This document provides an introduction to research methods in psychology. It discusses the importance of thinking critically and scientifically as a scholar. The scientific method is outlined, including forming questions, designing studies, analyzing data, and reporting results. Various ways of acquiring knowledge are examined, emphasizing empirical evidence and reasoning over tradition or authority. The goals of psychological science to describe, explain, predict, and influence human behavior are also introduced.

1. National UniversityNational University
Chapter 1Chapter 1
Introduction to Research inIntroduction to Research in
PsychologyPsychology
Steven Mendoza, Ph.D.,MSCPSteven Mendoza, Ph.D.,MSCP

2. Inquiro Philosophia apudInquiro Philosophia apud
LatineLatine- -- -
Veritas In Lucem emergitVeritas In Lucem emergit ““The truth emerges into lightThe truth emerges into light””
- - -- - -
Veritas In Lucem non refujitVeritas In Lucem non refujit “The truth does not flee the light”“The truth does not flee the light”
- -- -
Quid est veritas-Quid est veritas- “What is truth?”“What is truth?”
Discendo vivimus (Victus)Discendo vivimus (Victus)
National University’s MottoNational University’s Motto “Acquire Knowledge alive”“Acquire Knowledge alive”
Vivamus mea litteratum atque conoscoVivamus mea litteratum atque conosco
““Let us live my students AND learn”Let us live my students AND learn”
- - -- - -
SSemper conosco bene!emper conosco bene! “always learn well.”“always learn well.”

3. Before we begin to explore thisBefore we begin to explore this
academic subjectacademic subject
 Sumus Discipulus! We are scholars…Sumus Discipulus! We are scholars…
 We are a scholar community and we need eachWe are a scholar community and we need each
other.other.
 In this class we will work in collaborativeIn this class we will work in collaborative
approach to meet the goals for class, and toapproach to meet the goals for class, and to
delve in the in the academic subject of research.delve in the in the academic subject of research.
 The Andragogy approach!The Andragogy approach!

4. My personal goal and missionMy personal goal and mission
here at National University is to:here at National University is to:
 To informTo inform
 To educateTo educate
 And to inspire you to:And to inspire you to:
 ““Be all that you can be”Be all that you can be” (U.S. Army, 1986).(U.S. Army, 1986).

5. Mental Health ResearchMental Health Research

6. Acquiring KnowledgeAcquiring Knowledge
About the WorldAbout the World
 Tradition or Tenacity:Tradition or Tenacity: I believe it isI believe it is
true because it has always been true.true because it has always been true.
 Intuition:Intuition: I believe it is true because II believe it is true because I
feel it is true.feel it is true.
 Authority:Authority: I believe it is true because anI believe it is true because an
““expertexpert”” says it is true.says it is true.

7. Acquiring KnowledgeAcquiring Knowledge
About the WorldAbout the World
 Personal Experience:Personal Experience: I believe it isI believe it is
true because I experienced it.true because I experienced it.
 Reasoning:Reasoning: I believe it is true because itI believe it is true because it
is logically derived.is logically derived.
 Empiricism:Empiricism: I believe it is true because II believe it is true because I
measured it.measured it.
 Thus far….What are your thoughts?Thus far….What are your thoughts?

8. So how do we supposed toSo how do we supposed to
think as a Scholar/Practitioner inthink as a Scholar/Practitioner in
the behavior Sciences?the behavior Sciences?
 With Pseudo ScienceWith Pseudo Science
 OrOr
 Science? And if so, then what is science?Science? And if so, then what is science?
 Define science? What are your thoughtsDefine science? What are your thoughts

9. Acquiring KnowledgeAcquiring Knowledge
About the WorldAbout the World
 ScienceScience: a way of acquiring knowledge: a way of acquiring knowledge
through the continual interaction ofthrough the continual interaction of
empiricism and reasoningempiricism and reasoning
– If we can’t devise a way to measureIf we can’t devise a way to measure
something, then we can’t use science.something, then we can’t use science.
– As for example: In Clinical PsychologyAs for example: In Clinical Psychology
Practice, the U.S. Government fundedPractice, the U.S. Government funded
programs need a measurement of humanprograms need a measurement of human
behavior improvement!behavior improvement!

10. Psychology – Science and ArtPsychology – Science and Art
 The science of psychology provides theThe science of psychology provides the
theory….Creating a framework….theory….Creating a framework….
 The art of psychology involvesThe art of psychology involves applyingapplying
that theory to help others.that theory to help others.
 Therefore, in this class we will constantlyTherefore, in this class we will constantly
refer back to you as a scholar/practitionerrefer back to you as a scholar/practitioner
in search for truth.in search for truth.

11. Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking
and the Scholarand the Scholar
PractitionerPractitioner Critical thinkers: In reality it is aCritical thinkers: In reality it is a
scholar/practitioner in search for truth!scholar/practitioner in search for truth!
– They Ask questionsThey Ask questions
– Objectively define problemsObjectively define problems
– Examine the available evidenceExamine the available evidence
– Assess assumptions and biasesAssess assumptions and biases
– Avoid emotional reasoning (Neutral)Avoid emotional reasoning (Neutral)
– Separate facts from opinionSeparate facts from opinion

12. Critical Thinking as part of theCritical Thinking as part of the
National University’s missionNational University’s mission
 Critical thinkers (continued):Critical thinkers (continued):
– Avoid oversimplifyingAvoid oversimplifying
– Consider alternative explanationsConsider alternative explanations
– Tolerate uncertaintyTolerate uncertainty
– Maintain an air of skepticism, but be openMaintain an air of skepticism, but be open
minded (i.e.. not cynical).minded (i.e.. not cynical).
 SkepticismSkepticism: is a healthy reluctance to: is a healthy reluctance to
accept new information without sufficientaccept new information without sufficient
evidence. Consider the Barnum Effect?evidence. Consider the Barnum Effect?

13. The Critical Thinking Process asThe Critical Thinking Process as
a Scholar/Practitionera Scholar/Practitioner
1.1. Ask questionsAsk questions
2.2. Define the problemDefine the problem
3.3. Examine the available evidenceExamine the available evidence
4.4. Analyze assumptions and biasesAnalyze assumptions and biases
5.5. Avoid emotional reasoningAvoid emotional reasoning
6.6. Do not oversimplifyDo not oversimplify
7.7. Consider other interpretationsConsider other interpretations
8.8. Tolerate uncertaintyTolerate uncertainty
9.9. And finally they seek truth to be liberatedAnd finally they seek truth to be liberated
and be set free…..and be set free…..

14. Objectives of ScienceObjectives of Science
Goals of PsychologicalGoals of Psychological
Sciences?Sciences? In succession:In succession:
 ToTo describedescribe the subject matter.the subject matter.
 ToTo explainexplain trends that have beentrends that have been
observed.observed.
 ToTo predictpredict based upon the explanation.based upon the explanation.
 ToTo controlcontrol the phenomena or Influencethe phenomena or Influence

15. Patriarch and the founder ofPatriarch and the founder of
PsychologyPsychology
 Wilhelm WundtWilhelm Wundt
(1832–(1832–
1920)1920) ––
Founder ofFounder of
PsychologyPsychology
 1874—1874—landmark textlandmark text
Principles ofPrinciples of
PhysiologicalPhysiological
PsychologyPsychology
 1879—1879—FirstFirst
psychology lab at thepsychology lab at the
University of LeipzigUniversity of Leipzig

16. Use of the ScientificUse of the Scientific
MethodologyMethodology
Scientific MethodScientific Method
A set of assumptions, attitudes, andA set of assumptions, attitudes, and
procedures that guide researchers inprocedures that guide researchers in
creating questions to investigate, increating questions to investigate, in
generating evidence, and in drawinggenerating evidence, and in drawing
conclusions.conclusions.

17. Us of the Scientific MethodUs of the Scientific Method

StepStep 11: Formulate a specific question: Formulate a specific question
that can be testedthat can be tested

StepStep 22: Design a study to collect: Design a study to collect
relevant datarelevant data

StepStep 33: Analyze the data to arrive at: Analyze the data to arrive at
conclusionsconclusions

StepStep 44: Report the results: Report the results

18. Defining the Steps of Scientific MethodDefining the Steps of Scientific Method
• STEP 1STEP 1
• Form a hypothesisForm a hypothesis
• A tentative statement about the relationship between two or moreA tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables; a testable prediction or questionvariables; a testable prediction or question
• STEP 2STEP 2
• Use descriptive or experimental methodologiesUse descriptive or experimental methodologies
• STEP 3STEP 3
• Use statistics to analyze, summarize, and draw conclusions about theUse statistics to analyze, summarize, and draw conclusions about the
data they have collecteddata they have collected
• STEP 4STEP 4
• The rationale for testing the hypothesisThe rationale for testing the hypothesis
• Who participated in the studyWho participated in the study
• How participants were selectedHow participants were selected
• How variables were operationally definedHow variables were operationally defined
• What procedures or methods were usedWhat procedures or methods were used
• How the data were analyzedHow the data were analyzed
• What the results seem to suggestWhat the results seem to suggest
• Publish in a referred journal or present at scientific conferencePublish in a referred journal or present at scientific conference

19. Review of the Literature inReview of the Literature in
academic psychology foracademic psychology for
academic communication/creditacademic communication/credit

20. Introduction to “Special Time”Introduction to “Special Time”
Instructions:Instructions:
Pull out a piece of paper, and in a succinctPull out a piece of paper, and in a succinct
paragraph format please write down whatparagraph format please write down what
you have learned thus far?you have learned thus far?

21. Experimental DesignExperimental Design

22. The Tenets of ScienceThe Tenets of Science
 DeterminismDeterminism
– Is the belief that events have natural causesIs the belief that events have natural causes
– Not----Not---- predeterminismpredeterminism
 EmpiricismEmpiricism
– Reliance on real evidence to confirm, or refuteReliance on real evidence to confirm, or refute
claimsclaims
 Scholar/practioner model: Always proceedScholar/practioner model: Always proceed
with evidence based academic research!with evidence based academic research!

23. The Tenets of ScienceThe Tenets of Science
 ReplicabilityReplicability
– Findings must be repeatedly discoveredFindings must be repeatedly discovered
 FalsifiabilityFalsifiability
– Hypotheses and theories must be refutableHypotheses and theories must be refutable
through empirical researchthrough empirical research
 ParsimonyParsimony
– Simplest explanation for a phenomenaSimplest explanation for a phenomena

24. The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method
1.1. Assume a natural cause for theAssume a natural cause for the
phenomenon (i.e.. determinism)phenomenon (i.e.. determinism)
2.2. Make an educated guess about the causeMake an educated guess about the cause
(i.e.. generate a testable hypothesis)(i.e.. generate a testable hypothesis)
3.3. Test your guessTest your guess
4.4. Revise your hypothesisRevise your hypothesis
5.5. Retest your guessRetest your guess
6.6. Make a conclusionMake a conclusion

25. Theories, Concepts,Theories, Concepts,
and Hypothesesand Hypotheses
 Theory:Theory: a formal statement of howa formal statement of how
concepts are relatedconcepts are related
 Concepts:Concepts: the general category of ideasthe general category of ideas
that are represented by our variablesthat are represented by our variables
 Hypothesis:Hypothesis: a prediction of how conceptsa prediction of how concepts
are related that is often deduced from aare related that is often deduced from a
theorytheory

26. Building theoriesBuilding theories
Please remember that,Please remember that, TheoryTheory
Is a tentative explanation that tries toIs a tentative explanation that tries to
integrate and account for the relationship ofintegrate and account for the relationship of
various findings and observations….various findings and observations….
Theories often reflect theTheories often reflect the self-correcting nature ofself-correcting nature of
the scientific enterprisethe scientific enterprise..
Conclusions of psychology rest on empiricalConclusions of psychology rest on empirical
evidence gathered using the scientific method; theevidence gathered using the scientific method; the
same is not true ofsame is not true of pseudoscientificpseudoscientific claimsclaims

27. Theories often reflect theTheories often reflect the self-self-
correcting nature of thecorrecting nature of the
scientific enterprisescientific enterprise..
 Conclusions of psychology restConclusions of psychology rest
on empirical evidence gatheredon empirical evidence gathered
using the scientific method; theusing the scientific method; the
same is not true ofsame is not true of
pseudoscientificpseudoscientific claimsclaims

28. Remember this is step 2 of theRemember this is step 2 of the
research method: Descriptiveresearch method: Descriptive
academic researchacademic research

29. Pseudoscience and UFOs?Pseudoscience and UFOs?
Do they exist?Do they exist?
Are they real?Are they real?
And if so what evidence do we have?And if so what evidence do we have?
What about videos? Can they be altered?What about videos? Can they be altered?
The Arizona experience…..R/Frontal Brain TumorThe Arizona experience…..R/Frontal Brain Tumor
removalremoval

30. Pseudoscience—The WarningPseudoscience—The Warning
Signs (1845)Signs (1845)
 Strategy 1Strategy 1: Testimonials rather: Testimonials rather
than scientific evidencethan scientific evidence
 Strategy 2Strategy 2: Scientific jargon: Scientific jargon
without scientific substancewithout scientific substance
 Strategy 3Strategy 3: Combining: Combining
established scientificestablished scientific
knowledge with unfoundedknowledge with unfounded
claimsclaims
 Strategy 4Strategy 4: Irrefutable or: Irrefutable or
nonfalsifiable claimsnonfalsifiable claims
 Strategy 5Strategy 5: Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias
 Strategy 6Strategy 6: Shifting the burden: Shifting the burden
of proofof proof
 Strategy 7Strategy 7: Multiple outs: Multiple outs

31. Why We Do ResearchWhy We Do Research
 To evaluate a theoryTo evaluate a theory
 To satisfy our curiosityTo satisfy our curiosity
 To demonstrate a new techniqueTo demonstrate a new technique
– Determine if new ways of doing things areDetermine if new ways of doing things are
better than the old waysbetter than the old ways

32. Why We Do ResearchWhy We Do Research
 To demonstrate a behavioral phenomenonTo demonstrate a behavioral phenomenon
– Need to demonstrate behavior under preciseNeed to demonstrate behavior under precise
conditions before the phenomenon can beconditions before the phenomenon can be
confidently added to the body of knowledgeconfidently added to the body of knowledge
 To investigate the conditions influencingTo investigate the conditions influencing
behavioral phenomenabehavioral phenomena

33. Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research
 Descriptive vs. Explanatory researchDescriptive vs. Explanatory research
– Descriptive: describes a population ofDescriptive: describes a population of
measurements.measurements.
– Explanatory: answersExplanatory: answers ““whywhy”” questions.questions.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative researchQuantitative vs. Qualitative research
– Quantitative: measures differences in amountQuantitative: measures differences in amount
Qualitative: describes differences in kindQualitative: describes differences in kind

34. Research StrategiesResearch Strategies
 DescriptiveDescriptive—strategies for observing and—strategies for observing and
describing behaviordescribing behavior
• Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation
• Case studiesCase studies
• SurveysSurveys
• Correlational methodsCorrelational methods
 ExperimentalExperimental—strategies for inferring—strategies for inferring
cause and effect relationships amongcause and effect relationships among
variablesvariables

35. Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research
 Basic vs. Applied researchBasic vs. Applied research
– Basic: simply satisfies researcher’s curiosityBasic: simply satisfies researcher’s curiosity
– Applied: applies the knowledge to somehowApplied: applies the knowledge to somehow
benefit humankindbenefit humankind

36. Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research
 Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal researchCross-sectional vs. Longitudinal research
– Cross-sectional: studies individuals ofCross-sectional: studies individuals of
different ages at one point in time.different ages at one point in time.
 Cohort effectCohort effect – same-aged individuals who will– same-aged individuals who will
share variables related to their history.share variables related to their history.
– Longitudinal: studies a single age cohort overLongitudinal: studies a single age cohort over
a number of years.a number of years.

37. Approaches to ResearchApproaches to Research
 Field vs. Laboratory researchField vs. Laboratory research
– Field research takes place in a more naturalField research takes place in a more natural
setting.setting.
– Laboratory research allows better control overLaboratory research allows better control over
variables.variables.
– Tradeoff amongTradeoff among artificiality, control overartificiality, control over
variables,variables, andand generalizabilitygeneralizability..

38. Steps in Planning andSteps in Planning and
Doing ResearchDoing Research
 Selecting a research topic:Selecting a research topic:
– From life experienceFrom life experience
– From existing researchFrom existing research
– From common senseFrom common sense
– Based on a new technologyBased on a new technology

39. Steps in Planning andSteps in Planning and
Doing ResearchDoing Research
 Generating testable hypothesesGenerating testable hypotheses
– Operationalize your concepts, i.e.. make themOperationalize your concepts, i.e.. make them
measurable.measurable.
 Classifying variablesClassifying variables
– Define your independent, dependent, andDefine your independent, dependent, and
controlled variablescontrolled variables..

40.  Selecting an appropriate designSelecting an appropriate design
– Consider time, money, facilities, the kind ofConsider time, money, facilities, the kind of
variables you intend to measure.variables you intend to measure.
 Planning the method and carrying it outPlanning the method and carrying it out
– Focus on the details.Focus on the details.
Steps in Planning andSteps in Planning and
Doing ResearchDoing Research

41. Steps in Planning andSteps in Planning and
Doing ResearchDoing Research
 Analyzing resultsAnalyzing results
– Use the appropriate statistical analysis.Use the appropriate statistical analysis.
 Drawing conclusionsDrawing conclusions
– Interpret the results and draw conclusions.Interpret the results and draw conclusions.
 Sharing your findingsSharing your findings
– Publish in journals or present at conferences.Publish in journals or present at conferences.