Research paper.docx Middle School

Running head: CO-EDUCATION IN MIDDLE SCHOOL 1
Co-education in Middle School
Ximena Naranjo
Kansas State University
EDCI 786 Curriculum and Pedagogy in Middle School
June 20, 2014

Introduction
Understanding how human beings develop their lives until they reach adolescence and adulthood
is quite a difficult job for parents and educators. The Ecuadorian conventional wisdom calls the
adolescence as “the zebra´s age”. It is a time in someone’s life which is difficult to handle and a
little bit crazy. Psychologists and educators acknowledge that teenagers must accomplish certain
steps in order to become adults. Additionally, they suggest that these steps reflect the
adolescents’ physical, emotional, cognitive, moral and social development. Along the same line,
many authors also provide different characteristics that help educators, parents and psychologists
understand and differentiate between what is normal and abnormal in their children´s
development.
In the end, middle school teachers need to take their jobs with more objectivity. The adolescents´
teaching needs require multiple accommodations. Their capacities enable them to perceive the
conflicts from multiple perspectives. It is easy to see students challenging teachers and parents´
authority, testing limits and exploring a wider intellectual emotional and geographical space.
Therefore, teachers have to assure adolescents appropriate educational experiences that address
these students’ special characteristics. In sum, educators have to meet the instructional student´s
needs to support their physical, cognitive, social and emotional development.
Altogether, the adolescents’ characteristics and the transition from single sex to co-education
have made some parents and teachers doubt of the benefits of this system at the time of educating
adolescents. Many people are still questioning the process as there is not enough evidence of the
benefits other than to prepare students for the real world, which I think is a good reason itself.
Co-education enables boys and girls have the same adaptability and understanding of one
another, which is why these characteristics play a fundamental role in the students’ lives. Given

these points, This paper will describe how adolescents develop from childhood to adulthood
considering their physical, emotional, social, moral, and intellectual development and how the
schooling system either co-education or single sex education help them develop the necessary
skills to be successful in life.
Literature Review
Physical Characteristics:
These characteristics refer to certain physical developmental features associated with human
growth. This transitional period from childhood to adulthood leaves behind life marking changes
that make the adolescents see life differently. For instance, the rapid and uneven body
development determines enhanced gross and fine motor skills and biological maturity. In
addition, several authors state that both sexes experiment growth spurts, however they occur
earlier in girls than in boys (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007; Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007)
Such characteristics like accelerated growing of bones compared to muscle changes makes
teenagers sometimes be uncoordinated and clumsy. In fact, the adolescents’ developmental
growth also includes significant increases in height, weight, and internal organ sizes as well as
changes in skeletal and muscular systems. This rapid growth could give teenagers a feeling of
discomfort and pain due to body development (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007). There is an
increase in the nutritional needs and lethargy due to the hormonal work. Alternatively,
adolescents need 9 hours and 15 minutes of sleep every day (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
Furthermore, both sexes begin to develop secondary sexual features. Girls begin menstruation,
their breasts grow and hips enlarge. In the case of boys, they begin to show facial hair and men
voices deepen. Their body odor becomes more pronounced that is why these characteristics can

be sources of embarrassment, self – consciousness and distraction. (Kingen, 2000) (Caskey, M.,
& Anfara, V., 2007)
Adolescence is also characterized by a set of overactive glands which produce hormones that
signal the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia or sexual organs) and secondary
sex characteristics (e.g., breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). Testosterone in men and
estradiol or estrogens in women are the most important ones in the development of sexuality. The
increased production of adrenal hormones affects skeletal growth, hair production, and skin
changes. Additionally the melatonin regulates the sleep time (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
Subsequently, the prefrontal cortex, which is the area of the brain that handles executive
functions including planning, reasoning, anticipating consequences, sustaining attention, and
making decisions, is not fully developed in young adolescents (Caskey, M & Anfara, V., 2007).
Also, the corpus callosum which connects the right and left brain hemispheres develop at this
time giving the special adolescents characteristics. It tends to be thicker in females than in males
making girls better at language art classes as they can use both sides of the hemispheres
simultaneously. Whereas, boys use one hemisphere at a time lacking certain abilities that are later
developed with teaching and experience (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007)
Implications about Teaching
Educators have to base their teaching in comprehensive health programs that can let students
adapt to their physical changes and develop the adolescents’ capabilities according to their
specific needs. There is also a requirement of having institutional fitness. Health and hygiene
programs that can help teenagers cope with their physical development. Parents and authorities
are responsible for providing adequate diet as the adolescents´ nutritional requirements increase
due to the intensification of energy use (Chip, 2007).

I observed a group of 11- 12 year old students who would go to 7 grade next year. According to
my observation I can tell that adolescent students shared similar characteristics. Their physical
complexion was similar. Boys and girls develop almost at the same time it doesn´t matter if they
are Ecuadorian or American, I can compare to the students that I worked with back in my
country. This particular group of adolescents was combined with boys and girls, still in the
process of developing their physical characteristics; I would say most of them still looked
children. There were three Chinese students who also shared the same human complexity.
Cognitive development
Lerner, 2002, emphasizes that adolescents have more quantitative knowledge in their brains but
think about their world in qualitatively different ways (Lerner, 2002). The “blossoming and
pruning” of the adolescents brain connections and the myelination of their brain cells help
adolescents at better reasoning and problem solving as well as in their short- term memory
(Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007). Adolescents go through the process of cognitive
development from concrete to abstract thinking. However, this transition to higher levels of
cognitive function varies significantly across individuals as well as across and within content
areas (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007). This concrete operational thought, according to Piaget´s
developmental process (seven to eleven years), enables teenagers to classify and order objects,
understand reverse processes, think logically, arrange things in order from large to small, and
conceptually combine objects to form categories (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007). It is more
important to note that the adolescents´ attention span is about ten minutes (Caskey, M., & Anfara,
V., 2007). Their minds still process concrete knowledge at this time, which is why abstract
concepts are difficult to acquire if they are not presented properly in middle schools. In fact, they
have a preference from active rather than passive learning styles.

Implications about Teaching
Teachers have to look for the best strategies to create short, but intense lessons. However, most
educators coincide on the belief that it is difficult to find the intermediate connection between
teaching the essentials and understanding the developmental process. Most educators agree that
teachers should encourage students´ intrinsic motivation; however, adolescents are more
extrinsically motivated. Sharon Kingen suggests educators the use of commonly used rewards
systems like gold stars, smiley faces stickers, special passes, food prizes, verbal praise and even
grades to motivate adolescents. (Kingen, 2000). Kinger also suggests educators to pay attention
to the individual characteristics of the learners to provide a more differentiated instruction based
on the students realities. Additionally, adolescents look for respect of their individualities and
ideally of their ability to learn (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007).
In general, middle school educators have to provide students with the opportunities to explore
topics by themselves to ensure students rehearse and practice concepts. Teachers have to make
topics interesting and challenge them to take safe risks. In addition, educators need to conduct
classes with exploratory questions to develop higher level thinking. It is also suggested to take a
look at the curriculum materials, the teaching methods, and the teacher´s characteristics to insert
enthusiasm and dynamism in the process. Moreover, educators have to make connections
between the content and the students learning experiences through a “Developmentally
appropriate practice” (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007, p. 26). Indeed, teachers need to consider
the changing intellectual developmental differences of young adolescents when planning learning
experiences. To address this diversity, teachers need to provide a wide assortment of educational
approaches and materials that are appropriate for their students' cognitive abilities (Chip, 2007).

Teachers can also organize forums for this age group to explore the reasons for school, home, and
societal rules. Serving as adult role models, teachers help young adolescents to connect
intellectual and moral reasoning by teaching through example (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007)
(Chip, 2007)
I observed a group of 11- 12 year old students who would go to 7 grades next year. According to
my observation I can tell that adolescent students share similar characteristics. It doesn´t matter if
they are Ecuadorian or American, when the topic is interesting they get engaged in class and
participate. The class goal was to know about trees and the environmental factors that affect their
growing. The instructions were clear. Students were asked to draw a tree and name it. It was easy
to identify the ones who had more artistic abilities. They had to go outside Bluemont and take a
look at the trees and distinguish them in categories, the tall, small or poor trees, additionally the
ones that were surrounded by weed. So too, they paid attention to all of the environmental
factors, like water, sun, space, animals affecting trees. The class kept students moving and
engaged. The students’ body and mind were involved and questions were asked; however mostly
girls asked questions, all of these helped them to develop metacognition. The class was
organized with a second trip to the turtle creek where students will have a second opportunity to
connect the trees and the environmental factors affecting them. The instruction was clear, they
had to jot down their observations, feelings, smells, reactions to the creek´s environment in their
journal book. The students showed curiosity, but at the same time they were playful and risky.
Emotional
Hall, (1904) as cited by Santrock (2012) defines the emotional development of adolescent as a
time of “emotional turmoil”. It is described as a stage in life when there are frequent highs and

lows (Santrock, 2012, p 150). This transition age is characterized by impatience, variability and
sensitiveness. Their self-esteem is easily broken (Kingen, 2000). Their emotional immaturity and
vulnerability might make adolescents make decisions that have negative impact (Caskey, M., &
Anfara, V., 2007). It is difficult for young adolescents to find an appropriate way to express their
feelings. However they are in the process of learning how to handle their emotional cycles and
become conscious of their reactions. This awareness, which improves with the time, helps them
cover their anger or guilt about their reactions. They are able to understand their peers’ emotions
during the process of communicating feelings constructively. This characteristic contributes to a
better quality of adolescents interactions (Santrock, 2012). This adolescents´ self-consciousness
is at its highest level from ages 14-19 (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007). During early
adolescence, emotional and psychological development is characterized by the search for
independence and identity formation (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007). They are also often self-conscious,
susceptible to to lack self-esteem, and are sensitive to criticism of their perceived
personal limitations. They are still egocentric and involve themselves and their “imaginary
audience” in their own thinking (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007, p.51). Finally, emotional
situations prompt young adolescents to resort to childish behavior patterns, exaggeration of
simple occurrences, and vocalization of naive opinions or one-sided arguments (Caskey, M., &
Anfara, V., 2007).
Implications about teaching
Teachers have to be careful watchers and focused listeners of adolescents. It´s the educators
responsibility to be honest and model appropriate roles avoiding sarcasm. In general it is
required by teachers to create a positive environment where they can feel accepted by their peers.
Additionally, the curricular experiences, organization structures, instructional approaches, and

opportunities for exploration must be careful planned to address the adolescent emotional needs.
Middle schools should have advisory and mentoring programs. Community support is vital to
raise positive relationships among parents. Young adolescents need opportunities to form
relationships with adults who understand them and who are willing to support their development
(Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007). Teachers can explain to young adolescents how self-esteem
affects their development and provide experiences that build students' self-esteem. Young
adolescents need environments that are free from harsh criticism, humiliation, and sarcasm
(Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007 ; Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007)
According to what I observed, I realized the students’ need of feeling competent when they were
drawing. Some of them asked for opinions about their work. The teachers reinforced and praised
their feelings in front of their drawings. Posting students work on the wall also helped them to
experience acceptance by peers.
Social
The social development of adolescents is marked by a huge need of being accepted and involved
in a social group This is a stage when teenagers learn “how to make friends and how to act”
(Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007, p. 39). There might be times of self-consciousness and
shyness. (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007). Teenagers are worried about who they are, but they
are even more apprehensive about how others see them. They need to fit in and they look for new
ways to be popular and make new friends (Kingen, 2000). Adolescents social development refers
to their capacity for more mature interactions with individuals and groups (Caskey, M., &
Anfara, V., 2007). Young adolescents show a rebellious attitude to parents and adults, but they
still depend on them for care and protection, additionally some even look for models to take after
(Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).

Social maturity often overlaps with physical and intellectual development. Consequently, young
adolescents may overreact to social situations, mock others, and feel humiliation. IAdolescents
also develop interest in their opposite sex emerges, however they still enjoy hanging out with
members of their same sex. (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
However, friendly relationships are different in both sexes. Girls seek for emotional support in
their female peers contrary to boys who look for friends who can offer material care and who
will stay by them in times of trouble (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007)
Implications about teaching
Teachers have to create opportunities for community involvement. School-based social activities
like , field trips, intra mural sports, programs in music, art , drama. Social activities could give
teenagers a place to feel acceptance by peers as well as try out the roles society expects of them.
Educators could allow students to work in groups for peer teach, and help others with socially
different backgrounds. (Caskey, M., & Anfara, V., 2007)
Parents and educators have to fight with “developmentally inappropriate messages about
behavior and dress” (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007, p. 48). In addition, The media and
technology can create inappropriate patterns and expectations. Teachers have to address the
impact these messages can cause in adolescents to erroneous information or gender roles and
stereotypes (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
According to my observation, I saw how boys and girls gathered together to form groups.
Students walked down in small groups specially girls; however, it was easily for girls to make
groups than for boys. Boys showed a little bit disconnected. Some of them gathered together,
they were playful and joyful jumping down on the shore of the creek. There was this special
student who didn´t participate much, I can describe him as shy and disengaged. However he felt

like talking to me. He shared about his family and his life. He told me he had a 9 year old sister
who he didn´t get along with. To put it in another way, he described her as evil. As far as I know,
it is difficult for siblings to have a friendly relationship at home. As far as I know, adolescents
look for people to share their problems so, adults have to listen to them to made them feel they
are understood.
Moral
Lerner (2012) emphasizes that the adolescents moral development involves thinking and
behaving “prosocially” The same author also states that a society must educate new generations
committed to creating a “healthy, productive and successful” development of self, family and
society (Lerner, 2012, p. 129). The adolescence moral development encloses thoughts, feelings
and behaviors in front of the right and wrong. Teenagers might be determined by the
reinforcement of punishment and imitation (Santrock, 2012). The moral development in
adolescents may be a combination of moral thought, moral behavior, moral feeling, and moral
personality (Sandrock, 2012) The same author describes Kohlberg´s stages in front of the
dilemma of moral behavior. According to Kohlberg adolescents show a stage of pre-conventional
reasoning when teenagers consider the social rules are absolute, wrong if they are
punished and right if they are rewarded. The second stage explains the conventional reasoning
which involves adolescents judgments according to what friends, family and society state is right
or wrong. Finally, the post conventional reasoning considers the internal part of morality. The
adolescents understand that there are options and decide according to the moral codes to meet the
high standards trying not to be away of their individual rights and ethical principles (Sandrock,
2012). Adolescents perceptive conscience is based on self-chosen ethical principles that place
the highest value on human life, equal opportunity and self-respect (Brown, D., & Knowles, T.,

2007). Schools could be a difficult place to reassure moral conduct. Some students are from
homes that emphasize a very strict moral code, while others grow up with few restrictions,
therefore both groups might face contradictions concerning character. Educators have to teach
positive values that match the community and make them part of the curriculum. The use of
discussions as ethical arguments for students to analyze is a primary need. In general, parents and
teachers need to promote care beyond the classroom and teach conflict-resolution respecting their
student’s personal environments (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
The benefits of co- education in adolescence
Young adolescents deserve educational experiences and schools that are organized to address
their unique physical, intellectual, emotional/psychological, moral/ethical, and social
developmental characteristics and needs. Practitioners, parents, and others who work with young
adolescents need to be aware of their developmental needs. Such changes give adults insights into
the challenges facing young adolescents and elucidate possible reasons for shifts in young
adolescents' ability and behavior (Brown, D., & Knowles, T., 2007).
Many researches have been conducted to find out the benefits of co-education. There are several
questions to answer, like, why did authorities combine sexes into co -education What were the
goals, were these goals achieved? According to the Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in
History and Society in its article “Coeducation and Same-Sex Schooling” the pre modern
societies assigned different roles to men and women, giving them a role in society. Boys were
trained for work, politics, and war; while girls were prepared for the domestic chores. The idea of
coeducation wanted to unify human rights abolishing any hierarchy. Co-education appeared
during the eighteenth century. It was first linked to religion as there were more women
participating in church, they also needed to have a role in the community. New England was the

first country which adopted co-education. After the American Revolution, there was a new
movement to give women the role to socialize the children of a new republic. The nineteenth
century spread co-education in the northern and western regions. The new trends of co-education
also were associated to women's rights in the public mind (Society, 2008).
There were several currents against co-education, moral grounds implying that it was dangerous
to place boys and girls in close proximity, there was also an argument implying that school
leaders was necessary for the success of secondary institutions. On the other hand, some
educators suggested that girls represented a calming or "civilizing" influence on the boys , which
was also stated in the research “The advantages and disadvantages of coeducational and single-sex
schooling” where Smith (1998) determined that some parents preferred single- sex schooling
for boys because it had a “civilizing effect” on their behavior. Contrary to what girls’ parents said
that boys distracted girls in schools. In general, according to this study, students in single-sex
schools tended to be more high-achieving. Boys typically attracted more of the teacher's attention
than girls do in coeducational classes. Girls are reluctant to express their views in front of boys
in the junior secondary grades. Talking about their classroom behavior, boys asked more trivial
questions than girls in order to gain the teacher's attention but girls were more likely to seek
clarification. Girls expressed increased confidence in being able to learn and use mathematics
when they attended single-sex classes (Smith, 1998). However, the presence of young men in the
classroom may have helped to outgrowth their female classmates to greater success (Society,
2008).
In the late nineteens and twentieth centuries there was a movement of claiming promiscuity and
unhealthy competition as a result of co-education. Ronald Reagan redirected the course of
education as his concern about sexual freedom. There was an increase in unmarried teenage

pregnancies, and the growth of sexually transmitted diseases among adolescents. At the same
time feminists voiced their rights of equity in different fields such as mathematics began to
question the logic of coeducation as the principal means to educational equity.
It was also discussed how females were ignored in class discussions and subjected to threats of
sexual harassment in a co-educational environment calling to the “invisible women” (Society,
2008). A recent study about the perceptions and attitudes of Canadian students toward their
Academic and Social Experiences in Schools demonstrated that co-education provides students a
context for developing real world learning. These students researched felt confident expressing
their ideas in front of member of their opposite sex, which also built leadership skills.
Additionally, there was more collaboration between both sexes as they were reassuring their
personality building their self-image. In sum, being part of co-education prepares students to be
part of real-world experiences and situations (McLean, G., Howie, D., Raafluab, C., 2006).
The results of this 18 year longitudinal study suggested that children who attended single-sex
schools had greater success in high stakes tests. They also showed higher reading scores, greater
school retention, and they were less likelihood of leaving school without qualifications, and less
exposure to unemployment. These achievement differences were evident for both boys and girls
(Woodward LJ, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ., 1999).
(Smithers, A., & Robinson, P., 2006) also xplained that there is not much difference in the
efficacy of an outstanding performance of co- education over single sex education. This
separation was more related to parent preferences. The researchers emphasized existence of
excellent single- sex schools and co-education institutions that provide quality education for life.

However this separation was more related to parent´s preferences related to their previous
misconceptions about the two systems. (Smithers, A., & Robinson, P., 2006)
Personal Application.
(Kingen, 2000) Suggests the acronym TARGET as a form to represent new ways to motivate and
enhance middle scholars (Task, Authority, Reward, Grouping, Evaluation, Time). Teachers can
meet students’ needs by encouraging engagement in learning manipulating tasks to make them
more interesting, giving them the opportunity to control some of the aspects of their learning,
increasing personal satisfaction by rewards, helping them to socialize by grouping them,
evaluating and giving feedback and providing then enough time to encourage successful
achievement (Kingen, 2000).
This is a good summary of the things that I consider the adolescent students from my country
need. First of all, I will align my planning with the national standards which require the English
instructors to improve understanding of the language as a system of communication. In order to
reach this goal I need to apply different theories of language acquisition looking for new ways of
teaching to my students to help them meet the criteria defined in the Ecuadorian ESL curriculum
to achieve a “B1” which is that a student has competent proficiency and can understand and
respond to clear speech on familiar topics. “B1” level also allows students express orally or
written in simple connected text on a familiar topic at the end of high school, according to the
“Common European Framework.
I will look for new instructional approaches to help my students meet their students’ needs and
expectations during the teaching - learning process varying the pace of my lessons to make sure
everybody gets the same goal. I will pay special attention to my students needs in terms of

differentiation. Their cognitive development needs according to their age require teachers to
begin lessons with concrete concepts to create intense lessons and develop abstract thinking
where students can participate and interact with the material. I will use exploratory questions to
help me develop higher order thinking skills in my student. Besides the use of authentic material
and experiential demonstrations will enable ESL middle school learners develop their language
skills.
I will organize group work and class work projects where students can participate and develop
their social skills encouraging their peers’ acceptance. As I know most of them are mestizo, and
a few are part of the indigenous community, sometimes it is difficult for them to accept students
coming from different backgrounds.
I also promote their physical care using ethical arguments which students have to analyze apply
to their own lives. Overall, I will understand that adolescents go through a big change and that as
a teacher I have to be wise enough to guide them with love and respect. I will be a careful
watcher of my students needs to offer developmentally appropriate practice to my students in
Ecuador.
I will also include authorities, parents and community in this process of education. The
educational institutions have to ensure a student oriented curriculum with emphasis on both
cognitive and affective development where teachers are organized in teams. There should be
additional programs with academic and nonacademic classes where students can develop their
skills. All of these considerations will help me provide my students with quality a instructions to
go along with what is stated in the national constitution, ensure students have an inclusive

educations that prepares students for being part of the Ecuadorian democratic life, for work or to
continue with their studies at the university.
References
Brown, D. &. (2007). What every middle school teacher should know. United States: Heinemann.
Caskey, M. &. (2007). Young Adolescents’ Developmental Characteristics. AMLE (then NMSA) Board of
Trustees, 1-13.
Chip, W. (2007). Yardsticks, Children in the classroom ages 4-14. Massachusetts: Northest Foundation for
Children, Inc.
John, S. (2012). Adolescence. Dallas: Mc Graw Hill.
Kingen, S. (2000). Teaching Language Arts in Middle Schools. Connecting and communicating. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lerner, R. (2002). Adolescence, Development, Diversity, Context and Application. New jersey: Pearson
Education.
McLean, G. H. (2006). Selecting an independent school, The benefits of co-educational environment.
Canadian Independent co-education schools, 1-8.
Osguthorpe, R. (2009). On the possible forms a relationship migt take between the moral character of a
teacher and the moral development of a student. Teachers´College records, 111, 1-26.
Smith, I. (1998). The advantages and disadvantages of coeducational and single-sex schooling. REACT, 1-
5.
Smithers, A. &. (2006). THE PARADOX OF SINGLE-SEX AND CO-EUCATIONAL SCHOOLING. Buckingham:
Carmichael Press.
Society, E. o. (2008). Coeducation and Same-Sex Schooling. New Jersey: The Gale Group.
Woodward LJ, F. D. (1999). The effects of single-sex and coeducational secondary. The Australian Journal
of Education, p. 142-156.

STEM Project

The teacher and students who were participating in “OUTDOOR BIOLOGY”
Teenagers exploring the environment to write down information in their journals

Student taking a close look at some marks on a tree. Seeing was not enough, “he touched it”
Students completing information in their journal. “There was enough space, there were three
students using the same tree as support”.

One of the student´s journals fell down in the water.
It was either because some of them showed payful and didn´t think the consequences of his /her
acts.

There are multiple behaviors and highlights which determine that a person is going
through the process of puberty into adulthood. Yet, the intellectual, physical and emotional
changes are profound; young children think in simple concrete terms according to their bodies
and minds. Additionally, age and development make their thinking become more complex
conversely; they see life from multiple perspectives. While it is true that parents feel reluctant to
lose their children, they always question how their teenagers’ behaviors changed lately. “I was
not like that when I was your age.” Given these points, it is confusing for parents and educators
to see young adolescent demanding adult treatment, but still looking for care and protection. It is
even more difficult to hear them questioning life and social conventions as they usually do in
different settings.

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