopamine has a role in a person's ability to learn and reinforcing trained response to various situations. Dopamine also plays and important role in "working memory"(
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
, 2004). Norepinephrine effects a person's alertness and attention. Norepinephrine is activated by novel and important stimuli and are quiescent during sleep.
Environmental factors of ADHD is a result of a toxin such as lead or other nuero-toxic substances that may result in delayed development of the child's brain before, during or birth. Substance abuse is a very common cause of pre- and perinatal factors that may result in ADHD. Exposure of the fetus to alcohol is associated with a reduction in the volume of the prefrontal and temporal cortices, the brain areas involved in regulation of attention and control of impulsivity. (
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
, 2004)
Diagnosing ADHD
While there is no single test to diagnosis ADHD, there are ways to obtain an accurate diagnosis.
Who diagnosis ADHD?
There are many health care professionals who are qualified to diagnose ADHD. These professionals include but are not limited to psychiatrist, psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner (PMHNP), licensed master social worker (LMSW), licensed professional counselor (LPC), neurologist, pediatricians, and primary care physicians. If there is a concern that a ch.
Respond agree or disagreeVulnerabilities in system design can .docxpeggyd2
Respond agree or disagree
Vulnerabilities in system design can be detrimental to any network, large or small any flaw that can be exploited should not be taken lightly. Engineers generally assume that mechanisms serve their intended purpose. Is that always true? The “smarter” something is, the quicker we lose control and become fully dependent on it (Trofimova & Hoske, 2016).
A vulnerability I found is a trust assumption and that is when a designer is aware of a security weakness and determining that a separate security control would compensate for it. However, trust assumptions are often implicit, such as creating a feature without first evaluating the risks it would introduce (Mozilla, 2018). This is something that when designing your system to not underestimate because as the article stated, these assumptions are often complicit and don't take every risk into account which could leave a window open to your system.
Another is always consider the users, this means when designing your network take into account the people that will be using it on a daily basis (IEEE, 2014) Every system is different and complex and therefore requires the designer to know who his users are. The security stance of a software system is inextricably linked to what its users do with it. It is therefore very important that all security-related mechanisms are designed in a manner that makes it easy to deploy, configure, use, and update the system securely. Remember, security is not a feature that can simply be added to a software system, but rather a property emerging from how the system was built and is operated (IEEE, 2014).
Trofimova, E., & Hoske, M. T. 1. [email protected] co. (2016). Retrieved from https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aci&AN=117494073&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Mozilla. (2018). Vulnerabilities. Retrieved from https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Security/Information_Security_Basics/Vulnerabilities
IEEE. (2014). Avoiding the top 10 software security design flaws. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b291/be7d567d63dc60043a8cb1fbbfcfe8d18c83.pdf
Respond agree or disagree
System design vulnerabilities occurs very often and attackers or exploit hunters are always on the hunt for any opportunities that are presented. During the process a product is being developed it is very important to incorporate cybersecurity and quality control teams. This incorporation has brought a new wave that I have seen and currently experiencing in my current role, DevOps. DevOps is a team where Developers and Operations work together to produce a finished product that has been through QA and cybersecurity teams have also made suggestions and participated during the production.
Developers are great at what they do, but often they forfeit some security best practice to make something on their end work. Also, the risk of developers to forget, or simply disregard any input validation thro.
Respond by Day 5 to at least one of your colleagues postings .docxpeggyd2
Respond by Day 5
to at least
one
of your colleagues' postings in one or more of the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Validate an idea with your own experience.
Make a suggestion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
Classmate TH
Being the future of this field it is important to understand, recall, and reflect on the historical significance of those who have pioneered the trails that we shall follow. Within historical bounds it is important to understand and have a working knowledge of the work that those pioneers have performed ahead of us, which will all for a better product of consultation. When I recall historical significance within our field I think of the work of Dr. Stanley Silverman and how he was instrumental in the development of the WARS system. The WARS system was developed in conjunction with the University of Michigan in efforts to identify arrogance within organizational leadership. It has been fabled (and later proven fact) that good team members do not typically leave jobs they enjoy, rather the cause of departure is leadership they have problems. The works of Dr. Stanley have proven these speculations time and time again, through his works with some of the most public institutions known today (ie: Disney Entertainment). Through the development of items such as the WARS system work place synergism has been possible for many organizations when faced with adversity within a chain of command and/or leadership structure.
I have been employed in public service for nearly 20 years (it is truly the only career I have ever known). I like many of my tenured colleagues have rose through our ranks from entry level paramedics to high ranking leadership positions. I no longer have high ranking "brass" ever since I decided to modify my career path in efforts to lessen demands and stress. I now fly on medical helicopters in PA and NJ as a crew member which allows my to pursue my true passions of medicine and aviation. The organization which I was part of the prior leadership structure had many safe guards in place to ensure that we all worked as a team in addition to staying "grounded" as managers with certain types of authorities that the "rank and file" did not. We met twice a year with a consultant from Penn State University who would lead various discussion on effective communication. The results which we experienced in staff satisfaction surveys in addition to annual reviews proved to us that this basic training was needed and was effective.
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ElasticityUnit I introduced the benefits of markets to impEvonCanales257
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Unit I introduced the benefits of markets to improving outcomes for producers and consumers. Unit II examined the role of costs and prices in decision-making. For this assignment, you will answer a series of questions in the form of an essay. Support your answers with research from at least three peer-reviewed journal articles
Research elasticity information for two particular goods: one with an elastic demand and one with an inelastic demand. Using elasticity information you gather, predict changes in demand. The United States Department of Agriculture website has a good resource to help with this.
1. Describe how marginal analysis, by avoiding sunk costs, leads to better pricing decisions.
2. Explain the importance of opportunity costs to decision-making and how opportunity costs lead to trade.
3. Evaluate how better business decisions can benefit not just the producer but the consumer and society as a whole. In your evaluation, contrast the deontology and consequentialism approaches to ethics.
Your essay must be at least three pages in length (not counting the title and references pages) and include at least three peer-reviewed resources. Adhere to APA Style when writing your essay, including citations and references for sources used. Be sure to include an introduction. Please note that no abstract is needed
Instructions
This unit’s readings included information on pricing. You are introduced to the shutdown price, using elasticity to determine the effects of price changes, and cost-based pricing. Discuss the importance of considering elasticity in pricing decisions and the danger of relying solely on costs.
Journal entry must be at least 200 words in length. No references or citations are necessary.
Journal at Personality and Social Psycholoty
1968, Vol. 10, No. 3, 215-221
GROUP INHIBITION OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION
IN EMERGENCIES l
BIBB LATANfi 2
Columbia University
AND JOHN M, DARLEY »
New York University
Male undergraduates found themselves in a smoke-filling room either alone,
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report the smoke when in the presence of passive others (10%) or in groups of
3 (38% of groups) than when alone (75%). This result seemed to have been
mediated by the way 5s interpreted the ambiguous situation; seeing other
people remain passive led Ss to decide the smoke was not dangerous.
Emergencies, fortunately, are uncommon
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about them in newspapers or watch fictional-
ized versions on television, he probably will
encounter fewer than half a dozen in his life-
time. Unfortunately, when he does encounter
one, he will have had little direct personal
experience in dealing with it. And he must
deal with it under conditions of urgency, un-
certainty, stress, and fear. About all the indi-
vidual has to guide him is the secondhand
wisdom of the late movie, which is often as
useful as "Be brave" or as applic ...
You Decide - Choices and ConsequencesAssignmentThe You Decid.docxmaxinesmith73660
You Decide - Choices and Consequences
Assignment:
The "You Decide" assignment presents a difficult and painful dilemma, with you in an imagined professional role. Go through the You Decide presentation, make the decision it calls for, meet you’re your team or partner to discuss, and compose a paper and presentation that explains your decision and your reasoning and justification for it.
You are called upon to make a painful medical decision and to explain it both orally and in writing. Who benefits from what you decided, who gets denied a needed benefit, and why? You will compose an official memorandum that will be kept for the record and could potentially be read not only by your Peer Review Committee, but also by those involved in charitable fundraising, which supports hospital development, as well as by others with financial interests in the decision.
You will see notice that there is time pressure in the simulated situation, so remember that you would not have the luxury to dawdle in the decision-making process, and as the decision-maker, you would not have the luxury of consulting a broad spectrum of advisors. It falls on you and your team or partner to decide!
Include in the document and presentation the utilitarian ethical philosophy of John Stuart Mill (from attached) and one other ethical philosopher of your choosing that we have studied to date, and use both of those philosophies to bolster your decision. This paper will be at least 2 pages and no more than 3 pages with a 2-3 minute oral presentation on which you and your team or partner may (ideally and preferably) collaborate. Remember, both professional written form and potential audience, as well as tone when writing this sensitive memorandum.
Scenario
Ok, Lead Surgeon, it is time to do what you do best! There is a lot at stake. The decision must be made almost immediately. Like all actions, you will need to write your decision into medical documentation before you begin. Yes, that means YOU! In the limited time before you would begin surgery, you need to consider the cases; the technical issues involved also, and write a Memorandum for the Record to document what decision you made and what considerations you included in your process. This will be on the record, so it needs to be thorough in case it needs to justify your actions at a later date.
Role
You are the Lead Surgeon in a major hospital, and by virtue of your seniority you are also the key decision maker for transplant cases. Right now you have three people who are waiting and hoping for a suitable heart to become available. Your cell phone rings suddenly, and you are notified that a heart has become available-meaning that you need to make a quick yet sound decision about which patient will receive the heart and then schedule surgery for today.
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Jerry, a father of 3 children and at the age of 55, is in the Ward awaiting a suitable heart for transplanting. Hi.
Ashley Waddy
English 112
November 23, 2015
Poverty 2
What I Know, Assume, or Imagine
Poverty is the state of lacking something. Personally, I view poverty as the lack of ability in monetary terms. This is conveyed about by, one being declared bankrupt or unemployment or even one being lazy. These factors have led to people reoccupying their households and dwelling in the slums.
Not everyone though, who lives in the slums is poor and not everyone who also lives well is rich. From what I have learned, everyone who lives below one Dollar a day is poor.The Search
According to the dictionary, poverty is the state of lacking a social or common acceptable amount of material possessions or money. World Bank describes poverty as a deprivation of one’s wellbeing which comprises many dimensions. This is the inability of acquiring the basic goods and services and low incomes
Also, poverty girdles inadequate security, lack of a voice or say, low opportunity and capacity to better one’s livelihood, poor access to sanitation and clean water, and low levels of education and health.
Poverty is measured as either relative poverty or absolute poverty also known as extreme poverty. The Copenhagen Declaration focuses only on absolute poverty. Absolute poverty is the condition brought about by severe lack of basic human needs. These are food, clothing, shelter and security. Education, health and information are also included.
Absolute poverty is the state where one lives below one Dollar a day and relative poverty is the state by which one lives below two Dollars a day.
Relative poverty on the other hand is the state in which an individual lives within a society. This varies in most countries, but as stated above, anyone who lives below two Dollars a day is termed to be relatively poor.
According to a survey conducted by the World Bank Development Indicators in 2008, 12% of the world’s population are extremely poor. This means that these people live below one Dollar a day. 8% of the same population lived on 1.25 Dollars a day, 6% at 1.45 Dollars and 14% at 2 Dollars a day. This means that 28% of the world’s population are relatively poor. Generally, less than 80% of the population live below 10 Dollars a day.
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This document summarizes chapters from the book "From Communism to Schizophrenia and Beyond". Chapter 11 discusses nomothetic and ideographic approaches in psychiatry. Chapter 12 discusses the importance of employment in recovery from mental illness. Unemployment can worsen mental health conditions and lead to social exclusion. Chapter 13 emphasizes the power of personal narratives and stories in the recovery process for both patients and practitioners. Chapter 14 discusses how one man's recovery journey can inspire others and the need for both medical and recovery-focused approaches in mental healthcare.
The document discusses several philosophical approaches to ethics, including moral relativism, emotivism, religious ethics, deontological ethics as proposed by Kant, and utilitarianism as proposed by Bentham and Mill. It raises objections to each approach and discusses how they would apply to various moral scenarios. While no theory is perfect, considering ethical issues from different perspectives can help us make reasoned decisions and justify our actions.
Similar to Respond to each item below in 2–3 paragraphs. Use Learning Resourc.docx (9)
Respond 1For better detection of the specific fraud I wou.docxpeggyd2
Respond 1:
For better detection of the specific fraud I would have done an intensive approach of the top down structure of the company. While having assessment of the different structural analysis as well as having electronic data management system which can be analyzed plea for observing any kind of destructions into the company would have been my choice for early detection of the specific scandal. By having multiple financial analysis and also having a specific team to analyses the situation as well as having a find eye on the investment from the company would also have been my main motive to create more ethical working environment without any standard.
By implementing new accounting methods and implementing the new risk management strategies would also have been my main concern. Be specific technological advancements as well as implementation of newer strategies into the organization would have directly helped me too early detect this is specific scandal and to overcome the situation.
While having intense Research and analysis over the financial structure of the company, I would have directly increase the level of implementation of risk management strategies as well as analysis strategies which would have been reduced or stopped the specific situation.
Respond 2:
For this weeks discussion, I decided to tackle the Wells Fargo Account Scandals that rocked us back in 2016 that started with then WF CEO Tim Sloan. There were millions of fake accounts that were created so that the bank would look more profitable, all while the higher ups were also taking this money. Many employees were fired as the accounts were created by them under what was dubbed extreme pressure but regardless, employees knew exactly what they were doing was immoral and also very illegal. Personal information was taken from WF customers and credit cards were opened, accounts were opened and the customers didn't find out until they were no longer able to utilize their accounts. What a scummy thing to do and what a terrible way to find out. I have since terminated my banking with WF because I didn't like their customer service and how unhelpful they usually always were. I have also heard from many sources that individuals that work at WF are treated poorly, have poor insurance and the morale is extremely low. So how does it still stay as one of the largest banks? Whistleblowers alerted authorities of stuff like this happening years prior to the scandal. I think that whistleblowers are effective because they never have to feel like there will be repercussions or negativity and it is a way to report and protect your family.
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Respond to 1 peers Discussion 6200Choose a colleague’s post .docxpeggyd2
Respond to 1 peers Discussion 6200
Choose a colleague’s post and widen the discussion by offering two additional responses to noted indicators. Please use the Learning Resources to support your answer.
Ashleigh Discussion
· After learning about the character in the Parker Family case study, imagine that you were the school social worker. Which indicators would you have looked for and why.
There were several indicators discussed in the Parker Family video. The fact that she was a teenager, depressed, and had a lack of family support are three factors that stood out to me. “Suicide among adolescents continues to be a national concern, with over 1,900 children in the United States under the age of 20 dying by suicide annually” (Miers, Abbott, & Springer, 2012). She was also displaying signs of being depressed with her friends by losing interest in activities. This is a big indicator for possible suicide because she isn’t thinking clearly. Finally, after the attempted suicide, not only is she prone to try again but her family didn’t seem to care and acted like everything was fine. Her cry for help was not heard.
· How would you have responded to each of those indicators?
If I knew she was depressed I would have tried to get her in to see her doctor and possibly suggest an antidepressant. With the lack of family support, she could do individual counseling and group therapy to listen to other survivors of attempted suicide and work on an outside support system for herself.
· What kinds of questions would you have asked and why?
I would ask Stephanie about what kinds of things make her sad and happy. Also asking about what she does to help cope with stressful situations. Being able to learn how cope with stress can help to create healthy habits later on.
SOCW 6051 2 PEERS
Respond
to at least two colleagues who visited a different site and note similarities and differences between what you had learned and what your colleagues had shared about steps for becoming an ally to that group. Explain the impact of what your colleagues shared in their post.
Ashleigh Discusson post
Post a brief description of the website you visited.
The website I chose to visit was called Thorn. This website was created by Ashton Kutcher and Demi Moore in 2012 that helped to create one solution via technology for catching child human trafficking. They are “able to quickly assess whether new technologies can be repurposed to protect children from sexual exploitation through one of our three strategic pillars: 1) accelerating victim identification 2) equipping platforms, and 3) empowering the public” (Defending Children From Sexual Abuse).
Explain how you might support Veronica and other human trafficking victims incorporating the information you have found.
I would help to support Veronica and other victims by working on building trust and working on the issues of PTSD. Since there are no young support groups, I would create a support group specific fo.
Respond substantively to the initial posts of at least two of your p.docxpeggyd2
Respond substantively to the initial posts of at least two of your peers. Use the links provided by your peers to review their programs’ outcomes and their institutions’ missions, visions, and goals. Do you agree with each peer’s evaluation of the alignment? Do you see any opportunities to improve the alignment?
I have attached 2 classmates discussions for you to respond to
Please respond in 1st person to each classmate
.
Respond 1The AICPA Code of Conduct is based on six princi.docxpeggyd2
Respond 1:
The AICPA Code of Conduct is based on six principles; (1) responsibilities (2) serve the public interest (3) integrity (4) objectivity and independence (5) due care and (6) scope and nature of services. These principles are required practices for all certified public accountants who are members of the AICPA.
1. Responsibilities: Every professional has the obligation and duty to perform every action in order to complete the tasks that were assigned. All members need to work together to ensure that all responsibilities are met in a timely and respective manner.
2. Integrity: This principle can be easily violated by professionals as they can perform actions that are deemed inappropriate. Professionals need to be honest in their work and follow the code of conduct principles. Integrity also is a characteristic of the person performing the action.
Respond 2
The Professional conduct standards that the AICPA members must adhere to are Responsibilities, The Public Interest, Integrity, Objectivity and Independence and Due Care. In my opinion the most violated standards are Responsibility and objectivity and independence.
Responsibility: Often times people forget the responsibility they have to report certain things to shareholders and the general public. Sometimes accountants get caught up in pleasing certain shareholders or even trying to gain from a company that they violate the responsibility of reporting the truth and doing what they were hired to do! They have a responsibility to report on mishandling of money or any issues that may raise a red flag, but often times they just turn a blind eye.
Objectivity and independence: Under the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct, in the performance of any professional service, a member must maintain objectivity and integrity, shall be free of conflicts of interest, and shall not knowingly misrepresent facts. It is really hard to be objective and not biases in this day and age. With the internet and social media, you often come across information that causes you to be objective without even realizing it. But they should try not to have conflict of interest and this is the part that most people violate. Conflict of interest can be as simple as having stock in the company you are an accountant for.
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Respond in the following waysAsk a probing question.Share a.docxpeggyd2
Respond in the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
You can respond by providing a summary and reference to research in the literature.
.
Respond in a paragraph to the discussion board. In your response.docxpeggyd2
1) The document discusses various methods for analyzing qualitative data collected from student interviews at Highland Park High School, including identifying themes by carefully reading interview transcripts, developing a coding scheme, and sorting data by themes.
2) It also discusses using concept maps to visualize major influences on the study from different perspectives like students, parents, teachers and administrators.
3) The analysis process included connecting findings to personal experiences of the researchers and seeking insights from critical friends to further interpret and clarify the data.
Respond in a paragraph the discussion board. In your response,.docxpeggyd2
The researcher faced an ethical dilemma in their study due to a lack of informed consent when only one of the intended three classes participated. This compromised the study results, as the data did not represent all three classes as intended. To resolve this, the researchers should have obtained proper informed consent from participants and ensured the data collection process represented all classes to avoid biasing the results. A researcher's roles include obtaining informed consent, accurately reporting data, avoiding deception, and following ethical principles of beneficence, justice and respecting participants' autonomy.
RESPOND EACH STUDENT 200 WORDSRonnie Sims Week 4 Rodgers vs..docxpeggyd2
RESPOND EACH STUDENT 200 WORDS
Ronnie Sims
Week 4 Rodgers vs. Mackey
Top of Form
Maximizing long term shareholder value is one of the objectives many businesses have in determining their growth and success. Shareholders are regarded as the owners of the companies and so, their worth should always be given the top priority before any other business is considered. However, when corporations act ethically by contributing towards their immediate societies through corporate social responsibility initiatives, they are seen to disregard the shareholder wealth maximization objective. Organizations should strike a balance between community based charity initiatives and taking care of their real owners. Firms that fail to maximize the wealth of their owners have always been at loggerheads and may end up losing their worth in the market. Adding more value to the society than it is to the company may mean lack of understanding of the company and its objectives which is also another recipe for long term failure.
This concept is far more important to businesses, society and individuals in that its understanding facilitates proper coordination between the three extremes. The best position to approach this issue is from Mackey whose ideas stress on the need to balance between organizational objectives and societal needs. According to Hartman, DesJardins, & MacDonald, (2018). When the long-term shareholder value is fully maximized, attention should then focus on the societal needs based on their urgency. Individuals will have a better understanding of the firm, its objectives and the focal areas before its attention is shifted to those outside its realms. Additionally, the society will know where the focus of the organization is and develop a framework that will cater for their needs, instead of depending on the corporation for all their needs.
Bottom of Form
Miguel Bernal
Week 4 Discussion
Top of Form
There are many corporations throughout the world that are successful and some that go under. The ones that survived are the ones that create items that society needs, but also sell their product at a price that people can afford. The job of business managers is to make sure that the company’s investing in technology, buying or maintaining equipment, process running correctly, people are working efficiently, and facilities are in working order. On top of that, workers need to be provided with fair wages and good benefits. If workers feel that they are not getting treated right, they might refuse to work for the company or go on strike. These means that products for that company will not be created and the stock prices start falling. All of these items required money, money helps create the products and money in needed to pay workers. Some of the money is from shareholders, which could also be used for investments. The more shareholders buy stocks, the more money than can flow into the company for expansion of facilities, equipment, human capital, an.
Respond for this posting one paragraph with two references and cita.docxpeggyd2
Respond for this posting one paragraph with two references and citation
Agenda setting is a huge process that involves many steps. According to (Cobb, 2020), agenda setting takes three “streams”, these streams have to work together before a policy problem makes it on the agenda. These three streams are a problem, the solution presented, and the “political will to deal with it.” These three streams can involve a lot of work. First you have a problem, this problem is determined to be a problem by the citizens, government, etc. They prove it is a problem with data to support as evidence. This process alone is lengthy, requires a lot of research and data collection. Next is the solution, sometimes this may be the hardest part. We can have issues with a current policy but, not have a solution to change the policy. Then last you have to have the political support and willingness to deal with the issue. After these three streams are working together, then getting it put on the agenda take persistence and someone to push for it.
Who would be an agenda maker? This could be several people. For one, progressives, these people feel strong about an issue and are persistent to push for change. Senate members also set agendas. They are presented with the problem and solution by regional government officials from state to state. These issues may include for example, the need for a COVID vaccine in Kentucky. This is the problem, with evidence of the number of COVID cases in the region. The solution is to obtain the vaccines, providing the statistics and resources to get them. Then the willingness for the senate member to work with this issue. According to (Milken, 2020), there are several different vaccines available, one being DNA based vaccination and another being inactivated virus. These are two vaccines that will be available in the next couple weeks. This agenda setting was successful, vaccines are being distributed now. The reason for the success was due to the mass casualties and illnesses reported all over the region.
References
Whitman Cobb, W. N. (2020).
Political science today.
(1st ed.). Washington, DC: Sage, CQ Press
Milken Institute. (2020).
Covid-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker.
Retrieved from
Milken Institute’s COVID-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker tracks the development of treatments and vaccines for COVID-19 at covid-19tracker.milkeninstitute.org #COVID19 #coronavirus #COVID19treatment #COVID19vaccine @MilkenInstitute @FirstPersonSF (Links to an external site.)
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Respond by Day 7 to at least one of your colleagues postings .docxpeggyd2
Respond by Day 7
to at least
one
of your colleagues' postings in one or more of the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Validate an idea with your own experience.
Make a suggestion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
Classmate: Tcj
The two influences that have changed the nature of work are the continually evolving technology and all kinds of researched and invented tests. In the 1990s job performance was still searching for predictors that show workplace standard performance (Borman, Ilgen, & Klimoski, 2003). The world of work most importantly in the industrial and organizational psychology field focuses on human behavior in the workplace with the help of technology. New software’s and fast technologies have made an incredible change in the workplace and how the roles become more efficient and cost-effective in organizations. Databases and networking technology make it possible for operations to function effectively (Bridges, 1994). Additionally, new technology allows us to create automate both assembly and production lines to help cut human labor to increase production. As we grow in our work environments, services and technologies along with new trends have allowed the workforce to emerge and grow. The economy is on the rise with different organizations and firms
Historically providing testing for different reasons still questions the data obtained and the variables. Researchers have done very well isolating tests to perform what it is intended to measure. Testing is used widely to fill certain job positions and seek certain characteristics in an individual for specialized careers. Mr. Alfred Binet who invented the first intelligence test commonly known today as the Binet-Simon scale. The French doctor specialized in a neurological lab in Paris then went to explore the field of psychology (Binet’s Intelligence Test, n.d.).
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Respond by providing at least two contributions for improving .docxpeggyd2
Respond
by providing at least two contributions for improving or including in their Parent Guide and at least two things that you like about their guide.
NOTE: Positive comment
Main Discussion
ADHD Parent Guide
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined as a chronic neurological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity. In 2016, it is estimated that 6.1 million or 9.4% of children had a diagnosis of ADHD (
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
, n.d.). A diagnosis of ADHD can be both confusing and welcomed. Confusing because the details of the diagnosis are unknown but welcomed because the parents and child finally have a “why” for the child’s difficulties. This parent guide will discuss the pathophysiolology, diagnosing, signs/symptoms, treatment options, and other aspects involved in an ADHD diagnosis.
Pathophysiology
Many research studies suggest ADHD may be caused by interactions between genes and environmental or non-genetic factors. Many cases of ADHD have a genetic origin. A child is 50% more likely to have ADHD if their parent was diagnosed with the condition and 25% of the children with ADHD have parents who have met the criteria for a diagnosis of ADHD. Other factors that can contribute to ADHD is substance use, low birth weight, brain injuries and exposure to some environmental toxins.
ADHD is a result of neurotransmitter disease dysfunction, that effect dopamine and norepinephrine. Dopamine has a role in a person's ability to learn and reinforcing trained response to various situations. Dopamine also plays and important role in "working memory"(
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
, 2004). Norepinephrine effects a person's alertness and attention. Norepinephrine is activated by novel and important stimuli and are quiescent during sleep.
Environmental factors of ADHD is a result of a toxin such as lead or other nuero-toxic substances that may result in delayed development of the child's brain before, during or birth. Substance abuse is a very common cause of pre- and perinatal factors that may result in ADHD. Exposure of the fetus to alcohol is associated with a reduction in the volume of the prefrontal and temporal cortices, the brain areas involved in regulation of attention and control of impulsivity. (
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
, 2004)
Diagnosing ADHD
While there is no single test to diagnosis ADHD, there are ways to obtain an accurate diagnosis.
Who diagnosis ADHD?
There are many health care professionals who are qualified to diagnose ADHD. These professionals include but are not limited to psychiatrist, psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner (PMHNP), licensed master social worker (LMSW), licensed professional counselor (LPC), neurologist, pediatricians, and primary care physicians. If there is a concern that a ch.
Respond agree or disagreeVulnerabilities in system design can .docxpeggyd2
Respond agree or disagree
Vulnerabilities in system design can be detrimental to any network, large or small any flaw that can be exploited should not be taken lightly. Engineers generally assume that mechanisms serve their intended purpose. Is that always true? The “smarter” something is, the quicker we lose control and become fully dependent on it (Trofimova & Hoske, 2016).
A vulnerability I found is a trust assumption and that is when a designer is aware of a security weakness and determining that a separate security control would compensate for it. However, trust assumptions are often implicit, such as creating a feature without first evaluating the risks it would introduce (Mozilla, 2018). This is something that when designing your system to not underestimate because as the article stated, these assumptions are often complicit and don't take every risk into account which could leave a window open to your system.
Another is always consider the users, this means when designing your network take into account the people that will be using it on a daily basis (IEEE, 2014) Every system is different and complex and therefore requires the designer to know who his users are. The security stance of a software system is inextricably linked to what its users do with it. It is therefore very important that all security-related mechanisms are designed in a manner that makes it easy to deploy, configure, use, and update the system securely. Remember, security is not a feature that can simply be added to a software system, but rather a property emerging from how the system was built and is operated (IEEE, 2014).
Trofimova, E., & Hoske, M. T. 1. [email protected] co. (2016). Retrieved from https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aci&AN=117494073&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Mozilla. (2018). Vulnerabilities. Retrieved from https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Security/Information_Security_Basics/Vulnerabilities
IEEE. (2014). Avoiding the top 10 software security design flaws. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b291/be7d567d63dc60043a8cb1fbbfcfe8d18c83.pdf
Respond agree or disagree
System design vulnerabilities occurs very often and attackers or exploit hunters are always on the hunt for any opportunities that are presented. During the process a product is being developed it is very important to incorporate cybersecurity and quality control teams. This incorporation has brought a new wave that I have seen and currently experiencing in my current role, DevOps. DevOps is a team where Developers and Operations work together to produce a finished product that has been through QA and cybersecurity teams have also made suggestions and participated during the production.
Developers are great at what they do, but often they forfeit some security best practice to make something on their end work. Also, the risk of developers to forget, or simply disregard any input validation thro.
Respond by Day 5 to at least one of your colleagues postings .docxpeggyd2
Respond by Day 5
to at least
one
of your colleagues' postings in one or more of the following ways:
Ask a probing question.
Share an insight from having read your colleague’s posting.
Offer and support an opinion.
Validate an idea with your own experience.
Make a suggestion.
Expand on your colleague’s posting.
Classmate TH
Being the future of this field it is important to understand, recall, and reflect on the historical significance of those who have pioneered the trails that we shall follow. Within historical bounds it is important to understand and have a working knowledge of the work that those pioneers have performed ahead of us, which will all for a better product of consultation. When I recall historical significance within our field I think of the work of Dr. Stanley Silverman and how he was instrumental in the development of the WARS system. The WARS system was developed in conjunction with the University of Michigan in efforts to identify arrogance within organizational leadership. It has been fabled (and later proven fact) that good team members do not typically leave jobs they enjoy, rather the cause of departure is leadership they have problems. The works of Dr. Stanley have proven these speculations time and time again, through his works with some of the most public institutions known today (ie: Disney Entertainment). Through the development of items such as the WARS system work place synergism has been possible for many organizations when faced with adversity within a chain of command and/or leadership structure.
I have been employed in public service for nearly 20 years (it is truly the only career I have ever known). I like many of my tenured colleagues have rose through our ranks from entry level paramedics to high ranking leadership positions. I no longer have high ranking "brass" ever since I decided to modify my career path in efforts to lessen demands and stress. I now fly on medical helicopters in PA and NJ as a crew member which allows my to pursue my true passions of medicine and aviation. The organization which I was part of the prior leadership structure had many safe guards in place to ensure that we all worked as a team in addition to staying "grounded" as managers with certain types of authorities that the "rank and file" did not. We met twice a year with a consultant from Penn State University who would lead various discussion on effective communication. The results which we experienced in staff satisfaction surveys in addition to annual reviews proved to us that this basic training was needed and was effective.
.
Respond agree or disagree There is still an argument that whet.docxpeggyd2
Respond agree or disagree
There is still an argument that whether the cloud system provides better security or not. The author clearly states that, the risk management depends on the deployment factors and security infrastructure existing in the organization. The writer also indicates about risk equation to evaluate the pros and cons of cloud regarding risk management and vulnerability (Lindstrom, 2015).
Pros of Cloud in Risk Management and Vulnerability
Scale and Flexibility: Since the need for cloud increases, the importance of managing vulnerability, considering risk management and other important factors also grows dramatically (Zhang, 2017).
Coverage and Visibility: In cloud system, there is a high possibility of coverage and visibility of assets, security and polices and guidelines that will help to understand the risk management and vulnerability of the cloud (Zhang, 2017)
Proactive Response: Security can be embedded during deployment and will provide a better protection method proactively (Zhang, 2017).
Cons of Cloud in Risk Management and Vulnerability
Change in Level of Threat: Due to the availability of the data to more people, there is more activity going on. Attackers use this opportunity to find vulnerability and make an attack. The threat increases once the data is available in the internet (Lindstrom, 2015).
Attackers Cost Benefit: Attackers do not spend more time by research and training. They always calculate their benefit. So, when data is available in the cloud, hackers will get good opportunity to attack the cloud (Lindstrom, 2015).
Deployment Risk: There is a high chance of vulnerability when the application environment is moving from the legacy system to highly distributed, virtualized architecture. The author also explains the possibility of collateral damage simply because the public cloud system is shared with others (Lindstrom, 2015).
Lindstrom, P. (2015). Better Cloud Security: Do the Math. Information security, 12-16. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/ehost/detail/detail vid=0&sid=1ad4da93-9ce3-40be-a335-002e2cfe796d%40sdc-v-sessmgr02&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aci&AN=108883675
Zhang, E. (2017, August, 31). Cloud Computing Security Benefits: InfoSec Pros Reveal the Top Benefits of the Cloud. Retrieved from https://digitalguardian.com/blog/cloud computing-security-benefits
.
Respond 250 Do you think IGOs create a convergence of state .docxpeggyd2
Respond 250
Do you think IGOs create a convergence of state interest?
Convergence of state interest goes along the same line as socialization with both influenced by interact with other entities (Greenhill 2010, Tanninchev 2015). I think of two examples; US/Soviet cessation of the Cold War (Horelick 1989) and the UK/North Ireland Good Friday Agreement (Mageean and O’Brien 1998).
Since the inception of the Cold War, the US and Soviet Union faced off across the globe both economically (free market versus communism) and militarily (the Cuban Missle Crisis nearly escalated into nuclear war). Robert McNamara, for Secretary of Defense under President Johnson agrued “that the more each reacted to the other’s escalation, the more they had chosen “an insane road to follow.” (Department of State n.d.). Both countries distrusted one another deeply and sought influence around the globe. SALT I and II (never ratified but agreed upon) sought to limit further escalation and stabilize relations (ibid).
The Good Friday Agreements (Kelly n.d.) brought an end to the period known as The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Factions on both sides, Westminister and Belfast, finally agreed to end hostilities with consessions made on both sides. The landmark deal, chaired by Senator George Mitchell at the behest of President Clinton, was the first unification step subsequently follwoed by several other agreements (Landow and Sergie 2020).
This question recalled just one country and its effort towards socialization and that is post WWII Germany. By any reasonable standard, Germany’s post war reconciliation (Rienzi 2015, Johns Hopkins 2015) and reintegration into the global community is the benchmark for other countries to emulate (Evans 2018). Its turn around post-World War II enabled it to be a world leader today. Greenhill (2010) determined, “IGOs can change state behavior through a process of socialization calls for a more optimistic assessment of the effects of participation in international institutions”. In Germany’s case, he is on point though it was considerable internal effort that put the country toward its current status (Rienzi 2015, Johns Hopkins 2015, Evans 2018). His basic point is laying with dogs will get you fleas.
I believe, overall, this is true. Greenhill states, “...socialization effects refer to behavioral changes that presumably come about through changes in the actors’ interest” (2010). However, outliers show the limited effect of OIGs. Russia, North Korea and China, are all members of numerous IGOs but all still have questionable human rights records (HRW n.d.) (HRW n.d.) (HRW n.d.). They are certainly not the only countries with questionable records but, I observe, they are the ones most focused on by the international community. Socialization can occurs but the countries must pursue change, sometimes with help (sanctions) (McMahon 2006), and sometimes with internal forces (Rienzi 2015).
This question certain.
Respiratory Attendance QuestionsDue 114 at 6pPlease an.docxpeggyd2
Respiratory Attendance Questions
Due: 1/14 at 6p
Please answer the 5 questions below for attendance credit. Submit your answers to the proper assignment folder. Please do not share work.
Respiratory illnesses account for the majority of acute illness in children. Typically, four variables influence a child’s respiratory illness. Describe each of these four variables and how they impact a child’s respiratory illness.
You are the nurse tasked with providing Metered Dose Inhaler (MDI) teaching to the parents of an asthmatic child. Please identify key teaching points you would include when presenting this information to the parents.
What is a peak flow meter and what do the results mean in the care of the pediatric patient?
Identify and explain the responsibilities of the members of Interprofessional Care Team necessary for the effective management of a patient with Cystic Fibrosis.
Explain the pathophysiology of Cystic Fibrosis and identify the primary causation for the clinical manifestations a child might experience.
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Resource Page 69 of Managing Innovation and Entrepreneurship,.docxpeggyd2
Resource:
Page 69 of
Managing Innovation and Entrepreneurship
, Ch. 4 (attached)
Competitive advantage according to Hisrich and Kearney (2014) requires organizations to engage in six processes to maintain innovation. Organizations like Google™, Amazon, Apple®, Android, Facebook®, Siri®, Virgin Group®, Microsoft®, and eBay® have done this successfully.
Select
an organization
other than
those listed above (Google™, Amazon, Apple®, Android, Facebook®, Siri®, Virgin Group®, Microsoft®, and eBay®) to explore competitive advantage and the six processes to maintain innovation discussed in Hisrich and Kearney (2014).
Write
a 700- to 1,050-word paper in which you analyze how the selected organization is meeting the concepts of Competitive Advantages as outlined in Hisrich and Kearney (2014), on page 69 and also include in your analysis information about the following:
The organizational leadership philosophy on innovation.
Activities the organization is actively engaged in to sustain competitive advantage within its industry.
R&D initiatives the organization is involved in for long-term competitive advantage.
Format
your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
.
Respond & Disagree ! Try to choose a post that you respectfully disa.docxpeggyd2
Respond & Disagree ! Try to choose a post that you respectfully disagree with. Respond from the perspective of either a union member or the manager of an organization. If your peer provided a real-world example, respond from the opposing perspective referred to in your peer's post.
How does the role and purpose of the modern union need to be redefined to effectively serve its membership?
“Unions must work to maximize solidarity by empowering unit members, and prioritizing issues based on worker perspectives, unit composition, and geography” (Herbert, 2019). With the option to opt out of the union along with the dues (in the public sector), the employee needs to see the value of remaining in the bargaining unit. This means that the union must be responsive to members concerns at the local level.
How does the presence of a union influence the job of the HR professional?
In my current position as an HR professional, I work with 8 different unions as well as a group that is unrepresented. Each group has its own pay scales and benefits package that they have negotiated. I have to make sure that they are implemented and maintained correctly. This can be complicated with each group having different rules for overtime, step increases, longevity, paid time off, and special pay for certain duties. We have policies but the collective bargaining agreements (CBA) supersede some of them. When an issue arises, I look at the appropriate CBA and relevant policies to determine the correct course of action. When supervisors meet with employees and the meeting could lead to corrective action, the employee has the right to have a representative from the union at the meeting. This requires that meetings be planned and scheduled. When a contract comes up for bargaining, HR is at the table and it requires significant work in preparing data and negotiating. We also have to make sure that our non-represented group has fair and equitable treatment even though they are not represented.
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Respond to one of the following question using the lessons a.docxpeggyd2
Respond to
one
of the following question using the lessons and vocabulary found in the reading.
Project Management Basics
Question 1
Analyze a project you have worked on. The project may have been at home, at work, or in other settings (for example, church or school). Answer the following questions when you describe the project:
Explain how the project originated.
Was the process used to initiate and manage the project formal or informal? Analyze how this affected the outcome.
Describe the difficulties you encountered while completing your project. How did you overcome that?
Evaluate the final outcome of the project.
Evaluate how the project was managed. Provide recommendations on improving the system.
Question 2
Describe the roles of the following project stakeholders: Project manager, Project sponsor, Team members.
Question 3
Describe the relationship between a project manager and a project sponsor. Who is ultimately responsible for the success of a project, the project manager or the project sponsor? Explain.
Question 4
Define the following terms and explain how these terms are specific and unique to the practice of project management: Project, Program, Project management
Question 5
Discuss the various project management process groups (initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing) and explain how they relate to the phases of a PLC.
The final paragraph (three or four sentences) of your initial post should summarize the one or two key points that you are making in your initial response. Justify your answers with examples and reasoning. Comment on the postings and views of at least two peers.
Your posting should be the equivalent of 1 to 2 pages (500–1000 words) in length.
.
Respond 1Impetigo The purpose of this discussion is to revie.docxpeggyd2
Respond 1
Impetigo
The purpose of this discussion is to review impetigo. Impetigo can be mistaken for other skin conditions such as herpes simplex. Therefore, it is necessary to accurately identify what it is. Impetigo is a skin disorder that is superficial in nature. It can spread from person to person and on other parts of the body (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2020).
Pathophysiology
The main form of transmission is direct contact. The infection is caused by bacteria (CDC, 2020). Staphylococcus aureus is the main causative agent in older children. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci also causes impetigo (Hubert & VanMeter, 2018). Interruption in the skin barrier allows the bacteria to access fibronectin receptors in the skin, which is needed for colonization (Nardi & Schaefer, 2020). Infection is further spread by itching due to the irritable nature of the lesions. Autoinoculation with hand creates more vesicles (Hubert & VanMeter, 2018).
The Most Common Presenting Symptoms
Impetigo can be found on any part of the body (CDC, 2020). However, it is mostly seen on the face (Hubert & VanMeter, 2018). Small red vesicles quickly become larger. The vesicles break open and forms a yellowish-brown crust. Liquid with honey colored appearance is seen under the crusts (Hubert & VanMeter, 2018).
Routinely Diagnosed
Impetigo is diagnosed by initial observation of an abnormality in the skin during a physical exam. The diagnosis can be confirmed with a bacterial culture, especially if there is an epidemic or if methicillin-resistant staph aureus (MRSA) is a concern. A biopsy of the skin can be obtained in some cases of untreatable impetigo (Nardi & Schaefer, 2020). Serologic testing for streptococcus antibodies is not done since anti-streptolysin O (ASO) response is not strong enough for diagnosing impetigo in this manner. Nonetheless, it can be used in conditions where
post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is questioned for patients who had a new outbreak of impetigo (Nardi & Schaefer, 2020). Otherwise lab testing is not needed (CDC, 2020).
Standard Treatment Plan
Impetigo is managed with antibiotics since it is a bacterial infection. Administration of antibiotic drugs is needed in cases where the infection is extensive. Otherwise the topical cream is prescribed when the infection is in a mild state (Hubert & VanMeter, 2018). If left untreated, the infection will resolve on its own. However, treatment with antibiotics decreases complications (Nardi & Schaefer, 2020). Prior to applying topical antibiotic cream, soap and water should be used to remove the crust. The treatment of choice with antibiotic cream are mupirocin, retapamulin, and fusidic acid. Otherwise, preferred treatment with systemic antibiotics are amoxicillin-clavulanate, cephalosporins, dicloxacillin (Nardi & Schaefer, 2020).
Link(s) to Routine Screening and Treatment Guidelines
National screening guidelines for impetigo was not found. Howev.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Respond to each item below in 2–3 paragraphs. Use Learning Resourc.docx
1. Respond to each item below in 2–3 paragraphs. Use Learning
Resources,
· Please copy and number each question. Put your answer below
each question.
First: Euthanasia
· What is the argument from nature against euthanasia? What
role does religion play in this argument? How might a supporter
of euthanasia respond?
· In the argument from practical effects, the author makes points
concerning both (1) effects on the medical profession and (2) a
slippery slope from voluntary to involuntary euthanasia.
Explain.
· What is the pure utilitarian version of the argument from
mercy? What are its strengths and limitations?
· What is the modified utilitarian version of the argument from
mercy? How does it avoid the flaws of the pure version?
Second: Utilitarianism and World Poverty
· Poverty leads to other issues on the world stage, like crime.
Do these associated effects increase the obligation of the
wealthy to give to extreme poverty relief? Identify other
associated effects of extreme poverty.
· What is the social contract theorist’s position on the idea that
we have a duty to give extensive aid to strangers? Why? What is
the utilitarian’s position? Why?
· One common critique of utilitarianism is that it is too
demanding—that it asks too much of us. What solution does
Singer offer to this critique? Do you agree or disagree? Why?
Third: Animal Welfare and Treatment
· Can the moral principle of equality be based on the factual
equality of all human beings? Explain. What implications does
this have for the equality of animals?
· Why does Singer believe that animals merit moral equality?
That is, what morally significant capacity do animals have that
2. they share with humans? Do you agree with Singer? Why?
· Consider Fred’s reason for torturing puppies in Chapter 16?
How does Norcross argue that what Fred does is morally
equivalent to what we do when we eat meat? Do you agree?
Why?
· How does Norcross respond to the objection that one is not
obliged to give up eating meat since it would not reduce the
number of animals killed? Do you agree with Norcross? Why?
Forth: Environmental Land Ethics
· Explain the ethical sequence discussed in Aldo Leopold’s
“Land Ethic.”
· What is the community concept and how does Leopold think it
will influence how we tell history?
· Leopold talks about an ecological conscience. What is it and
how do farmers show they lack it?
· Why is the purely economic approach to conservation doomed
to failure according to Leopold? With what should it be
replaced and why?
Last Part:
you will write a 4- to 6-page paper in which you argue for your
philosophical views on two of the topics we’ve covered so far.
Your paper should have three sections of approximately equal
length as outlined below.
In writing this paper, you must make reference to the arguments
and positions we have studied.
· For section 1, you should argue for a position on one of the
topics we’ve discussed. Make sure that you consult most if not
all of the additional resources listed for that topic. (Do not use
any outside resources.)
· For section 2, you should argue for a position on another of
the topics we’ve discussed. Make sure that you consult most if
not all of the additional resources listed. (Do not use any
outside resources.)
· For section 3, you should reflect on the arguments above and
your work in this course, and try to explain your own moral
3. philosophy.
3. When you try to figure out whether something is moral or
immoral, how do you do it? Do you give heavy weight to your
religious traditions or to the opinions of your culture or to those
of contemporary U.S. society? Do you pay more attention to
inviolable principles or to consequences? (That is, are you more
a utilitarian or Kantian?)
. Finally, how do you think this course has affected (if at all)
your moral philosophy?
375
In this selection, J. Gay-Williams offers several standard objec-
tions to euthanasia: that it goes against our natural instincts;
that
it violates human dignity; that it forecloses the possibility of
miraculous cures; that the critically ill, and their caretakers,
might
give up too easily if euthanasia were an option; and, finally,
that
the legalization of euthanasia might lead to horrific abuses.
“J. Gay-Williams” is a pseudonym. We are not told the author’s
real name.
My impression is that euthanasia—the idea, if not the practice—
is
slowly gaining acceptance within our society. Cynics might
attribute
this to an increasing tendency to devalue human life, but I do
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Chapter 34376
I want to show that euthanasia is wrong. It is inherently wrong,
but it is
also wrong judged from the standpoints of self-interest and of
practical
effects.
Before presenting my arguments to support this claim, it would
be
well to define “euthanasia.” An essential aspect of euthanasia is
that it
involves taking a human life, either one’s own or that of
another. Also,
the person whose life is taken must be someone who is believed
to
7. be suffering from some disease or injury from which recovery
cannot
reasonably be expected. Finally, the action must be deliberate
and inten-
tional. Thus, euthanasia is intentionally taking the life of a
presumably
hopeless person. Whether the life is one’s own or that of
another, the
taking of it is still euthanasia.
It is important to be clear about the deliberate and intentional
aspect
of the killing. If a hopeless person is given an injection of the
wrong
drug by mistake and this causes his death, this is wrongful
killing but
not euthanasia. The killing cannot be the result of accident.
Further-
more, if the person is given an injection of a drug that is
believed to
be necessary to treat his disease or better his condition and the
person
dies as a result, then this is neither wrongful killing nor
euthanasia. The
intention was to make the patient well, not kill him. Similarly,
when
a patient’s condition is such that it is not reasonable to hope
that any
medical procedures or treatments will save his life, a failure to
imple-
ment the procedures or treatments is not euthanasia. If the
person dies,
this will be as a result of his injuries or disease and not because
of his
failure to receive treatment.
8. The failure to continue treatment after it has been realized that
the
patient has little chance of benefiting from it has been
characterized by
some as “passive euthanasia.” This phrase is misleading and
mistaken.
In such cases, the person involved is not killed (the first
essential aspect
of euthanasia), nor is the death of the person intended by the
withhold-
ing of additional treatment (the third essential aspect of
euthanasia).
The aim may be to spare the person additional and unjustifiable
pain, to
save him from the indignities of hopeless manipulations, and to
avoid
increasing the financial and emotional burden on his family.
When I
buy a pencil it is so that I can use it to write, not to contribute
to an
increase in the gross national product (GNP). This may be the
unin-
tended consequence of my action, but it is not the aim of my
action. So
it is with failing to continue the treatment of a dying person. I
intend
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by James Rachels, and Stuart Rachels, Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/newschoolarch-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=5798603.
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The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia 377
his death no more than I intend to reduce the GNP by not using
medical
supplies. His is an unintended dying, and so-called “passive
euthanasia”
is not euthanasia at all.
1. THE ARGUMENT FROM NATURE
Every human being has a natural inclination to continue living.
Our
reflexes and responses fit us to fight attackers, flee wild
animals, and
dodge out of the way of trucks. In our daily lives we exercise
the cau-
tion and care necessary to protect ourselves. Our bodies are
similarly
11. structured for survival right down to the molecular level. When
we are
cut, our capillaries seal shut, our blood clots, and fibrinogen is
produced
to start the process of healing the wound. When we are invaded
by
bacteria, antibodies are produced to fight against the alien
organisms,
and their remains are swept out of the body by special cells
designed
for clean-up work.
Euthanasia does violence to this natural goal of survival. It is
literally
acting against nature because all the processes of nature are
bent towards
the end of bodily survival. Euthanasia defeats these subtle
mechanisms
in a way that, in a particular case, disease and injury might not.
It is possible, but not necessary, to make an appeal to revealed
reli-
gion in this connection. Man as trustee of his body acts against
God,
its rightful possessor, when he takes his own life. He also
violates the
commandment to hold life sacred and never to take it without
just and
compelling cause. But since this appeal will persuade only those
who
are prepared to accept that religion has access to revealed
truths, I shall
not employ this line of argument.
It is enough, I believe, to recognize that the organization of the
human body and our patterns of behavioral responses make the
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Chapter 34378
basic human character and requires that we regard ourselves or
others
as something less than fully human.
2. THE ARGUMENT FROM SELF-INTEREST
The above arguments are, I believe, sufficient to show that
euthanasia
is inherently wrong. But there are reasons for considering it
wrong
when judged by standards other than reason. Because death is
final
and irreversible, euthanasia contains within it the possibility
that we
will work against our own interest if we practice it or allow it to
be
practiced on us.
Contemporary medicine has high standards of excellence and a
proven record of accomplishment, but it does not possess
perfect and
complete knowledge. A mistaken diagnosis is possible, and so is
a
mistaken prognosis. Consequently, we may believe that we are
dying
15. of a disease when, as a matter of fact, we may not be. We may
think
that we have no hope of recovery when, as a matter of fact, our
chances
are quite good. In such circumstances, if euthanasia were
permitted, we
would die needlessly. Death is final and the chance of error too
great to
approve the practice of euthanasia.
Also, there is always the possibility that an experimental
procedure
or a hitherto untried technique will pull us through. We should
at least
keep this option open, but euthanasia closes it off. Furthermore,
spon-
taneous remission does occur in many cases. For no apparent
reason,
a patient simply recovers when those all around him, including
his
physicians, expected him to die. Euthanasia would just
guarantee their
expectations and leave no room for the “miraculous” recoveries
that
frequently occur.
Finally, knowing that we can take our life at any time (or ask
another to take it) might well incline us to give up too easily.
The
will to live is strong in all of us, but it can be weakened by pain
and
suffering and feelings of hopelessness. If during a bad time we
allow
ourselves to be killed, we never have a chance to reconsider.
Recovery
from a serious illness requires that we fight for it, and anything
18. sickness and suffering as an emotional and financial burden on
our
family, we may feel that to leave our life is to make their lives
easier.
The very presence of the possibility of euthanasia may keep us
from
surviving when we might.
3. THE ARGUMENT FROM PRACTICAL EFFECTS
Doctors and nurses are, for the most part, totally committed to
sav-
ing lives. A life lost is, for them, almost a personal failure, an
insult
to their skills and knowledge. Euthanasia as a practice might
well
alter this. It could have a corrupting influence so that in any
case that
is severe, doctors and nurses might not try hard enough to save
the
patient. They might decide that the patient would simply be
“bet-
ter off dead” and take the steps necessary to make that come
about.
This attitude could then carry over to their dealings with
patients less
seriously ill. The result would be an overall decline in the
quality of
medical care.
Finally, euthanasia as a policy is a slippery slope. A person
appar-
ently hopelessly ill may be allowed to take his own life. Then
he may be
permitted to deputize others to do it for him should he no longer
19. be able
to act. The judgment of others then becomes the ruling factor.
Already
at this point euthanasia is not personal and voluntary, for others
are
acting “on behalf of” the patient as they see fit. This may well
incline
them to act on behalf of other patients who have not authorized
them
to exercise their judgment. It is only a short step, then, from
voluntary
euthanasia (self-inflicted or authorized) to directed euthanasia
adminis-
tered to a patient who has given no authorization, to involuntary
eutha-
nasia conducted as part of a social policy. Recently many
psychiatrists
and sociologists have argued that we define as “mental illness”
those
forms of behavior that we disapprove of. This gives us license
then to
lock up those who display the behavior. The category of the
“hopelessly
ill” provides the possibility of even worse abuse. Embedded in a
social
policy, it would give society or its representatives the authority
to elimi-
nate all those who might be considered too “ill” to function
normally
any longer. The dangers of euthanasia are too great to all to run
the risk
of approving it in any form. The first slippery step may well
lead to a
serious and harmful fall.
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Chapter 34380
I hope that I have succeeded in showing why the benevolence
that
inclines us to give approval of euthanasia is misplaced.
Euthanasia is
inherently wrong because it violates the nature and dignity of
human
beings. But even those who are not convinced by this must be
persuaded
22. that the potential personal and social dangers inherent in
euthanasia are
sufficient to forbid our approving it either as a personal practice
or as
a public policy.
Suffering is surely a terrible thing, and we have a clear duty to
com-
fort those in need and to ease their suffering when we can. But
suffering
is also a natural part of life with values for the individual and
for oth-
ers that we should not overlook. We may legitimately seek for
others
and for ourselves an easeful death, as Arthur Dyck has pointed
out.
Euthanasia, however, is not just an easeful death. It is a
wrongful death.
Euthanasia is not just dying. It is killing.
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by James Rachels, and Stuart Rachels, Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/newschoolarch-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=5798603.
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369
James Rachels wrote The End of Life: Euthanasia and Morality
(1986). Here he defends the “argument from mercy.”
Euthanasia,
he thinks, is justified when death is the only way to escape
awful
pain. In Rachels’ main example, the pain is suffered by someone
dying from cancer.
Rachels himself died of cancer in 2003. At the end of his life,
nothing persuaded him to change his view of euthanasia. But he
did wonder whether the argument from mercy would require less
intentional killing than he had thought. Often a humane death
occurs via “permanent sedation.” This is when a dying patient is
given more and more pain medication for pain relief, which
causes
the patient to lose consciousness (or “go to sleep”) before
dying.
Under such circumstances, the intention to kill is unnecessary.
The single most powerful argument in support of euthanasia is
the
argument from mercy. It is also an exceptionally simple
25. argument, at
least in its main idea, which makes one uncomplicated point.
Termi-
nally ill patients sometimes suffer pain so horrible that it is
beyond the
comprehension of those who have not actually experienced it.
Their
suffering can be so terrible that we do not even like to read
about it or
Chapter 33
The Morality of Euthanasia
James Rachels
James Rachels, “The Morality of Euthanasia” in Philosophy and
Public Affairs, vol. 1, no. 1
(autumn 1971): 47–66. Used with permission.
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The Right Thing to Do : Readings in Moral Philosophy, edited
by James Rachels, and Stuart Rachels, Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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ebooks/detail.action?docID=5798603.
Created from newschoolarch-ebooks on 2020-05-14 19:24:15.
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Chapter 33370
think about it; we recoil even from the description of such
agony. The
argument from mercy says euthanasia is justified because it
provides
an end to that.
The great Irish satirist Jonathan Swift took eight years to die,
while,
in the words of Joseph Fletcher, “His mind crumbled to pieces.”
At
times the pain in his blinded eyes was so intense he had to be
restrained
from tearing them out with his own hands. Knives and other
potential
instruments of suicide had to be kept from him. For the last
three years
of his life, he could do nothing but sit and drool; and when he
finally
died it was only after convulsions that lasted thirty-six hours.
Swift died in 1745. Since then, doctors have learned how to
eliminate
much of the pain that accompanies terminal illness, but the
victory has
28. been far from complete. So, here is a more modern example.
Stewart Alsop was a respected journalist who died in 1975 of a
rare
form of cancer. Before he died, he wrote movingly of his
experiences as
a terminal patient. Although he had not thought much about
euthanasia
before, he came to approve of it after rooming briefly with
someone he
called Jack:
The third night that I roomed with Jack in our tiny double room
in the
solid-tumor ward of the cancer clinic of the National Institutes
of Health
in Bethesda, Md., a terrible thought occurred to me.
Jack had a melanoma in his belly, a malignant solid tumor that
the
doctors guessed was about the size of a softball. The cancer had
started
a few months before with a small tumor in his left shoulder, and
there
had been several operations since. The doctors planned to
remove the
softball-sized tumor, but they knew Jack would soon die. The
cancer had
metastasized—it had spread beyond control.
Jack was good-looking, about 28, and brave. He was in constant
pain,
and his doctor had prescribed an intravenous shot of a synthetic
opiate—a
pain-killer, or analgesic—every four hours. His wife spent many
of the
29. daylight hours with him, and she would sit or lie on his bed and
pat him
all over, as one pats a child, only more methodically, and this
seemed to
help control the pain. But at night, when his pretty wife had left
(wives
cannot stay overnight at the NIH clinic) and darkness fell, the
pain would
attack without pity.
At the prescribed hour, a nurse would give Jack a shot of the
synthetic
analgesic, and this would control the pain for perhaps two hours
or a bit
more. Then he would begin to moan, or whimper, very low, as
though he
didn’t want to wake me. Then he would begin to howl, like a
dog.
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The Morality of Euthanasia 371
When this happened, either he or I would ring for a nurse, and
ask for
a pain-killer. She would give him some codeine or the like by
mouth, but
it never did any real good—it affected him no more than half an
aspirin
might affect a man who had just broken his arm. Always the
nurse would
explain as encouragingly as she could that there was not long to
go before
the next intravenous shot—“Only about 50 minutes now.” And
always
poor Jack’s whimpers and howls would become more loud and
frequent
until at last the blessed relief came.
The third night of this routine, the terrible thought occurred to
me. “If
Jack were a dog,” I thought, “what would be done with him?”
The answer
was obvious: the pound, and chloroform. No human being with
a spark of
pity could let a living thing suffer so, to no good end.
32. The NIH clinic is, of course, one of the most modern and best-
equipped
hospitals we have. Jack’s suffering was not the result of poor
treatment
in some backward rural facility; it was the inevitable product of
his
disease, which medical science was powerless to prevent.
I have quoted Alsop at length not for the sake of indulging in
gory
details but to give a clear idea of the kind of suffering we are
talking
about. We should not gloss over these facts with euphemistic
language
or squeamishly avert our eyes from them. For only by keeping
them
firmly and vividly in mind can we appreciate the full force of
the argu-
ment from mercy: If a person prefers—and even begs for—death
as
the only alternative to lingering on in this kind of torment, only
to die
anyway after a while, then surely it is not immoral to help this
person
die sooner. As Alsop put it, “No human being with a spark of
pity could
let a living thing suffer so, to no good end.”
THE UTILITARIAN VERSION OF THE ARGUMENT
In connection with this argument, the utilitarians deserve
special men-
tion. They argued that actions and social policies should be
judged right
or wrong exclusively according to whether they cause happiness
or
35. Chapter 33372
misery. Conversely, an action or social policy is morally wrong
if
it serves to decrease happiness or to increase misery.
(2) The policy of killing, at their own request, hopelessly ill
patients
who are suffering great pain would decrease the amount of
misery
in the world. (An example could be Alsop’s friend Jack.)
(3) Therefore, such a policy would be morally right.
The first premise of this argument, (1), states the Principle of
Util-
ity, which is the basic utilitarian assumption. Today most
philosophers
think that this principle is wrong, because they think that the
promo-
tion of happiness and the avoidance of misery are not the only
morally
important things. Happiness, they say, is only one among many
values
that should be promoted: freedom, justice, and a respect for
people’s
rights are also important. To take one example: people might be
hap-
pier if there were no freedom of religion, for if everyone
adhered to the
same religious beliefs, there would be greater harmony among
people.
There would be no unhappiness caused within families by
Jewish girls
36. marrying Catholic boys, and so forth. Moreover, if people were
brain-
washed well enough, no one would mind not having freedom of
choice.
Thus happiness would be increased. But, the argument
continues, even
if happiness could be increased this way, it would not be right
to deny
people freedom of religion, because people have a right to make
their
own choices. Therefore, the first premise of the utilitarian
argument is
unacceptable.
There is a related difficulty for utilitarianism, which connects
more
directly with the topic of euthanasia. Suppose a person is
leading a
miserable life—a life containing more unhappiness than
happiness—
but does not want to die. This person thinks that a miserable life
is
better than none at all. Now I assume that we would all agree
that the
person should not be killed; that would be plain, unjustifiable
murder.
Yet it would decrease the amount of misery in the world if we
killed
this person—it would lead to an increase in the balance of
happiness
over unhappiness—and so it is hard to see how, on strictly
utilitarian
grounds, it could be wrong. Again, the Principle of Utility
seems to
be an inadequate guide for determining right and wrong. So we
are on
39. Although the foregoing utilitarian argument is faulty, it is
nevertheless
based on a sound idea. For even if the promotion of happiness
and
avoidance of misery are not the only morally important things,
they
are still very important. So, when an action or a social policy
would
decrease misery, that is a very strong reason in its favor. In the
cases of
voluntary euthanasia we are now considering, great suffering is
elimi-
nated, and since the patient requests it, there is no question of
violat-
ing individual rights. That is why, regardless of the difficulties
of the
Principle of Utility, the utilitarian version of the argument still
retains
considerable force.
I want now to present a somewhat different version of the
argument
from mercy, which is inspired by utilitarianism but which
avoids the
difficulties of the foregoing version by not making the Principle
of Util-
ity a premise of the argument. I believe that the following
argument is
sound and proves that euthanasia can be justified:
(1) If an action promotes the best interests of everyone
concerned and
violates no one’s rights, then that action is morally acceptable.
(2) In at least some cases, active euthanasia promotes the best
interests
40. of everyone concerned and violates no one’s rights.
(3) Therefore, in at least some cases, active euthanasia is
morally
acceptable.
It would have been in everyone’s best interests if active
euthanasia
had been employed in the case of Stewart Alsop’s friend Jack.
First,
and most important, it would have been in Jack’s own interests,
since
it would have provided him with an easier, better death, without
pain.
(Who among us would choose Jack’s death, if we had a choice,
rather
than a quick painless death?) Second, it would have been in the
best
interests of Jack’s wife. Her misery, helplessly watching him
suffer,
must have been almost unbearable. Third, the hospital staff’s
best inter-
ests would have been served, since if Jack’s dying had not been
pro-
longed, they could have turned their attention to other patients
whom
they could have helped. Fourth, other patients would have
benefited,
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Chapter 33374
since medical resources would no longer have been used in the
sad,
pointless maintenance of Jack’s physical existence. Finally, if
Jack him-
self requested to be killed, the act would not have violated his
rights.
Considering all this, how can active euthanasia in this case be
wrong?
How can it be wrong to do an action that is merciful, that
benefits every-
one concerned, and that violates no one’s rights?
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197
The Australian philosopher Peter Singer (1946–) is the most
widely read author in the field of ethics. In this essay, he
consid-
ers whether it is morally defensible for well-off people to spend
money on luxuries while other people starve.
As I write this, in November 1971, people are dying in East
Bengal
45. from lack of food, shelter, and medical care. The suffering and
death
that are occurring there now are not inevitable, not unavoidable
in any
fatalistic sense of the term. Constant poverty, a cyclone, and a
civil
war have turned at least nine million people into destitute
refugees;
nevertheless, it is not beyond the capacity of the richer nations
to give
enough assistance to reduce any further suffering to very small
propor-
tions. The decisions and actions of human beings can prevent
this kind
of suffering. Unfortunately, human beings have not made the
necessary
decisions. At the individual level, people have, with very few
excep-
tions, not responded to the situation in any significant way.
Generally
speaking, people have not given large sums to relief funds; they
have
not written to their parliamentary representatives demanding
increased
government assistance; they have not demonstrated in the
streets, held
symbolic fasts, or done anything else directed toward providing
the
Chapter 19
Famine, Affluence, and Morality
Peter Singer
Peter Singer, “Famine, Affluence, and Morality” in Philosophy
and Public Affairs, vol. 1,
48. would
enable the refugees to survive for more than a few days. Britain,
for
instance, has given rather more than most countries. It has, to
date,
given £14,750,000. For comparative purposes, Britain’s share of
the
non-recoverable development costs of the Anglo-French
Concorde
project is already in excess of £275,000,000, and on present
estimates
will reach £440,000,000. The implication is that the British
government
values a supersonic transport more than thirty times as highly as
it val-
ues the lives of the nine million refugees. Australia is another
country
which, on a per capita basis, is well up in the “aid to Bengal”
table.
Australia’s aid, however, amounts to less than one-twelfth of
the cost
of Sydney’s new opera house. . . .
These are the essential facts about the present situation in
Bengal. So
far as it concerns us here, there is nothing unique about this
situation
except its magnitude. The Bengal emergency is just the latest
and most
acute of a series of major emergencies in various parts of the
world,
arising both from natural and from manmade causes. There are
also
many parts of the world in which people die from malnutrition
and lack
of food independent of any special emergency. I take Bengal as
49. my
example only because it is the present concern, and because the
size
of the problem has ensured that it has been given adequate
publicity.
Neither individuals nor governments can claim to be unaware of
what
is happening there.
What are the moral implications of a situation like this? In what
fol-
lows, I shall argue that the way people in relatively affluent
countries
react to a situation like that in Bengal cannot be justified;
indeed, the
whole way we look at moral issues—our moral conceptual
scheme—
needs to be altered, and with it, the way of life that has come to
be taken
for granted in our society. . . .
I begin with the assumption that suffering and death from lack
of
food, shelter, and medical care are bad. I think most people will
agree
about this, although one may reach the same view by different
routes. I
shall not argue for this view. People can hold all sorts of
eccentric posi-
tions, and perhaps from some of them it would not follow that
death by
starvation is in itself bad. It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to
refute
such positions, and so for brevity I will henceforth take this
assumption
as accepted. Those who disagree need read no further.
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Famine, Affluence, and Morality 199
My next point is this: if it is in our power to prevent something
bad
from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of
comparable
moral importance, we ought, morally, to do it. By “without
sacrificing
52. anything of comparable moral importance” I mean without
causing
anything else comparably bad to happen, or doing something
that is
wrong in itself, or failing to promote some moral good,
comparable in
significance to the bad thing that we can prevent. This principle
seems
almost as uncontroversial as the last one. It requires us only to
prevent
what is bad, and to promote what is good, and it requires this of
us only
when we can do it without sacrificing anything that is, from the
moral
point of view, comparably important. I could even, as far as the
appli-
cation of my argument to the Bengal emergency is concerned,
qualify
the point so as to make it: if it is in our power to prevent
something
very bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything
morally
significant, we ought, morally, to do it. An application of this
principle
would be as follows: if I am walking past a shallow pond and
see a child
drowning in it, I ought to wade in and pull the child out. This
will mean
getting my clothes muddy, but this is insignificant, while the
death of
the child would presumably be a very bad thing.
The uncontroversial appearance of the principle just stated is
decep-
tive. If it were acted upon, even in its qualified form, our lives,
our soci-
53. ety, and our world would be fundamentally changed. For the
principle
takes, firstly, no account of proximity or distance. It makes no
moral
difference whether the person I can help is a neighbor’s child
ten yards
from me or a Bengali whose name I shall never know, ten
thousand
miles away. Secondly, the principle makes no distinction
between cases
in which I am the only person who could possibly do anything
and cases
in which I am just one among millions in the same position.
I do not think I need to say much in defense of the refusal to
take
proximity and distance into account. The fact that a person is
physi-
cally near to us, so that we have personal contact with him, may
make
it more likely that we shall assist him, but this does not show
that we
ought to help him rather than another who happens to be further
away.
If we accept any principle of impartiality, universalizability,
equality, or
whatever, we cannot discriminate against someone merely
because he is
far away from us (or we are far away from him). Admittedly, it
is pos-
sible that we are in a better position to judge what needs to be
done to
help a person near to us than one far away, and perhaps also to
provide
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Chapter 19200
the assistance we judge to be necessary. If this were the case, it
would
be a reason for helping those near to us first. This may once
have been
a justification for being more concerned with the poor in one’s
town
than with famine victims in India. Unfortunately for those who
like to
56. keep their moral responsibilities limited, instant communication
and
swift transportation have changed the situation. From the moral
point of
view, the development of the world into a “global village” has
made an
important, though still unrecognized, difference to our moral
situation.
Expert observers and supervisors, sent out by famine relief
organiza-
tions or permanently stationed in famine-prone areas, can direct
our aid
to a refugee in Bengal almost as effectively as we could get it to
some-
one in our own block. There would seem, therefore, to be no
possible
justification for discriminating on geographical grounds.
There may be a greater need to defend the second implication of
my principle—that the fact that there are millions of other
people in
the same position, in respect to the Bengali refugees, as I am,
does not
make the situation significantly different from a situation in
which I
am the only person who can prevent something very bad from
occur-
ring. Again, of course, I admit that there is a psychological
difference
between the cases; one feels less guilty about doing nothing if
one can
point to others, similarly placed, who have also done nothing.
Yet this
can make no real difference to our moral obligations. Should I
consider
that I am less obliged to pull the drowning child out of the pond
57. if on
looking around I see other people, no further away than I am,
who have
also noticed the child but are doing nothing? One has only to
ask this
question to see the absurdity of the view that numbers lessen
obligation.
It is a view that is an ideal excuse for inactivity; unfortunately
most of
the major evils—poverty, overpopulation, pollution—are
problems in
which everyone is almost equally involved.
The view that numbers do make a difference can be made
plausible
if stated in this way: if everyone in circumstances like mine
gave £5 to
the Bengal Relief Fund, there would be enough to provide food,
shelter,
and medical care for the refugees; there is no reason why I
should give
more than anyone else in the same circumstances as I am;
therefore I
have no obligation to give more than £5. Each premise in this
argument
is true, and the argument looks sound. It may convince us,
unless we
notice that it is based on a hypothetical premise, although the
conclu-
sion is not stated hypothetically. The argument would be sound
if the
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Famine, Affluence, and Morality 201
conclusion were: if everyone in circumstances like mine were to
give
£5, I would have no obligation to give more than £5. If the
conclusion
were so stated, however, it would be obvious that the argument
has no
bearing on a situation in which it is not the case that everyone
else gives
£5. This, of course, is the actual situation. It is more or less
certain that
not everyone in circumstances like mine will give £5. So there
60. will not
be enough to provide the needed food, shelter, and medical care.
There-
fore by giving more than £5 I will prevent more suffering than I
would
if I gave just £5. . . .
If my argument so far has been sound, neither our distance from
a preventable evil nor the number of other people who, in
respect to
that evil, are in the same situation as we are, lessens our
obligation to
mitigate or prevent that evil. I shall therefore take as
established the
principle I asserted earlier. As I have already said, I need to
assert it
only in its qualified form: if it is in our power to prevent
something very
bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything else
morally
significant, we ought, morally, to do it.
The outcome of this argument is that our traditional moral
categories
are upset. The traditional distinction between duty and charity
cannot
be drawn, or at least, not in the place we normally draw it.
Giving
money to the Bengal Relief Fund is regarded as an act of charity
in
our society. The bodies which collect money are known as
“charities.”
These organizations see themselves in this way—if you send
them
a check, you will be thanked for your “generosity.” Because
giving
61. money is regarded as an act of charity, it is not thought that
there is
anything wrong with not giving. The charitable man may be
praised,
but the man who is not charitable is not condemned. People do
not feel
in any way ashamed or guilty about spending money on new
clothes or
a new car instead of giving it to famine relief. (Indeed, the
alternative
does not occur to them.) This way of looking at the matter
cannot be
justified. When we buy new clothes not to keep ourselves warm
but to
look “well-dressed” we are not providing for any important
need. We
would not be sacrificing anything significant if we were to
continue to
wear our old clothes, and give the money to famine relief. By
doing so,
we would be preventing another person from starving. It follows
from
what I have said earlier that we ought to give money away,
rather than
spend it on clothes which we do not need to keep us warm. To
do so is
not charitable, or generous. Nor is it the kind of act which
philosophers
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Chapter 19202
and theologians have called “supererogatory”—an act which it
would
be good to do, but not wrong not to do. On the contrary, we
ought to
give the money away, and it is wrong not to do so. . . .
One objection to the position I have taken might be simply that
it
is too drastic a revision of our moral scheme. People do not
ordinarily
judge in the way I have suggested they should. Most people
reserve
their moral condemnation for those who violate some moral
norm,
64. such as the norm against taking another person’s property. They
do not
condemn those who indulge in luxury instead of giving to
famine relief.
But given that I did not set out to present a morally neutral
description
of the way people make moral judgments, the way people do in
fact
judge has nothing to do with the validity of my conclusion. My
conclu-
sion follows from the principle which I advanced earlier, and
unless that
principle is rejected, or the arguments are shown to be unsound,
I think
the conclusion must stand, however strange it appears. . . .
It has been argued by some writers, among them Sidgwick and
Urm-
son, that we need to have a basic moral code which is not too
far beyond
the capacities of the ordinary man, for otherwise there will be a
general
breakdown of compliance with the moral code. Crudely stated,
this
argument suggests that if we tell people that they ought to
refrain from
murder and give everything they do not really need to famine
relief,
they will do neither, whereas if we tell them that they ought to
refrain
from murder and that it is good to give to famine relief but not
wrong
not to do so, they will at least refrain from murder. The issue
here is:
Where should we draw the line between conduct that is required
and
65. conduct that is good although not required, so as to get the best
possible
result? This would seem to be an empirical question, although a
very
difficult one. One objection to the Sidgwick-Urmson line of
argument
is that it takes insufficient account of the effect that moral
standards can
have on the decisions we make. Given a society in which a
wealthy man
who gives 5 percent of his income to famine relief is regarded
as most
generous, it is not surprising that a proposal that we all ought to
give
away half our incomes will be thought to be absurdly
unrealistic. In a
society which held that no man should have more than enough
while
others have less than they need, such a proposal might seem
narrow-
minded. What it is possible for a man to do and what he is
likely to do
are both, I think, very greatly influenced by what people around
him
are doing and expecting him to do. In any case, the possibility
that by
spreading the idea that we ought to be doing very much more
than we
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Famine, Affluence, and Morality 203
are to relieve famine we shall bring about a general breakdown
of moral
behavior seems remote. If the stakes are an end to widespread
starva-
tion, it is worth the risk. Finally, it should be emphasized that
these
considerations are relevant only to the issue of what we should
require
from others, and not to what we ourselves ought to do.
The second objection to my attack on the present distinction
between
duty and charity is one which has from time to time been made
against
68. utilitarianism. It follows from some forms of utilitarian theory
that we
all ought, morally, to be working full time to increase the
balance of
happiness over misery. The position I have taken here would not
lead
to this conclusion in all circumstances, for if there were no bad
occur-
rences that we could prevent without sacrificing something of
com-
parable moral importance, my argument would have no
application.
Given the present conditions in many parts of the world,
however, it
does follow from my argument that we ought, morally, to be
working
full time to relieve great suffering of the sort that occurs as a
result of
famine or other disasters. Of course, mitigating circumstances
can be
adduced—for instance, that if we wear ourselves out through
over-
work, we shall be less effective than we would otherwise have
been.
Nevertheless, when all considerations of this sort have been
taken into
account, the conclusion remains: we ought to be preventing as
much
suffering as we can without sacrificing something else of
comparable
moral importance. This conclusion is one which we may be
reluctant
to face. I cannot see, though, why it should be regarded as a
criticism
of the position for which I have argued, rather than a criticism
of our
69. ordinary standards of behavior. Since most people are self-
interested to
some degree, very few of us are likely to do everything that we
ought
to do. It would, however, hardly be honest to take this as
evidence that
it is not the case that we ought to do it.
It may still be thought that my conclusions are so wildly out of
line
with what everyone else thinks and has always thought that
there must
be something wrong with the argument somewhere. In order to
show
that my conclusions, while certainly contrary to contemporary
Western
moral standards, would not have seemed so extraordinary at
other times
and in other places, I would like to quote a passage from a
writer not
normally thought of as a way-out radical, Thomas Aquinas.
Now, according to the natural order instituted by divine
providence, mate-
rial goods are provided for the satisfaction of human needs.
Therefore
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Chapter 19204
the division and appropriation of property, which proceeds from
human
law, must not hinder the satisfaction of man’s necessity from
such goods.
Equally, whatever a man has in superabundance is owed, of
natural right,
to the poor for their sustenance. So Ambrosius says, and it is
also to be
found in the Decretum Gratiani: “The bread which you withhold
belongs
to the hungry; the clothing you shut away, to the naked; and the
money
you bury in the earth is the redemption and freedom of the
penniless.”1
I now want to consider a number of points, more practical than
72. philo-
sophical, which are relevant to the application of the moral
conclusion
we have reached. These points challenge not the idea that we
ought to
be doing all we can to prevent starvation, but the idea that
giving away
a great deal of money is the best means to this end. . . .
Another, more serious reason for not giving to famine relief
funds is
that until there is effective population control, relieving famine
merely
postpones starvation. If we save the Bengal refugees now,
others, per-
haps the children of these refugees, will face starvation in a few
years’
time. In support of this, one may cite the now well-known facts
about
the population explosion and the relatively limited scope for
expanded
production.
. . . I accept that the earth cannot support indefinitely a
population
rising at the present rate. This certainly poses a problem for
anyone
who thinks it important to prevent famine. Again, however, one
could
accept the argument without drawing the conclusion that it
absolves one
from any obligation to do anything to prevent famine. The
conclusion
that should be drawn is that the best means of preventing
famine, in the
long run, is population control. It would then follow from the
73. position
reached earlier that one ought to be doing all one can to
promote popu-
lation control (unless one held that all forms of population
control were
wrong in themselves, or would have significantly bad
consequences).
Since there are organizations working specifically for
population con-
trol, one would then support them rather than more orthodox
methods
of preventing famine.
A third point raised by the conclusion reached earlier relates to
the
question of just how much we all ought to be giving away. One
pos-
sibility . . . is that we ought to give until we reach the level of
marginal
utility—that is, the level at which, by giving more, I would
cause as
much suffering to myself or my dependents as I would relieve
by my
gift. This would mean, of course, that one would reduce oneself
to very
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Famine, Affluence, and Morality 205
near the material circumstances of a Bengali refugee. It will be
recalled
that earlier I put forward both a strong and a moderate version
of the
principle of preventing bad occurrences. The strong version,
which
required us to prevent bad things from happening unless in
doing so
we would be sacrificing something of comparable moral
significance,
does seem to require reducing ourselves to the level of marginal
utility.
I should also say that the strong version seems to me to be the
correct
one. I proposed the more moderate version—that we should
prevent
bad occurrences unless, to do so, we had to sacrifice something
76. morally
significant—only in order to show that, even on this surely
undeniable
principle, a great change in our way of life is required. On the
more
moderate principle, it may not follow that we ought to reduce
ourselves
to the level of marginal utility, for one might hold that to
reduce oneself
and one’s family to this level is to cause something
significantly bad to
happen. Whether this is so I shall not discuss, since, as I have
said, I
can see no good reason for holding the moderate version of the
principle
rather than the strong version. Even if we accepted the principle
only
in its moderate form, however, it should be clear that we would
have to
give away enough to ensure that the consumer society,
dependent as it is
on people spending on trivia rather than giving to famine relief,
would
slow down and perhaps disappear entirely. There are several
reasons
why this would be desirable in itself. The value and necessity of
eco-
nomic growth are now being questioned not only by
conservationists,
but by economists as well. There is no doubt, too, that the
consumer
society has had a distorting effect on the goals and purposes of
its mem-
bers. Yet looking at the matter purely from the point of view of
overseas
aid, there must be a limit to the extent to which we should
77. deliberately
slow down our economy; for it might be the case that if we gave
away,
say, 40 percent of our Gross National Product (GNP), we would
slow
down the economy so much that in absolute terms we would be
giving
less than if we gave 25 percent of the much larger GNP that we
would
have if we limited our contribution to this smaller percentage.
I mention this only as an indication of the sort of factor that one
would have to take into account in working out an ideal. Since
Western
societies generally consider 1 percent of the GNP an acceptable
level
for overseas aid, the matter is entirely academic. Nor does it
affect the
question of how much an individual should give in a society in
which
very few are giving substantial amounts.
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Chapter 19206
. . . The issue is one which faces everyone who has more money
than he
needs to support himself and his dependents, or who is in a
position to
take some sort of political action. These categories must include
practi-
cally every teacher and student of philosophy in the universities
of the
Western world. If philosophy is to deal with matters that are
relevant
to both teachers and students, this is an issue that philosophers
should
discuss.
Discussion, though, is not enough. What is the point of relating
phi-
losophy to public (and personal) affairs if we do not take our
conclu-
sions seriously? In this instance, taking our conclusion
seriously means
80. acting upon it. The philosopher will not find it any easier than
anyone
else to alter his attitudes and way of life to the extent that, if I
am right,
is involved in doing everything that we ought to be doing. At
the very
least, though, one can make a start. The philosopher who does
so will
have to sacrifice some of the benefits of the consumer society,
but he
can find compensation in the satisfaction of a way of life in
which
theory and practice, if not yet in harmony, are at least coming
together.
NOTE
1. Summa Theologica, II-II, Question 66, Article 7, in Aquinas,
Selected
Political Writings, ed. A. P. d’Entrèves, trans. J. G. Dawson
(Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1948), p. 171.
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305
Farm animals in America once grazed on open fields beside
coun-
try roads. Those days, however, are gone. Today, farm animals
live in smelly, crowded, automated warehouses. Every indepen-
dent study has found these factories to be inhumane. The
cramped
conditions are stressful and unnatural for the animals; cows
pumped full of food often experience internal abscesses;
chickens
and turkeys have their beaks cut off, and pigs and cows have
their
tails severed—all without anesthesia—to avoid the fighting that
occurs precisely because the animals are packed in so tightly.
The number of animals that suffer under these conditions is
staggering—in the billions, year after year. When people in our
culture think of a moral horror, they often think of the Holo-
caust—the campaign of genocide in which Hitler and his Nazi
thugs starved, beat, and ultimately murdered 5.7 million Jews.
85. ht
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Chapter 28306
In this selection, Alastair Norcross asks how we can justify
treating chickens in ways that we would never treat puppies.
Despite the seriousness of the topic, Norcross’s piece contains
humor—some of it directed at my home state of Alabama, and
some directed specifically at the city of Tuscaloosa, where I
live.
We Alabamians can take the ridicule—even when it’s not in
good
taste.
Alastair Norcross is a professor of philosophy at the University
of Colorado at Boulder, where many people play the banjo.
Consider the story of Fred, who receives a visit from the police
one
day. They have been summoned by Fred’s neighbors, who have
been
disturbed by strange sounds emanating from Fred’s basement.
When
they enter the basement they are confronted by the following
scene:
86. Twenty-six small wire cages, each containing a puppy, some
whin-
ing, some whimpering, some howling. The puppies range in age
from
newborn to about six months. Many of them show signs of
mutilation.
Urine and feces cover the bottoms of the cages and the
basement floor.
Fred explains that he keeps the puppies for twenty-six weeks,
and then
butchers them while holding them upside-down. During their
lives he
performs a series of mutilations on them, such as slicing off
their noses
and their paws with a hot knife, all without any form of
anesthesia.
Except for the mutilations, the puppies are never allowed out of
the
cages, which are barely big enough to hold them at twenty-six
weeks.
The police are horrified, and promptly charge Fred with animal
abuse.
As details of the case are publicized, the public is outraged.
Newspa-
pers are flooded with letters demanding that Fred be severely
punished.
There are calls for more severe penalties for animal abuse. Fred
is
denounced as a vile sadist.
Finally, at his trial, Fred explains his behavior, and argues that
he is
blameless and therefore deserves no punishment. He is, he
explains, a
great lover of chocolate. A couple of years ago, he was involved
in a car
89. .
Torturing Puppies and Eating Meat 307
he remembered so well. The waiter assured him that the recipe
was
unchanged from the last time he had tasted it, just the day
before his
accident. In some consternation, Fred rushed out to buy a bar of
his
favorite Belgian chocolate. Again, he was dismayed to discover
that
his experience of the chocolate was barely even pleasurable.
Extensive
investigation revealed that his experience of other foods
remained
unaffected, but chocolate, in all its forms, now tasted bland and
insipid.
Desperate for a solution to his problem, Fred visited a renowned
gusta-
tory neurologist, Dr. T. Bud. Extensive tests revealed that the
accident
had irreparably damaged the godiva gland, which secretes
cocoamone,
the hormone responsible for the experience of chocolate. Fred
urgently
requested hormone replacement therapy. Dr. Bud informed him
that,
until recently, there had been no known source of cocoamone,
other
than the human godiva gland, and that it was impossible to
collect
cocoamone from one person to be used by another. However, a
chance
90. discovery had altered the situation. A forensic veterinary
surgeon, per-
forming an autopsy on a severely abused puppy, had discovered
high
concentrations of cocoamone in the puppy’s brain. It turned out
that
puppies, who don’t normally produce cocoamone, could be
stimulated
to do so by extended periods of severe stress and suffering. The
research
that led to this discovery, while gaining tenure for its authors,
had not
been widely publicized, for fear of antagonizing animal welfare
groups.
Although this research clearly gave Fred the hope of tasting
chocolate
again, there were no commercially available sources of puppy-
derived
cocoamone. Lack of demand, combined with fear of bad
publicity, had
deterred drug companies from getting into the puppy torturing
business.
Fred appeals to the court to imagine his anguish, on discovering
that a
solution to his severe deprivation was possible, but not readily
avail-
able. But he wasn’t inclined to sit around bemoaning his cruel
fate. He
did what any chocolate lover would do. He read the research,
and set
up his own cocoamone collection lab in his basement. Six
months of
intense puppy suffering, followed by a brutal death, produced
enough
cocoamone to last him a week, hence the twenty-six cages. He
isn’t a
93. .
Chapter 28308
would be just as healthy without chocolate, if not more so. But
this isn’t
a matter of survival or health. His life would be unacceptably
impover-
ished without the experience of chocolate.
End of story. Clearly, we are horrified by Fred’s behavior, and
unconvinced by his attempted justification. It is, of course,
unfortunate
for Fred that he can no longer enjoy the taste of chocolate, but
that in no
way excuses the imposition of severe suffering on the puppies. I
expect
near universal agreement with this claim (the exceptions being
those
who are either inhumanly callous or thinking ahead, and wish to
avoid
the following conclusion, to which such agreement commits
them).
No decent person would even contemplate torturing puppies
merely to
enhance a gustatory experience. However, billions of animals
endure
intense suffering every year for precisely this end. Most of the
chicken,
veal, beef, and pork consumed in the United States comes from
inten-
sive confinement facilities, in which the animals live cramped,
stress-
filled lives and endure un-anaesthetized mutilations. The vast
94. majority
of people would suffer no ill health from the elimination of
meat from
their diets. Quite the reverse. The supposed benefits from this
system
of factory farming, apart from the profits accruing to
agribusiness, are
increased levels of gustatory pleasure for those who claim that
they
couldn’t enjoy a meat-free diet as much as their current meat-
filled
diets. If we are prepared to condemn Fred for torturing puppies
merely
to enhance his gustatory experiences, shouldn’t we similarly
condemn
the millions who purchase and consume factory-raised meat?
Are there
any morally significant differences between Fred’s behavior and
their
behavior?
The first difference that might seem to be relevant is that Fred
tor-
tures the puppies himself, whereas most Americans consume
meat that
comes from animals that have been tortured by others. But is
this really
relevant? What if Fred had been squeamish and had employed
someone
else to torture the puppies and extract the cocoamone? Would
we have
thought any better of Fred? Of course not.
Another difference between Fred and many consumers of
factory-
raised meat is that many, perhaps most, such consumers are
97. Torturing Puppies and Eating Meat 309
or even partial, awareness of the suffering endured by the
animals?
While many consumers are still blissfully ignorant of the
appalling
treatment meted out to meat, that number is rapidly dwindling,
thanks
to vigorous publicity campaigns waged by animal welfare
groups. Fur-
thermore, any meat-eating readers of this article are now
deprived of
the excuse of ignorance.
Perhaps a consumer of factory-raised animals could argue as
follows:
While I agree that Fred’s behavior is abominable, mine is
crucially dif-
ferent. If Fred did not consume his chocolate, he would not
raise and
torture puppies (or pay someone else to do so). Therefore Fred
could
prevent the suffering of the puppies. However, if I did not buy
and
consume factory-raised meat, no animals would be spared lives
of mis-
ery. Agribusiness is much too large to respond to the behavior
of one
consumer. Therefore I cannot prevent the suffering of any
animals. I
may well regret the suffering inflicted on animals for the sake
of human
enjoyment. I may even agree that the human enjoyment doesn’t
98. justify
the suffering. However, since the animals will suffer no matter
what I
do, I may as well enjoy the taste of their flesh.
There are at least two lines of response to this attempted
defense.
First, consider an analogous case. You visit a friend in an exotic
location, say Alabama. Your friend takes you out to eat at the
finest
restaurant in Tuscaloosa. For dessert you select the house
specialty,
“Chocolate Mousse à la Bama,” served with a small cup of
coffee,
which you are instructed to drink before eating the mousse. The
mousse
is quite simply the most delicious dessert you have ever tasted.
Never
before has chocolate tasted so rich and satisfying. Tempted to
order a
second, you ask your friend what makes this mousse so
delicious. He
informs you that the mousse itself is ordinary, but the coffee
contains
a concentrated dose of cocoamone, the newly discovered
chocolate-
enhancing hormone. Researchers at Auburn University have
perfected
a technique for extracting cocoamone from the brains of freshly
slaugh-
tered puppies, who have been subjected to lives of pain and
frustration.
Each puppy’s brain yields four doses, each of which is effective
for
about fifteen minutes, just long enough to enjoy one serving of
mousse.
101. Chapter 28310
He agrees that the suffering of the puppies is outrageous, and
that the
gain in human pleasure in no way justifies the appalling
treatment they
have to endure. However, neither he nor you can save any
puppies
by refraining from consuming cocoamone. Cocoamone
production is
now Alabama’s leading industry, surpassing even banjo-making
and
inbreeding.1 The industry is much too large to respond to the
behavior
of one or two consumers. Since the puppies will suffer no
matter what
either of you does, you may as well enjoy the mousse.
If it is as obvious as it seems that a morally decent person, who
is
aware of the details of cocoamone production, couldn’t order
Chocolate
Mousse à la Bama, it should be equally obvious that a morally
decent
person, who is aware of the details of factory farming, can’t
purchase
and consume factory-raised meat. If the attempted excuse of
causal
impotence is compelling in the latter case, it should be
compelling in
the former case. But it isn’t.
The second response to the claim of causal impotence is to deny
it.
102. Consider the case of chickens, the most cruelly treated of all
animals
raised for human consumption, with the possible exception of
veal
calves. In 1998, almost 8 billion chickens were slaughtered in
the
United States,2 almost all of them raised on factory farms.
Suppose that
there are 250 million chicken eaters in the United States, and
that each
one consumes, on average, 25 chickens per year (this leaves a
fair num-
ber of chickens slaughtered for nonhuman consumption, or for
export).
Clearly, if only one of those chicken eaters gave up eating
chicken, the
industry would not respond. Equally clearly, if they all gave up
eat-
ing chicken, billions of chickens (approximately 6.25 billion per
year)
would not be bred, tortured, and killed. But there must also be
some
number of consumers, far short of 250 million, whose
renunciation of
chicken would cause the industry to reduce the number of
chickens
bred in factory farms. The industry may not be able to respond
to each
individual’s behavior, but it must respond to the behavior of
fairly
large numbers. Suppose that the industry is sensitive to a
reduction in
demand for chicken equivalent to 10,000 people becoming
vegetarians.
(This seems like a reasonable guess, but I have no idea what the
actual
105. Torturing Puppies and Eating Meat 311
chicken, in which case you have no chance. Isn’t a one in ten
thousand
chance small enough to render your continued consumption of
chicken
blameless? Not at all. While the chance that your behavior is
harmful
may be small, the harm that is risked is enormous. The larger
the num-
bers needed to make a difference to chicken production, the
larger the
difference such numbers would make. A one in ten thousand
chance
of saving 250,000 chickens per year from excruciating lives is
morally
and mathematically equivalent to the certainty of saving 25
chickens
per year. We commonly accept that even small risks of great
harms are
unacceptable. That is why we disapprove of parents who fail to
secure
their children in car seats or with seat belts, who leave their
small chil-
dren unattended at home, or who drink or smoke heavily during
preg-
nancy. Or consider commercial aircraft safety measures. The
chances
that the oxygen masks, the lifejackets, or the emergency exits
on any
given plane will be called on to save any lives in a given week,
are far
smaller than one in ten thousand. And yet we would be outraged
to
106. discover that an airline had knowingly allowed a plane to fly for
a week
with non-functioning emergency exits, oxygen masks, and
lifejackets.
So, even if it is true that your giving up factory raised chicken
has only
a tiny chance of preventing suffering, given that the amount of
suffer-
ing that would be prevented is in inverse proportion to your
chance of
preventing it, your continued consumption is not thereby
excused.
But perhaps it is not even true that your giving up chicken has
only
a tiny chance of making any difference. Suppose again that the
poultry
industry only reduces production when a threshold of 10,000
fresh veg-
etarians is reached. Suppose also, as is almost certainly true,
that veg-
etarianism is growing in popularity in the United States (and
elsewhere).
Then, even if you are not the one, newly converted vegetarian,
to reach the
next threshold of 10,000, your conversion will reduce the time
required
before the next threshold is reached. The sooner the threshold is
reached,
the sooner production, and therefore animal suffering, is
reduced. Your
behavior, therefore, does make a difference. Furthermore, many
people
who become vegetarians influence others to become vegetarian,
who in
turn influence others, and so on. It appears, then, that the claim
109. Chapter 28312
the millions of people who purchase and consume factory-raised
meat,
at least those who do so in the knowledge that the animals live
lives
of suffering and deprivation. Just as morality demands that we
not tor-
ture puppies merely to enhance our own eating pleasure,
morality also
demands that we not support factory farming by purchasing
factory-
raised meat.
NOTES
1. I realize that I am playing on stereotypes for comic effect.
Banjo-making,
of course, has never really been one of Alabama’s leading
industries.
2. Livestock Slaughter 1998 Summary, NASS, USDA
(Washington, DC:
March 1999), 2; and Poultry Slaughter, NASS, USDA
(Washington, DC: Feb-
ruary 2, 1999), 1f.
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293
Peter Singer has written about assisted reproduction, animal
rights, abortion, infanticide, the environment, and famine relief.
Because of his controversial beliefs, Singer’s appointment to
Princeton University in 1999 created a public uproar
reminiscent
of 1940, when the City College of New York appointed
Bertrand
Russell, one of the twentieth century’s greatest philosophers, to
a
one-year professorship. In Russell’s case, the outcry culminated
in a judge’s ruling that canceled the state university’s appoint-
ment. Commenting on the case, Albert Einstein said, “Great
spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities.”
114. ll
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Chapter 27294
The utilitarians took a different view, holding that we should
consider the interests of all beings, human and nonhuman. Peter
Singer (1946–) took up this argument in the mid-1970s.
Today, Professor Singer splits his time between Princeton
University in the United States and Melbourne University in
Australia.
“Animal Liberation” may sound more like a parody of other
liberation
movements than a serious objective. The idea of “The Rights of
Ani-
mals” actually was once used to parody the case for women’s
rights.
When Mary Wollstonecraft, a forerunner of today’s feminists,
pub-
lished her Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, her
views were
115. widely regarded as absurd, and before long an anonymous
publication
appeared entitled A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes. The
author of
this satirical work (now known to have been Thomas Taylor, a
distin-
guished Cambridge philosopher) tried to refute Mary
Wollstonecraft’s
arguments by showing that they could be carried one stage
further. If
the argument for equality was sound when applied to women,
why
should it not be applied to dogs, cats, and horses? The reasoning
seemed
to hold for these “brutes” too; yet to hold that brutes had rights
was
manifestly absurd. Therefore the reasoning by which this
conclusion
had been reached must be unsound, and if unsound when
applied to
brutes, it must also be unsound when applied to women, since
the very
same arguments had been used in each case.
In order to explain the basis of the case for the equality of
animals, it
will be helpful to start with an examination of the case for the
equality
of women. Let us assume that we wish to defend the case for
women’s
rights against the attack by Thomas Taylor. How should we
reply?
One way in which we might reply is by saying that the case for
equal-
ity between men and women cannot validly be extended to
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All Animals Are Equal 295
The reasoning behind this reply to Taylor’s analogy is correct
up to
a point, but it does not go far enough. There are obviously
important
differences between humans and other animals, and these
differences
must give rise to some differences in the rights that each have.
Recog-
nizing this evident fact, however, is no barrier to the case for
extending
the basic principle of equality to nonhuman animals. The
differences
that exist between men and women are equally undeniable, and
the
supporters of Women’s Liberation are aware that these
differences may
give rise to different rights. Many feminists hold that women
have the
right to an abortion on request. It does not follow that since
these same
feminists are campaigning for equality between men and women
they
must support the right of men to have abortions too. Since a
man cannot
have an abortion, it is meaningless to talk of his right to have
one. Since
119. dogs can’t vote, it is meaningless to talk of their right to vote.
There is
no reason why either Women’s Liberation or Animal Liberation
should
get involved in such nonsense. The extension of the basic
principle of
equality from one group to another does not imply that we must
treat
both groups in exactly the same way, or grant exactly the same
rights
to both groups. Whether we should do so will depend on the
nature of
the members of the two groups. The basic principle of equality
does
not require equal or identical treatment; it requires equal
consideration.
Equal consideration for different beings may lead to different
treatment
and different rights.
So there is a different way of replying to Taylor’s attempt to
parody
the case for women’s rights, a way that does not deny the
obvious dif-
ferences between human beings and nonhumans but goes more
deeply
into the question of equality and concludes by finding nothing
absurd in
the idea that the basic principle of equality applies to so-called
brutes.
At this point such a conclusion may appear odd; but if we
examine
more deeply the basis on which our opposition to discrimination
on
grounds of race or sex ultimately rests, we will see that we
would be
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Chapter 27296
that humans come in different shapes and sizes; they come with
differ-
ent moral capacities, different intellectual abilities, different
amounts of
benevolent feeling and sensitivity to the needs of others,
different abili-
ties to communicate effectively, and different capacities to
experience
pleasure and pain. In short, if the demand for equality were
based on the
actual equality of all human beings, we would have to stop
demanding
equality.
Still, one might cling to the view that the demand for equality
among
human beings is based on the actual equality of the different
races and
sexes. Although, it may be said, humans differ as individuals,
there
are no differences between the races and sexes as such. From
the mere
fact that a person is black or a woman we cannot infer anything
about
that person’s intellectual or moral capacities. This, it may be
said, is
123. why racism and sexism are wrong. The white racist claims that
whites
are superior to blacks, but this is false; although there are
differences
among individuals, some blacks are superior to some whites in
all of
the capacities and abilities that could conceivably be relevant.
The
opponent of sexism would say the same: a person’s sex is no
guide to
his or her abilities, and this is why it is unjustifiable to
discriminate on
the basis of sex.
The existence of individual variations that cut across the lines
of
race or sex, however, provides us with no defense at all against
a more
sophisticated opponent of equality, one who proposes that, say,
the
interests of all those with IQ scores below 100 be given less
consid-
eration than the interests of those with ratings over 100.
Perhaps those
scoring below the mark would, in this society, be made the
slaves of
those scoring higher. Would a hierarchical society of this sort
really
be so much better than one based on race or sex? I think not.
But if
we tie the moral principle of equality to the factual equality of
the dif-
ferent races or sexes, taken as a whole, our opposition to racism
and
sexism does not provide us with any basis for objecting to this
kind of
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All Animals Are Equal 297
measurable differences both among races and between sexes.
These
differences do not, of course, appear in every case, but only
when aver-
ages are taken. More important still, we do not yet know how
many of
these differences are really due to the different genetic
endowments of
the different races and sexes, and how many are due to poor
schools,
poor housing, and other factors that are the result of past and
continuing
discrimination. Perhaps all of the important differences will
eventually
prove to be environmental rather than genetic. Anyone opposed
to rac-
ism and sexism will certainly hope that this will be so, for it
will make
the task of ending discrimination a lot easier; nevertheless, it
would be
dangerous to rest the case against racism and sexism on the
belief that
all significant differences are environmental in origin. The
opponent of,
say, racism who takes this line will be unable to avoid
conceding that if
127. differences in ability did after all prove to have some genetic
connection
with race, racism would in some way be defensible.
Fortunately there is no need to pin the case for equality to one
par-
ticular outcome of a scientific investigation. The appropriate
response
to those who claim to have found evidence of genetically based
differ-
ences in ability among the races or between the sexes is not to
stick
to the belief that the genetic explanation must be wrong,
whatever
evidence to the contrary may turn up; instead we should make it
quite
clear that the claim to equality does not depend on intelligence,
moral
capacity, physical strength, or similar matters of fact. Equality
is a
moral idea, not an assertion of fact. There is no logically
compelling
reason for assuming that a factual difference in ability between
two
people justifies any difference in the amount of consideration
we give to
their needs and interests. The principle of the equality of human
beings
is not a description of an alleged actual equality among humans:
it is a
prescription of how we should treat human beings.
Jeremy Bentham, the founder of the reforming utilitarian school
of
moral philosophy, incorporated the essential basis of moral
equality