1) The study explored the effects of vocal music on working memory by measuring participants' immediate recall of short and long words presented visually with or without background music. 2) Results showed participants recalled significantly more short words in the absence of vocal music compared to when music was playing. However, there was no significant difference in recall of long words between the music and no music conditions. 3) This provides further evidence that background music can disrupt working memory, especially for short-term recall of visually presented short words, but does not affect recall of long words.

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The effects of vocal music on the phonological working memory
Word count: 1,889
The working memory is an active system responsible for temporary storage of information
and the manipulation of complex cognitive processes. Attentive listening to music activate
neural circuits that serve general functions such as memory, therefore, this would disrupt
immediate storage of visually presented information. The purpose of this research was to
explore the effects of vocal distractions such as music on working memory measured by the
immediate recall of visually given words. Forty male and female participants either had to
memorise monosyllabic words, in the presence of vocal music for immediate recall;
monosyllabic words in a quiet environment; polysyllabic words whilst background vocal
music was being played or in the absence of vocal music. Results show that participants
recalled significantly more short words in the absence of vocal distraction. Whereas, findings
suggests there is no significant difference in the recall of long words as a function of
background music. This provides further empirical evidence which proposed these
hypotheses. The interpretations and prospective real-world implications of the effect of
background music on intellectual performance is discussed.
Introduction
Memory is undoubtedly an important aspect of human functioning. Psychologists have
provided a range of ideas to better explain and understand the aspects of memory. According
to Baddeley and Hitch (1974), there are three components: central executive system
(attentional system that controls “slave” systems); phonological loop (subdivided into
phonological store (inner ear) and articulatory process (inner voice); and visual-spatial
sketchpad (inner eye). Working memory is a system responsible for the storing of
instantaneous events and handling of complex intellectual processes (Cardwell & Flanagan,
2010; Alloway, 2006). Research into this model found that memory retention was more for
short words than long words, the “word length effect” (Baddeley, Thomson & Buchanan,
1975). However, this effect was removed when participants were given an “articulatory
suppression task”, which acts as a distraction. Therefore, researchers have become
increasingly interested in the effects of environmental distractions such as background music
on the capacity of the working memory.

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An influential research by Salame and Baddeley (1989) investigated the effect of background
factors on immediate serial recall. Findings suggest that the effect increased adversely as the
speech became more structured. Further research derives from earlier studies which found
that listening to music negatively affected intellectual task performance (Fogelson, 1973 cited
Williams, 1961; Kiger, 1989). Fogelson (1973) found that recall on reading task was reduced
in eighth graders when instrumental music was being played, but, this effect was the opposite
in college students. This could be as a result of more exposure to music and having the ability
to adapt and attend to relevant information in the college-age group.
A study by Furnham and Bradley (1997) suggests that music only acts as a distractor to those
classed as introverts than extroverts. In contrast, Mowsesian and Heyer (1973) found that
neither noise nor background music had negative effects on learning. Moreover, Furnham and
Bradley (1997) were criticised for an invalid measurement of participants mental abilities due
to the fact that the method of measurement were two short test each taking 10 minutes to
complete. On the other hand, the exposure of music during that time could be said to have
been limited.
Westernisation of the world has led to an increase in music accessibility in communal areas
(Bitner, 1992) and on the media (Bull, 2005); moreover, most students listen to music while
studying (Ransdell & Gilroy, 2001). Hembrooke and Gay (2003) investigated the effects of
multitasking in students during lectures in the classroom. They found that students who were
asked to keep their laptops opened during the lecture suffered loss of memory than students
who had their laptops closed. Further support also illustrates impairment in memory tasks
caused by background music (Iwanga & Ito, 2002; Alley & Greene, 2008). Recent research
argues that task performance is dependent on the music genre (Balogun, Monteiro &
Teseletso, 2013). This suggests the presence of individual differences.
A meta-analysis found that background music negatively impacted literacy, had damaging
effects on memory whereas, improved mood and sports achievements (Kampfe, Sedlmeier &
Renkewitz, 2010). This proposes the idea that the effect of music on performance is mood
dependent. This could be due to the fact that music creates positive mood (Oaksford, Morris,
Grainger & Williams, 1996). Moreover, music is perceived differently by people and their
response varies (Hallam, 2010). Lesiuk (2005) found that the presence of music created a
positive affect and increased work quality.

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Considering the conflict in previous research, this current study aims to provide further
understanding of the effect of listening to vocal music whilst learning, in order to enhance
performances in areas such as education and work. Therefore, this research predicts:
significantly more monosyllabic and polysyllabic words would be recalled in the absence of
vocal music which acts as a distractor.
Method
Participants:
A sample of forty participants (21 Males, 19 Females) took part in this study. An opportunity
sampling method was used to recruit participants from the University of Portsmouth, London
and Bristol. The participants varied in ages ranging from 14 to 59 (M = 26.1 years, SD =
12.18 years). Table 1 illustrates the difference in the participants’ age and gender in the four
conditions.
Design:
To investigate the effects of background vocal music on the capacity of the working memory,
the study used a between groups factorial design. Participants were pseudo-randomly
assigned to each condition: monosyllabic words with vocal music; monosyllabic words
without music; polysyllabic words with vocal music and without. The independent variables
were the length of words and whether vocal music was being played or not. While the
dependent variable was the amount of words correctly recalled.
Materials:
Memory task: A list of fifty words (25 monosyllabic and polysyllabic words each) was
chosen by the researchers initially (Appendix 1). Using the British National Corpus (BYU-
BNC) word frequency search, the words were reduced to 15 each with similar frequencies
(Appendix 2b). Vocal music was a soul/funk/disco chosen from the official charts company’s
number one single at the time of data collection.

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Procedure:
All participants were tested in separate sessions. Prior to research, participants were given an
informed consent form with a brief explanation of the purpose and procedure of the study.
Afterwards, participants were pseudo-randomly allocated into four groups of 10 participants
each. Participants in group 1 and 2 were visually presented with 15 monosyllabic words,
while individuals in group 3 and 4 were given 15 polysyllabic words. Participants in group 1
and 3 were tested the vocal version of “Mark Ronson - Uptown Funk ft. Bruno Mars”;
whereas, participants in group 2 and 4 were tested in a quiet environment with minimal
distractions.
In all conditions, participants were provided with headphones either playing the song chosen
or not. This would prevent any other vocal distractions and ensure high control of the
independent variable, music. Participants were allowed to adjust the volume of the music to
suit their choice of comfort. The words used were presented individually in the centre of the
screen of a computer. Each word was shown to each participant for a duration of 3 seconds.
After the words were presented to participants, they gave an immediate recall and their
accuracy recorded. Finally, participants were debriefed to prevent any possible harm.
Data analyses:
Word recall performance was assessed by the total number of words participants
remembered. After data collection, a two-way independent groups analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was calculated using IBM SPSS (Version 22 for Windows, SPSS Inc.). Within
subjects variables were vocal distraction (vocal music and no vocal music) and the length of
the words (short words or long words). A Post-Hoc Pairwise comparison (Bonferroni test)
was calculated to show the mean differences that exist between pairs of conditions (see
Appendix 2)

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Results
A two-way between subjects factorial ANOVA was utilised to analyse the differences in the
immediate recall of short and long words depending on whether background vocal music is played or
not. Findings indicate that there is a significant main effect of the length of the words on recall
accuracy, F (1, 36) = 12.729, p = 0.001, 𝜂2
𝑝= 0.261. This suggests that visually presented short words
(M = 6.90, SD = 2.049) were recalled by participant significantly more than long words (M = 5.30, SD
= 1.081). Additionally, a significant main effect of vocal distractions was identified, F (1, 36) =
4.972, p = 0.032, 𝜂2
𝑝 = 0.121. Therefore,recall was more accurate when no music was playing in the
background (M = 6.60, SD = 1.847), whilst, words were presented visually than in the presence of
background vocal music (M = 5.60, SD = 1.667). Findings also suggest that there is a significant
interaction effect between the presence of vocal music (vocal distraction) and the length of the words
(F (1, 36) = 9.746, p = 0. 004, 𝜂2
𝑝 = 0.213. This finding is illustrated in figure 1.
Figure 1. Mean Immediate Recall of short and long words as a function of vocal distraction.

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Pairwise comparisons were carried out to observe the effect of the presence of vocal
distraction on recall accuracy formed distinctly for each length of words. Using the
Bonferroni post-hoc test, findings show that short words were recalled significantly more (p
= 0.001) when participants were placed in a quiet environment (M = 8.10, 95% CI (7.19,
9.01)) than when vocal music was being played (M = 5.70, 95% CI (4.79, 6.61)). Whereas,
no significant difference was found in the immediate recall of long words whilst vocal music
was being played (M = 5.50, 95% CI (4.59, 6.41) or recall with no vocal distraction (M =
5.10, 95% CI (4.19, 6.01); p = 0.532. Altogether, data suggests more short words are
retained in our memory when learnt in a quiet environment than in an environment with
background vocal music. But, the ability to recall long words was not affected by the
presence of vocal background music.
Discussion
The purpose of this research was to explore the effects of vocal background music on the
immediate recall of visually presented information. Based on the results, the study indicates
that short words were significantly more than long words i.e. there is a significant negative
correlation between recall accuracy and the length of words. Findings also show that in
general, fewer words were recalled when vocal music was being played. Additionally, a
significant interaction effects illustrating that recall was affected by the association of both
the length of words and vocal distraction.

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Findings in this study provide empirical evidence that support research which suggests recall
for short words are more than long words (Baddeley et al., 1975). It also provides evidence
that suggest music has a negative impact on memory recall hence task performance (Salame
& Baddeley, 1989; Kieger, 1989). In contrast to his study, Fogelson (1973) indicated the
effects were only negative when the participants were eighth graders. Hereby, this research
contradicts Fogelson (1973) findings; participants were above the age of eighth graders yet
memory recall was reduced in the presence of vocal music. This study also provide results
conflicting prior research by Mowsesian and Heyer (1973) who found that neither noise nor
background music affected learning.
These findings suggest that vocal music acts as a distractor. However, this could be due to the
knowledge of the song; so, participants could have been using the articulatory process of the
phonological loop to “sign-along”, hence, inhibiting storage of presented information.
During the time of this study, no participant showed sign of distress. This could provide
supporting evidence which suggests that vocal music improves mood (Kampfe et al., 2010;
Oaksford et al, 1996). However, this contrasts research which indicated that music improved
performance due to affect enhancement (Lesiuk, 2005). Moreover due to the individual
differences in the way music is perceived (Hallam, 2010), it is difficult to pinpoint the exact
effect various music has on cognitive abilities such as memory. Therefore, further research
should investigate the musical component that may assist memory recall and improve
learning.
In conclusion, there is no doubt that background music affects memory retention; therefore,
this has practical implications in learning environments. Students should be advised to
carefully select the kind of music that would facilitate their learning. Or they should listen to
instrumental music which is more disruptive than silence; it is still less disruptive than vocal
music. Additionally, medical facilities should be made aware to enable the efficient use of
music for therapy.

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Appendices
Appendix 1:
Short words before and after selection process
Life 55419 Life 55419
Tip 2402 Heart 13162
Heart 13162 Near 17606
Near 17606 Board 15127
Board 15127 Car 26343
Ring 6694 Five 39453
Rich 6613 Air 18109
Car 26343 Art 14988
Five 39453 Age 21184
Air 18109 Ball 7193
Time 151012 Back 96028
Art 14988 Watch 9003
Sing 2028 Bed 14607
Aim 6337 Hard 4408
Tree 5982 Fire 13415
Laugh 3546
Age 21184
Ball 7193
Dream 21766
Fire 13415
Scarce 730
Back 96028
Watch 9003
Bed 14607
Hard 4408

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Long words before and after selection
Impossible 6761 Calculator 329
Calculator 329 Convertible 438
Convertible 438 Discovery 2751
Operation 9827 Invitation 1800
Discovery 2751 Alligator 76
Invitation 1800 Deodorant 53
Information 37862 Watercolour 429
Emergency 3785 Misunderstand 100
January 9867 Emergency 3785
Celebration 1202 Fundamental 4459
Invisible 1188 Variation 2673
Alligator 76 Certificate 2842
Delivery 3533 Celebration 1202
Deodorant 53 Diameter 1258
Watercolour 429 Invisible 1188
Misunderstand 100
Anybody 4711
Numerator 44
Fundamental 4459
Variation 2673
Certificate 2842
Superhero 15
Diameter 1258
America 9883
Education 25683

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Appendix 2: