1. Running head: EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 1
Effect of Music-Induced Emotion on Risk Taking
Dahvontae Everage
Oklahoma State University

2. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 2
Abstract
Emotions are characteristically involved in every facet of the human existence, we experience
and express emotions throughout daily routines, and thus emotions are particularly important to
comprehend if researchers desire to fully understand human behavioral tendencies. With the
continued emphasis on music portability, it would be safe to assume music is prominently
involved in daily experiences; therefore this study theorizes that music heavily influences
emotional states, subsequently influencing one’s decision making abilities. This study will seek
to comprehend the link between music-induced emotional states and decision making as it
pertains to risk taking. Through examining the effects of positive music, negative music, and a
neutral control group (subjects read an article documenting facts about China) we will provide
evidence that positive music induces a positive emotional response, subsequently leading
participants to likewise have higher probabilities of engaging in risky decision making. A subject
variable is also observed, considering potential gender differences. We theorize that men will
exhibit higher tendencies of engaging in risky decision making regardless of group placement.

3. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 3
Effect of Music-Induced Emotion on Risk Taking
Emotional responsiveness to stimuli is the foundational basis of the human existence,
which effectively influences behaviors, mental and physical health, as well as decision making.
Research linking emotions to decision making continues to be in influx, with a variety of studies
focusing most prominently on basic emotions, such as worry, sadness, or happiness (Worthy,
Byrne, & Fields, 2014). Similarly a plethora of empirical evidence exists positing the potential
involvement of music in the expression of emotions, despite this fact many contradictions are
apparent amongst researchers examining this phenomena. Various studies exhibit evidence
perpetuating the concept of emotionally inducing music, while other studies have demonstrated
evidence suggesting music does not have emotion inducing properties. The contradictory nature
of this intriguing conceptualization is overwhelmingly troublesome, however it would seem
congruency amongst music induced emotions is in an influx (Bene, 1997; Denora, 2000; Juslin
& Laukka, 2004). Music has been demonstrated to be an efficient method of emotional
regulation, thus contributing to the development of therapy focusing on music’s ability to
efficiently alter one’s emotional state (Moore, 2013). This is an interestingly complex cognitive
development, which therefore provides a foundational basis for my study.
Musically induced emotions are considered to be overwhelmingly distinct from daily
emotions, both in their production as well as the amount of time experienced (Juslin & Västfjäll,
2008). Regardless of this notion music possesses formative emotional properties, which likely
contributes to its widespread use in vast arrays of media outlets; due to its utilization in
advertisements, one could logically assume musically induced emotions could effectively predict
the probability of one engaging in risky decision making. Emotional contagion, a phrase

4. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 4
manufactured by Juslin and Västfjäll (2008), theorizes that an emotion is induced due to
participants mimicking the emotions they perceive to be exuded by the music they are listening
to. Emotional contagion is an intuitively constructed feature, affording humans the opportunity to
properly perceive and reflectively emote congruent emotions within heard songs (Juslin &
Västfjäll, 2008). Therefore we hypothesize that participants within our positive music group will
exhibit the lowest scores on the risk assessment task, while those within the negative music
group will possess a higher probability of engaging in risky decision making, as various research
is suggestive of this theme.
Method
Participants
The study will be comprised of undergraduate, male and female students attending
Oklahoma State University ranging from the ages of 18-24. The participants will likely come
from a wide variety of ethnic and racial backgrounds, however there is a high likelihood a
majority of participants will be of Caucasian decent. This study will utilize the campus-wide
SONA system to recruit and compensate students via the SONA credits typically required for
introductory psychology students.
Materials
The materials required to effectively coordinate this study includes a variety of
substantially validated measures. First, in an effort to efficiently gauge the emotional state both
prior to and after the study, participants will be given a Self-Assessment of Mood (Taylor &
Friedman, 2015) based on a 7-point Likert scale. The only question the assessment poses is

5. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 5
“How do you feel right now?” with 1 indicating very sad and 7 indicating very happy (Taylor &
Friedman, 2015). In order to musically prime participants two different classical pieces,
noticeably demonstrated to be operational (Rowe, Hirsh, & Anderson, 2007), will be employed
to induce either a positive or negative emotional state. In an effort to manufacture a neutral
control group, however, participants will read an article documenting various facts about China,
developed and validated by Rowe et al. (2007). Regarding the particular musical pieces involved,
Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 played by a jazz flautist has demonstrated an ability to elicit
positive emotions, while negative emotions will be brought about by Prokofiev’s “Alexander
Nevsky: Russia Under Mongolian Yoke” played at half speed. Lastly, and potentially one of the
most significant materials involved, is the Personal Risk Inventory, conceived to assess decision
making in regards to the risk-reward cognitive conceptualizations. The PRI was developed
specifically for Hockey et al.’s study on effects of negative mood on everyday decision making,
despite this the assessment can effectively translate to the premise of this study (Hockey et al.,
2010). Through the PRI assessment participants will be presented with 13 scenarios
representative of a diverse array of situations designed to be typical of everyday circumstances,
ranging from legal to health decisions. In order to score the assessment participants would
choose either an action that was identified as either “risky” or “safe” (randomly designated as A
or B), due to this randomization of designations reverse-scoring is necessary. To fully
comprehend levels of endorsement of their choice, we will request they rate their commitment on
a 10-point scale (from “definitely A” to “definitely B”). Conjunctively averaging scores across
the PRI and 10-point commitment scale suggests an aversion for risky behaviors (Hockey et al.,
2010). Each of these provisions will provide the study with a valid measure of each participant’s
level of riskiness and risk taking behaviors.

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Procedure
The initial step of the study will be ensuring the participants thoroughly read and
comprehend an informed consent form. Following the explanation and comprehension of the
consent form, the participant and researcher will both provide a signature indicating their
authorization to proceed. In order to combat potential confounding variable such as group non-
equivalence, male and female subjects will be randomly assigned to one of the three musical
groups. Maintaining the confidentiality of participants is an integral mechanism for ensuring
ethical research coordination; therefore participants will be allotted an arbitrary number and
letter to indicate their group and gender (E.g. FemPos1). Musically-induced emotions will be
divided into three groups, with group 1 being exposed to Bach’s piece, group 2 being exposed to
Prokofiev’s piece, and group 3 being exposed to the neutral China facts article. Prior to listening
to the music, or reading the article, each participant will complete the Self-Assessment of Mood
questionnaire. This procedure will be followed by the playing of the music associated with the
participant’s group for 2 minutes and 30 seconds. After the time limit has passed, participants
will be given a post Self-Assessment of Mood. To ensure the pervasiveness of emotion
induction, music will continue to be played throughout the entirety of the PRI. The assessment of
the potential variable relationships will be based upon amount of times risky options are favored
over more conservative ones. After completing the 13-item assessment and the 10-point
commitment scale, participants will be debriefed in order to ensure the priming technique is not
pervasive. Once the participant’s session concludes, the researcher will properly file the
assessments and consent forms certifying the safety of the findings.
Expected Results

7. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 7
A two-way, between-subjects ANOVA will be utilized to analyze the data due to the
design of the study, possessing two factors, multiple levels, a between-subjects factorial design.
A two-way ANOVA will be employed in an effort to return a significant p-value less than our
alpha level of .05, a simple effects test will be subsequently conducted. Through conducting this
analysis we will be enabled to observe the significant main effects for both our subject (Males v.
Females) and music variables (Positive, Negative, or Neutral) on risky decision making, while
likewise identifying an interaction between gender and music.
Discussion
The expected results are consistent with the initially proposed hypotheses. The study
would result in significant contrasts amongst the three conditions, with the test of simple effects
reflecting an increase in risk taking amongst those within the negative music group, while
subsequently demonstrating an interaction between the music emotions and risky decision
making. Despite empirically supporting the hypotheses, various confounds could restrain the
development of valid results. The most notable confound is subjective, perceptions of musically
provoked emotions can likely be attributable to personality, as well as musical preferences. I
consider one’s personality to be overwhelmingly congruent with their perception and
interpretation of music, which could therefore contribute to their emotional state following the
musical prime. For example, if a naturally extroverted participant found themselves in the
negative music group the emotion provocation may not necessarily influence their emotion,
potentially leading them to display risk scores comparable to that of neutral subjects. Extroverts
have personalities characterized by overly positive dispositions, which may confound their
results. Another noticeably limited aspect of this study is its ambivalence in considering

8. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 8
prospective emotional complications involved in daily emotional stressors. For example, while
participants are emotionally pretested, due to its self-reporting features participants may succumb
to attempting to present themselves in a more desirable manner as opposed to demonstrating
emotional transparency. Considerations for future research could revolve around the concepts of
emotional-congruency biases, a theoretical process involving the congruency of emotions
experienced with emotions perceived (Vuoskoski & Eerola, 2011). This theory suggests that
music expressing positive emotions elicit milder emotional responses when the emotion is
incongruent with the mood state of the listener, contrastingly, negative music elicit a negative
reaction regardless of mood state; this is highly suggestive and lends itself nicely to the
hypothesis purveyed here. The most significant facet of this concept is its comprehension of the
multidimensional aspects of human perception (Physiological responses, personality traits,
current mood states, etc.), enabling intricate assertions to be made. Another significant limitation
of this study are the pieces selected to elicit the emotions, although a validated measure, a
majority of college aged students do not typically observe classical music; therefore,
assumptions based on this research may not be indicative of the emotions demonstrated by
students habitually. Likewise, due to a lack of exposure to the stimuli interpretations of the
music’s intended emotion may be difficult for participants to distinguish. For example, as a result
of students’ consistent use of popular music infused with relatable subject matters and human
emoting, students will likely have a significantly more difficult time perceiving these emotions
over those involved in popular culture. On the basis of this knowledge future studies could
consider the influence Billboard top 100 songs have on emotion induction, this extension affords
the opportunity to observe the current musical landscape’s emotional induction properties.
Musically induced emotional states are seemingly temporary, however they exhibit

9. EFFECT OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTION ON RISK TAKING 9
characteristics of emotionally priming cognitive techniques; music has the universal appeal
unbeknownst to a majority of other aspects of the human existence, thus contributing to its
overwhelming utilization throughout media outlets. Despite this fact it is imperative that research
continues to strive to remove the various uncertainties of music based emotions, while seemingly
observing the ways with which humans perceive their music listening experience.

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References
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states on risk in everyday decision making. Cognition and Emotion, 14(6), 823-855.
Juslin, P. N., & Västfjäll, D. (2008). Emotional responses to music: The need to consider
underlying mechanisms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31, 559-621.
Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson, A. K. (2007). Positive affect increases the breadth of
attentional selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, 104, 383-388.
Taylor, C.L., & Friedman, R.S. (2014). Differential influence of sadness and disgust on music
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