R&D refers to activities companies undertake to innovate new products and services. The goal is to develop innovations that can be brought to market to improve the company's bottom line. The R&D process involves defining ideas, designing prototypes, developing selected ideas, and delivering final products to market after testing. Companies must balance integrating R&D objectives with business goals, effectively planning and managing R&D projects, and considering R&D as a strategic competency rather than just a collection of projects.

2. INTRODUCTION
• The term R&D is widely linked to
innovation both in the corporate and
government world or the public and
private sectors. R&D allows a company to
stay on top of its competition. Without
an R&D program, a company may not
survive on its own and may have to rely
on other ways to innovate such as
engaging in mergers and acquisitions
(M&A) or partnerships. Through R&D,
companies can design new products and
improve their existing offerings.

3. WHAT IS
RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
(R&D)?
• Research and development (R&D) refers to
the activities companies undertake to
innovate and introduce new products and
services. It is often the first stage in the
development process. The goal is typically to
take new products and services to market
and add to the company's bottom line.
• Companies across all sectors and industries
undergo R&D activities. Corporations
experience growth through these
improvements and the development of new
goods and services. Pharmaceuticals,
semiconductor, and software/technology
companies tend to spend the most on R&D.

4. CYCLE OF RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

5. DEFINE
• Brainstorming ideas is the first step in research and development. During this stage, a
team engages in discussion to consider issues and potential needs in a specific
industry. This discussion typically begins generally, and the process narrows the focus
down to specific areas of concern or opportunity. Challenges that are determined to
be insurmountable will likely be set aside so the team can focus on products or
processes that can be successfully developed and implemented. Synthesizing involves
discussion to form a theor

6. DESIGN
• The design and development
phase involves creating a plan
for how to take an idea and
make it into a product or
process. A period of trial and
error typically involves a series of
prototype products, with each
one improving on the design to
eliminate flaws or limitations.
The complexity of a product may
evolve with each prototype.
Eventually, designers will
consider issues such as how to
mass-produce a product and
how to present it to consumers
with the most effective sales
tactics.

7. DEVELOP
• Once a team has chosen an idea to
pursue, further exploration and research
begins. Continual refinement occurs with
the help of market surveys to determine
market potential. As potential is
ascertained, the team will continue to
refine and develop the idea. Exploration
of a design budget also occurs during
this phase. Eventually, researchers will
engage the assistance of product
developers, who will work to develop
prototypes of the product or process,
which further enables exploration and
hypothesis.

8. DELIVER
• The prototype product continues to evolve during the development and testing
process. Developers consider any applicable regulatory aspects of the work to ensure
that the product adheres to all criteria required for final approval and launch of the
product. The development team will devise and implement any modifications
necessary to comply with these regulations. The team will also develop marketing
strategies that include pricing and distribution.

9. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
• It should have an overall
macro view of the system
rather than a tunnel view.
• The design process should be
logical.
• The design should reinvent
the wheel.
• The design should be a very
close abstraction of the
problem.
• The design should be
integrated
• The design should be
reviewed to minimise errors
on real time-basis

10. CONTROL OF RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
• Research and Development (R&D) is a key factor that contributes to the success of any
business organization. But the outcome of R&D is highly uncertain. Organizations face
three important dilemmas while planning and controlling the R&D activities. First, the
integration of the objectives of the R&D function with those of the organization and
linking customer preferences with the objectives of R&D. Lack of proper information
from the marketing function, lack of proper integration of the other functions with
R&D, and poor commercial viability of the R&D projects are factors that influence this
integration.
• Second, the problem in planning and managing the R&D activities. A proper R&D plan
has to be devised and each R&D project should be controlled by controlling the
intermediate targets, time frames and budgets, and by creating appropriate
performance measurement systems for the R&D function.
• Third, considering R&D as a strategic infrastructure that includes knowledge assets and
competencies, and not merely as a function or collection of projects.

11. STEPS TO
DESIGN
Step 1: Generating
New Ideas
Step 2: Screening
the Idea
Step 3: Testing the
Concept
Step 4: Business
Analytics
Step 5: Beta /
Marketability Tests
Step 6:
Technicalities +
Product
Development
Step 7:
Commercialize
Step 8: Post
Launch Review
and Perfect Pricing

12. INPUTS OF
SYSTEM
DESIGN
System design takes the following inputs
Statement of work
Requirement determination plan
Current situation analysis
Proposed system requirements including a conceptual data
model, modified DFDs, and Metadata (data about data).
Outputs for System Design

13. OUTPUTS
FOR SYSTEM
DESIGN
System design
gives the
following
outputs −

14. TYPES OF
SYSTEM
DESIGN
• Logical Design
• Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the data flow, inputs, and outputs
of the system. It describes the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations), databases (data
stores), procedures (data flows) all in a format that meets the user requirements.
• While preparing the logical design of a system, the system analyst specifies the user
at level of detail that virtually determines the information flow into and out of the system
and the required data sources. Data flow diagram, E-R diagram modeling are used.
• Physical Design
• Physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the system. It focuses
how data is entered into a system, verified, processed, and displayed as output.
• It produces the working system by defining the design specification that specifies exactly
what the candidate system does. It is concerned with user interface design, process
and data design.

15. • It consists of the following steps −
• Specifying the input/output media, designing the database, and specifying backup
procedures.
• Planning system implementation.
• Devising a test and implementation plan, and specifying any new hardware and software.
• Updating costs, benefits, conversion dates, and system constraints.
• Conceptual Data Modeling
• It is representation of organizational data which includes all the major entities and
relationship. System analysts develop a conceptual data model for the current system that
supports the scope and requirement for the proposed system.
• The main aim of conceptual data modeling is to capture as much meaning of data as
possible. Most organization today use conceptual data modeling using E-R model which
uses special notation to represent as much meaning about data as possible.