Plants can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring through vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Sexual reproduction requires the fertilization of egg and sperm cells to produce offspring with a combination of genetic material from both parents. Reproduction is essential for continuity of life as it allows organisms to produce new individuals.
This document discusses different types of reproduction. It describes asexual reproduction, where offspring are produced by a single parent and are genetically identical. It also describes sexual reproduction, which involves two parents and the production of gametes. Key aspects of sexual reproduction mentioned include gametogenesis, fertilization, embryogenesis, and differences between external and internal fertilization. The document provides details on the various stages of sexual reproduction from gamete formation through zygote development and embryogenesis.
This document provides an overview of basic reproduction and genetics. It defines reproduction as the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents. Reproduction can occur asexually through processes like fission, budding, and regeneration, or sexually which involves the fusion of male and female gametes. It then discusses genetics, including key terms like genes, alleles, phenotypes, and genotypes. It provides background on the history of genetics from Mendel's experiments in the 1860s to modern advances. Key concepts covered include inheritance, variation, DNA, chromosomes, mutations, and Mendel's principles of heredity derived from his pea plant experiments.
1. Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same species through asexual or sexual reproduction. It is necessary for survival and increasing population size.
2. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and methods include fission, budding, regeneration, fragmentation, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves two parents fusing male and female gametes.
3. In humans, sexual reproduction involves the male and female reproductive systems. Fertilization occurs when sperm fuse with eggs in the fallopian tubes, and the embryo implants in the uterus for gestation.
This document discusses various types and modes of reproduction in organisms. It describes asexual reproduction methods like fission, budding, fragmentation seen in organisms like amoeba, hydra, spirogyra. Sexual reproduction involves gamete fusion in plants and algae. In flowering plants, methods of vegetative propagation through cuttings, grafting, layering are explained. The document also covers external and internal fertilization, zygote formation, embryonic development in animals and unusual reproductive phenomena seen in some plants.
Reproduction of plants and simple animalsRAJEEVBAYAN1
This is a concept that tackles about the different methods of reproduction, asexual and sexual.
This features how organisms reproduce to offspring other than man and higher animals.
This document provides information about reproduction in various organisms. It discusses how reproduction allows for the transfer of DNA from parents to offspring, ensuring survival of species. It notes that while DNA copying is important for maintaining body designs, variations in offspring through small changes in DNA allow for adaptation to changing environments and evolution of new species. The document then describes different types of reproduction like asexual reproduction, which produces offspring from a single parent through processes like budding and spore formation, and sexual reproduction, which involves two parents fusing male and female gametes. It provides details on human sexual reproduction and pregnancy.
CLASS 12||Chapter 1|| Reproduction in Organisms.PrathamBiology
I have covered each topic of NCERT in explaining first chapter. In this chapter very basic information on reproduction is discussed.This is helpful for Board as well as NEET students.
Feel free for any query or suggestion.
Mail us on: biologypratham@gmail.com
Website : www.prathambiology.in
This document discusses different types of reproduction. It describes asexual reproduction, where offspring are produced by a single parent and are genetically identical. It also describes sexual reproduction, which involves two parents and the production of gametes. Key aspects of sexual reproduction mentioned include gametogenesis, fertilization, embryogenesis, and differences between external and internal fertilization. The document provides details on the various stages of sexual reproduction from gamete formation through zygote development and embryogenesis.
This document provides an overview of basic reproduction and genetics. It defines reproduction as the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents. Reproduction can occur asexually through processes like fission, budding, and regeneration, or sexually which involves the fusion of male and female gametes. It then discusses genetics, including key terms like genes, alleles, phenotypes, and genotypes. It provides background on the history of genetics from Mendel's experiments in the 1860s to modern advances. Key concepts covered include inheritance, variation, DNA, chromosomes, mutations, and Mendel's principles of heredity derived from his pea plant experiments.
1. Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of the same species through asexual or sexual reproduction. It is necessary for survival and increasing population size.
2. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and methods include fission, budding, regeneration, fragmentation, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves two parents fusing male and female gametes.
3. In humans, sexual reproduction involves the male and female reproductive systems. Fertilization occurs when sperm fuse with eggs in the fallopian tubes, and the embryo implants in the uterus for gestation.
This document discusses various types and modes of reproduction in organisms. It describes asexual reproduction methods like fission, budding, fragmentation seen in organisms like amoeba, hydra, spirogyra. Sexual reproduction involves gamete fusion in plants and algae. In flowering plants, methods of vegetative propagation through cuttings, grafting, layering are explained. The document also covers external and internal fertilization, zygote formation, embryonic development in animals and unusual reproductive phenomena seen in some plants.
Reproduction of plants and simple animalsRAJEEVBAYAN1
This is a concept that tackles about the different methods of reproduction, asexual and sexual.
This features how organisms reproduce to offspring other than man and higher animals.
This document provides information about reproduction in various organisms. It discusses how reproduction allows for the transfer of DNA from parents to offspring, ensuring survival of species. It notes that while DNA copying is important for maintaining body designs, variations in offspring through small changes in DNA allow for adaptation to changing environments and evolution of new species. The document then describes different types of reproduction like asexual reproduction, which produces offspring from a single parent through processes like budding and spore formation, and sexual reproduction, which involves two parents fusing male and female gametes. It provides details on human sexual reproduction and pregnancy.
CLASS 12||Chapter 1|| Reproduction in Organisms.PrathamBiology
I have covered each topic of NCERT in explaining first chapter. In this chapter very basic information on reproduction is discussed.This is helpful for Board as well as NEET students.
Feel free for any query or suggestion.
Mail us on: biologypratham@gmail.com
Website : www.prathambiology.in
1. Reproduction is essential for the continuity of life as it allows organisms to produce offspring. There are two main types of reproduction - asexual reproduction which involves a single parent and sexual reproduction which involves two parents of opposite sex.
2. Asexual reproduction methods include binary fission, budding, and vegetative reproduction through structures like stolons, rhizomes, tubers etc. Sexual reproduction involves the formation of haploid gametes which fuse during fertilization to form a diploid zygote.
3. In plants, sexual reproduction occurs through flowers which contain male stamens and female pistils. Fertilization results in the formation of seeds and fruits. In animals, fertil
This document discusses various types of asexual reproduction in organisms. It describes mechanisms such as binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation, fragmentation, parthenogenesis, and apomixis. It notes that asexual reproduction is common in single-celled organisms and plants but relatively rare in animals. While it provides short term benefits, sexual reproduction allows for more genetic diversity and adaptation to changing environments. The document also discusses alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction in some species and inheritance of asexual reproduction traits.
The document provides information about the stages in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms. It discusses the juvenile, reproductive, and post-reproductive phases. It describes gamete formation through meiosis in diploid organisms. Fertilization and zygote formation are explained, along with the internal and external fertilization processes. The document outlines the embryogenesis process in both animals and plants, and the differences between oviparous and viviparous reproduction. It also summarizes the different life cycles of organisms and the post-fertilization development of the embryo.
This document discusses reproduction in organisms. It begins by defining the life span of organisms and noting that reproduction enables continuity of species across generations. The main types of reproduction are asexual, which produces genetically identical offspring via budding or binary fission, and sexual, which involves the fusion of male and female gametes. In plants, asexual reproduction includes vegetative processes like stolons and rhizomes, while sexual reproduction uses pollination and fertilization to produce seeds. The zygote develops into an embryo through embryogenesis. Reproduction can be external or internal, and offspring may be oviparous, viviparous, or ovoviviparous.
Class 12||Chapter 2|| Sexual Reproduction in flowering plantsPrathamBiology
This chapter includes flowers, their detailed structure and developmental processess which took place durin sexual reproduction. Helpful for Board and NEET students.
Fell free for any query or suggestion
Mail us on: biologypratham@gmail.com
Website : www.prathambiology.in
Reproduction can occur through asexual or sexual means. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and can occur through fragmentation, where the parent divides into multiple new individuals, or gemmation, where buds grow from the parent to form new individuals. Sexual reproduction requires two parents - a male and female. Their gametes, sperm and egg cells, unite through internal or external fertilization to form a zygote, which develops into a new organism. In animals, the embryo may develop inside or outside the mother's body. In plants, sexual reproduction involves pollination of the pistil by pollen from the stamen, leading to fertilization and the formation of seeds within fruits.
This document provides information about reproduction in organisms. It discusses that reproduction allows organisms to produce new individuals of the same species and is necessary for survival and population growth. During reproduction, DNA is copied but not identically, allowing for variation between offspring. This variation is important for adaptation to environmental changes and evolution of new species. The document also describes different types of reproduction like asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, and modes of asexual reproduction like fission, budding, regeneration etc. It further discusses sexual reproduction in flowering plants and human beings.
Reproduction in organism | Class XII | BiologyKaran Patti
The PPT Contains data of Chapter 1 class XII Biology as per NCERT.
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There are two main types of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical clones. It occurs through binary fission, budding, or fragmentation. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and produces offspring with genetic variations from the parents. It can occur through external fertilization in water or internal fertilization within the female's body. Sexual reproduction creates more genetic diversity to help species adapt and survive.
Reproduction in organism NCERT Question and Answer by mohanbio2013mohan bio
1. Reproduction, both sexual and asexual, is essential for continuity of life on Earth and evolution.
2. Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation which allows offspring to better adapt to the environment, whereas asexual reproduction produces clones of the parent.
3. Vegetative reproduction, like runners and rhizomes, is a form of asexual reproduction where new plants are produced from fragments of the parent plant.
FAQs on Sexual Reproduction in Flowering PlantsPunya M
Hello everyone,
welcome my dear students....
i know after going through the chapter you all must be asking so many questions to yourself ... so here is a small set of questions to help you out....for more details you can login to my youtube channel PM Biology(PMB).
Reproduction allows organisms to produce new individuals of their own kind and maintain their existence across generations. It occurs through either asexual or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical, while sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces offspring with genetic variation. DNA replication and cell division are basic steps in reproduction, and variations introduced during DNA copying are the basis of evolution and allow species to adapt over time.
Sexual reproduction involves the union of genetic material from two parents - a male gamete and a female gamete - to produce a genetically distinct offspring. There are many different modes of asexual reproduction in organisms, including binary fission in unicellular organisms, budding, fragmentation, spore formation, and vegetative reproduction through various plant structures like roots, stems, leaves, runners, and offsets. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent, while sexual reproduction produces offspring with a new combination of genes from both parents.
The various methods of reproduction employed by different organisms are discussed here which include Asexual & Sexual reproduction along with Vegetative methods employed by Plants for their propagation
This document summarizes reproduction in organisms. It describes asexual reproduction, which involves a single parent and produces genetically identical offspring, and common asexual reproduction methods like binary fission and budding. Sexual reproduction involves two parents of opposite sex and produces offspring that are not identical to the parents. The stages of sexual reproduction are described, including gamete formation, gamete transfer through pollination in plants, fertilization, and post-fertilization development of the zygote into an embryo. Sexual reproduction can involve external fertilization, as in fish, or internal fertilization, as in birds and mammals.
Asexual reproduction in amoeba occurs through binary fission. The amoeba cell divides through mitosis to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell is an exact clone of the parent cell. Binary fission allows for rapid multiplication of amoeba in favorable environmental conditions. The contractile vacuole acts to regulate the amoeba's water content through osmosis, as the cell takes in more water than its surroundings. It repeatedly swells and bursts to expel excess water from the cell.
Methods of reproduction can be sexual, requiring two parents, or asexual with one parent. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are exact clones of the parent with little variation. Common asexual reproduction methods include binary fission in single-celled organisms, budding where new growth emerges from the parent, and fragmentation where a parent breaks into pieces that form new individuals. Sexual reproduction requires an egg and sperm and results in offspring with unique genetic combinations from both parents, increasing variation within a species.
reproduction in organisms for class 12 in biologyyoonusali6
1. The document discusses various topics related to reproduction in organisms including asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, gametogenesis, gamete transfer, syngamy and fertilization, and post-fertilization events.
2. It describes different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, budding, and vegetative propagation. It also differentiates between sexual and asexual reproduction.
3. The stages of sexual reproduction are explained which include pre-fertilization changes like gametogenesis and gamete transfer, syngamy and fertilization, and post-fertilization development of the zygote and embryo.
How do Organisms Reproduce Class X notes.docxSouravMaity79
This document provides information on various modes of reproduction in organisms, including asexual and sexual reproduction. It discusses the different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, budding, spore formation, regeneration, and fragmentation. The document also covers the process of sexual reproduction in humans, including the male and female reproductive systems and changes during puberty. Key stages like fertilization and development of the embryo in the uterus are summarized.
Plant reproduction can occur through asexual and sexual means. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and produces genetically identical offspring through processes like budding, fragmentation, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves male and female gametes from two parents, producing offspring with new combinations of genes. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place through flowers, which contain stamens that produce pollen and carpels containing ovaries and eggs. Pollination leads to fertilization and seed formation, and seeds are then dispersed and can germinate to form new plants.
Plant reproduction can occur through asexual and sexual methods. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and produces genetically identical offspring through processes like fragmentation, budding, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves male and female gametes from two parents, producing offspring with new combinations of genes. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place through flowers, which contain stamens that produce pollen and carpels containing ovules. Pollination leads to fertilization and seed formation, and seeds are then dispersed and germinate to produce new plants. Vegetative reproduction also allows for cloning of plants through propagation by cuttings, layering, and grafting of plant parts.
1. Reproduction is essential for the continuity of life as it allows organisms to produce offspring. There are two main types of reproduction - asexual reproduction which involves a single parent and sexual reproduction which involves two parents of opposite sex.
2. Asexual reproduction methods include binary fission, budding, and vegetative reproduction through structures like stolons, rhizomes, tubers etc. Sexual reproduction involves the formation of haploid gametes which fuse during fertilization to form a diploid zygote.
3. In plants, sexual reproduction occurs through flowers which contain male stamens and female pistils. Fertilization results in the formation of seeds and fruits. In animals, fertil
This document discusses various types of asexual reproduction in organisms. It describes mechanisms such as binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation, fragmentation, parthenogenesis, and apomixis. It notes that asexual reproduction is common in single-celled organisms and plants but relatively rare in animals. While it provides short term benefits, sexual reproduction allows for more genetic diversity and adaptation to changing environments. The document also discusses alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction in some species and inheritance of asexual reproduction traits.
The document provides information about the stages in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms. It discusses the juvenile, reproductive, and post-reproductive phases. It describes gamete formation through meiosis in diploid organisms. Fertilization and zygote formation are explained, along with the internal and external fertilization processes. The document outlines the embryogenesis process in both animals and plants, and the differences between oviparous and viviparous reproduction. It also summarizes the different life cycles of organisms and the post-fertilization development of the embryo.
This document discusses reproduction in organisms. It begins by defining the life span of organisms and noting that reproduction enables continuity of species across generations. The main types of reproduction are asexual, which produces genetically identical offspring via budding or binary fission, and sexual, which involves the fusion of male and female gametes. In plants, asexual reproduction includes vegetative processes like stolons and rhizomes, while sexual reproduction uses pollination and fertilization to produce seeds. The zygote develops into an embryo through embryogenesis. Reproduction can be external or internal, and offspring may be oviparous, viviparous, or ovoviviparous.
Class 12||Chapter 2|| Sexual Reproduction in flowering plantsPrathamBiology
This chapter includes flowers, their detailed structure and developmental processess which took place durin sexual reproduction. Helpful for Board and NEET students.
Fell free for any query or suggestion
Mail us on: biologypratham@gmail.com
Website : www.prathambiology.in
Reproduction can occur through asexual or sexual means. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and can occur through fragmentation, where the parent divides into multiple new individuals, or gemmation, where buds grow from the parent to form new individuals. Sexual reproduction requires two parents - a male and female. Their gametes, sperm and egg cells, unite through internal or external fertilization to form a zygote, which develops into a new organism. In animals, the embryo may develop inside or outside the mother's body. In plants, sexual reproduction involves pollination of the pistil by pollen from the stamen, leading to fertilization and the formation of seeds within fruits.
This document provides information about reproduction in organisms. It discusses that reproduction allows organisms to produce new individuals of the same species and is necessary for survival and population growth. During reproduction, DNA is copied but not identically, allowing for variation between offspring. This variation is important for adaptation to environmental changes and evolution of new species. The document also describes different types of reproduction like asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, and modes of asexual reproduction like fission, budding, regeneration etc. It further discusses sexual reproduction in flowering plants and human beings.
Reproduction in organism | Class XII | BiologyKaran Patti
The PPT Contains data of Chapter 1 class XII Biology as per NCERT.
For videos and more content of same type visit my youtube channel NEET Is Mine :- https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCOB-92DeZbRD7xPUoo9VP1w/featured
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There are two main types of reproduction: asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical clones. It occurs through binary fission, budding, or fragmentation. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and produces offspring with genetic variations from the parents. It can occur through external fertilization in water or internal fertilization within the female's body. Sexual reproduction creates more genetic diversity to help species adapt and survive.
Reproduction in organism NCERT Question and Answer by mohanbio2013mohan bio
1. Reproduction, both sexual and asexual, is essential for continuity of life on Earth and evolution.
2. Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation which allows offspring to better adapt to the environment, whereas asexual reproduction produces clones of the parent.
3. Vegetative reproduction, like runners and rhizomes, is a form of asexual reproduction where new plants are produced from fragments of the parent plant.
FAQs on Sexual Reproduction in Flowering PlantsPunya M
Hello everyone,
welcome my dear students....
i know after going through the chapter you all must be asking so many questions to yourself ... so here is a small set of questions to help you out....for more details you can login to my youtube channel PM Biology(PMB).
Reproduction allows organisms to produce new individuals of their own kind and maintain their existence across generations. It occurs through either asexual or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical, while sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces offspring with genetic variation. DNA replication and cell division are basic steps in reproduction, and variations introduced during DNA copying are the basis of evolution and allow species to adapt over time.
Sexual reproduction involves the union of genetic material from two parents - a male gamete and a female gamete - to produce a genetically distinct offspring. There are many different modes of asexual reproduction in organisms, including binary fission in unicellular organisms, budding, fragmentation, spore formation, and vegetative reproduction through various plant structures like roots, stems, leaves, runners, and offsets. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent, while sexual reproduction produces offspring with a new combination of genes from both parents.
The various methods of reproduction employed by different organisms are discussed here which include Asexual & Sexual reproduction along with Vegetative methods employed by Plants for their propagation
This document summarizes reproduction in organisms. It describes asexual reproduction, which involves a single parent and produces genetically identical offspring, and common asexual reproduction methods like binary fission and budding. Sexual reproduction involves two parents of opposite sex and produces offspring that are not identical to the parents. The stages of sexual reproduction are described, including gamete formation, gamete transfer through pollination in plants, fertilization, and post-fertilization development of the zygote into an embryo. Sexual reproduction can involve external fertilization, as in fish, or internal fertilization, as in birds and mammals.
Asexual reproduction in amoeba occurs through binary fission. The amoeba cell divides through mitosis to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell is an exact clone of the parent cell. Binary fission allows for rapid multiplication of amoeba in favorable environmental conditions. The contractile vacuole acts to regulate the amoeba's water content through osmosis, as the cell takes in more water than its surroundings. It repeatedly swells and bursts to expel excess water from the cell.
Methods of reproduction can be sexual, requiring two parents, or asexual with one parent. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are exact clones of the parent with little variation. Common asexual reproduction methods include binary fission in single-celled organisms, budding where new growth emerges from the parent, and fragmentation where a parent breaks into pieces that form new individuals. Sexual reproduction requires an egg and sperm and results in offspring with unique genetic combinations from both parents, increasing variation within a species.
reproduction in organisms for class 12 in biologyyoonusali6
1. The document discusses various topics related to reproduction in organisms including asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, gametogenesis, gamete transfer, syngamy and fertilization, and post-fertilization events.
2. It describes different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, budding, and vegetative propagation. It also differentiates between sexual and asexual reproduction.
3. The stages of sexual reproduction are explained which include pre-fertilization changes like gametogenesis and gamete transfer, syngamy and fertilization, and post-fertilization development of the zygote and embryo.
How do Organisms Reproduce Class X notes.docxSouravMaity79
This document provides information on various modes of reproduction in organisms, including asexual and sexual reproduction. It discusses the different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, budding, spore formation, regeneration, and fragmentation. The document also covers the process of sexual reproduction in humans, including the male and female reproductive systems and changes during puberty. Key stages like fertilization and development of the embryo in the uterus are summarized.
Plant reproduction can occur through asexual and sexual means. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and produces genetically identical offspring through processes like budding, fragmentation, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves male and female gametes from two parents, producing offspring with new combinations of genes. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place through flowers, which contain stamens that produce pollen and carpels containing ovaries and eggs. Pollination leads to fertilization and seed formation, and seeds are then dispersed and can germinate to form new plants.
Plant reproduction can occur through asexual and sexual methods. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and produces genetically identical offspring through processes like fragmentation, budding, and spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves male and female gametes from two parents, producing offspring with new combinations of genes. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place through flowers, which contain stamens that produce pollen and carpels containing ovules. Pollination leads to fertilization and seed formation, and seeds are then dispersed and germinate to produce new plants. Vegetative reproduction also allows for cloning of plants through propagation by cuttings, layering, and grafting of plant parts.
This document provides information about animal and plant reproduction. It defines sexual and asexual reproduction, and describes the key differences. It explains the processes of pollination and fertilization in flowering plants. It also covers types of asexual reproduction like budding, fragmentation, and fission. Examples are given of asexual reproduction in plants like strawberries and potatoes, as well as in animals like hydra and yeast. The document aims to describe the types and compare methods of animal and plant reproduction.
- Plants can reproduce both sexually, requiring male and female sex cells (sperm and egg), and asexually, where one parent reproduces an exact genetic copy without sex cells.
- Sexual reproduction involves the fertilization of egg and sperm cells within reproductive organs, while asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative propagation like stems, roots, or leaves.
- In seed plants, pollen carries sperm from the male stamen to fertilize the female ovule in the pistil, forming seeds which grow into new plants.
defined as a biological process in
which an organism gives rise to
young ones (offspring) similar to
itself.
Asexual reproduction:
Offsprings produced by single
parents.
Without involvement of gamete
formation
Offsprings are genetically
identical to their parentsCell division as a method of asexual
reproduction as in Protista and monera.
Binary fission e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium.
Budding: e.g. yeast.
Asexual reproductive structures:
Zoospores: aquatic fungi, Chlamydomonas.
Conidia: Penicillium.
Bud: Hydra
Gemmules: sponges.
Vegetative propagation units in plant:
(Vegetative propagules)
Runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb.
This document describes different types of reproduction, including asexual and sexual reproduction. It discusses four types of asexual reproduction: binary fission, budding, spore production, and vegetative reproduction. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and produces offspring with a mix of both parents' characteristics. The document outlines sexual reproduction in both animals, which involves the union of sperm and egg cells, and plants, which involves pollen fertilizing ovules.
This document defines and compares sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the union of male and female gametes, while asexual reproduction does not. The key differences are that sexual reproduction requires two parents and produces offspring that are genetically different from parents, while asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Examples of asexual reproduction methods described include budding, vegetative propagation, spore formation, fission, regeneration, and fragmentation. The importance of reproduction is also outlined.
Reproduction of plants and animals group projectSagar Maiti
Reproduction is a key feature of living organisms whereby new individuals are produced through sexual or asexual means. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes while asexual reproduction can occur through various processes like binary fission, budding or fragmentation that produce genetically similar offspring from a single parent. In humans, reproduction is facilitated by specialized sex organs and internal fertilization, where sperm fertilizes an egg internally leading to embryo and fetal development.
Asexual reproduction involves a single parent producing genetically identical offspring through mitosis, including budding, gemmules, fragmentation, and regeneration. Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of male and female gametes, where the offspring have a mix of genetic material from both parents. There are two types of fertilization: external, where gametes meet outside the body, and internal, where fertilization occurs inside the female's reproductive tract. Reproduction follows certain patterns and cycles linked to environmental conditions to effectively produce offspring and maximize their chances of survival.
A dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC
This document discusses sexual and asexual reproduction in organisms. It explains that reproduction can be categorized as either sexual or asexual. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, while asexual reproduction does not. The document focuses on sexual reproduction in plants. It describes the male and female reproductive organs in flowers and the process of pollination, fertilization, seed formation, and germination. The overall process is explained in detail over several sections and includes diagrams to illustrate the key parts.
Plant and animal reproduction can occur sexually through the fusion of male and female gametes or asexually without gamete fusion. In plants, sexual reproduction involves flowers containing stamens which produce pollen and pistils containing ovules. Pollination, either self or cross between different flowers, leads to fertilization and seed production containing offspring with mixed parental genetics. Asexual plant reproduction produces clones through vegetative structures. Sexual animal reproduction requires the union of sperm and egg to produce offspring, while some invertebrates can reproduce asexually through budding or fragmentation. New technologies assist human and animal fertility through techniques like artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, genetic engineering, and plant tissue culture.
The document discusses sexual reproduction in plants and animals. It introduces the process of sexual reproduction and defines key terms like gametes, fertilization, pollination and cross-pollination. It then describes the sexual reproductive parts of flowers in plants, including the calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. It explains the processes of pollination, fertilization and the differences between self and cross-pollination in plants. In animals, it compares the male gamete sperm and female gamete ovum, and describes internal and external fertilization.
Welcome to the fascinating world of reproduction in animals! In this chapter, we delve into the essential processes that ensure the continuation of life. Reproduction, the biological phenomenon that gives rise to new generations, comes in various forms. From the simple and efficient asexual reproduction to the complex and diverse realm of sexual reproduction, animals have evolved unique strategies to perpetuate their species.
As we journey through this chapter, we'll explore the mechanisms of asexual reproduction, where a single parent can give rise to offspring with identical genetic traits. On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves the intricate dance between male and female gametes, contributing to the creation of offspring with a blend of characteristics from both parents.
Get ready to unravel the mysteries of the male and female reproductive systems, understand the significance of gametes, and explore the miraculous process of fertilization. Join us as we venture into the captivating world of reproduction in animals, where life's intricate tapestry is woven through the delicate threads of birth, growth, and continuity.
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1. Plant life cycles alternate between a sporophyte phase and gametophyte phase through the process of meiosis and fertilization.
2. The sporophyte phase produces spores via meiosis while the gametophyte phase produces gametes via mitosis which can fuse during fertilization.
3. Flowering plants undergo a double fertilization process within flowers where one sperm cell fertilizes the egg to form the embryo while another sperm cell fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm.
Modes of Reproduction in crop plant.pptxAKSHAYMAGAR17
Crop plants can reproduce through both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative propagation via methods like cutting, grafting, and layering and produces genetically identical offspring without male and female gametes. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male pollen and female ovules which contains gametes, leading to the production of seeds and allowing for genetic diversity in offspring. Common forms of sexual reproduction in crop plants include isogamy, where gametes are similar in size and shape, and heterogamy, where gametes differ morphologically.
1. Plant life cycles alternate between a sporophyte phase and gametophyte phase through the process of meiosis and fertilization.
2. The sporophyte phase produces spores via meiosis while the gametophyte phase produces gametes via mitosis which can fuse during fertilization.
3. In seed plants, the sporophyte is the dominant phase seen as trees and flowers, which produce male pollen and female ovules that undergo double fertilization to form seeds.
The document discusses the five kingdom system of classifying living things and provides details about the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. It also compares warm-blooded and cold-blooded creatures, noting that warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal temperature while cold-blooded animals take on the temperature of their environment. Autotrophs can produce their own food, heterotrophs feed on organic material they did not produce, and saprotrophs feed on decomposed organisms and products.
Homeostasis and thermoregulation help maintain internal stability and optimal body temperatures in organisms. Thermoregulation is critical for survival as biochemical and physiological processes are sensitive to temperature changes. Animals regulate temperature through balancing heat loss and gain. Osmoregulation balances water and solute levels in organisms through controlling movement between internal fluids and the external environment. Plants and animals have different adaptations for osmoregulation depending on their habitat. Excretion eliminates waste products of metabolic reactions through various processes depending on if the organism is a plant or animal. Control and coordination in animals is regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems, using electrical and chemical signals. Plants coordinate growth and movement through plant hormones. Support structures in animals include skeleton
Genetic variation exists both within and between populations. Individuals vary at the molecular level in their genes and DNA sequences. Genetic variation provides the raw material for evolutionary change, as it is the origin of new alleles and genes produced through mutation or other processes. Variation can be quantitative, involving measurable traits, or discrete, where traits have distinct categories. A population with greater genetic diversity in its gene pool tends to be more fit and able to adapt to environmental changes.
Evolution occurs through natural selection, where organisms with genetic variations that increase their chance of survival are more likely to reproduce and pass on those genes. Over many generations, these advantageous genes become more common in a population as less adapted genes die out, resulting in changes to the species over time. Evidence from fossils, genetics, and anatomy show that humans evolved from apelike ancestors in Africa over approximately 6 million years, with early humans first emerging between 6-2 million years ago. Paleoanthropologists study human evolution by examining fossils and archaeological remains to learn about physical and behavioral traits of early humans and their ancestors.
This document provides information on various types of ecosystems. It begins by defining an ecosystem as the organisms living in a given area and how they interact with abiotic factors. It then discusses energy flow through food chains and food webs. Major ecosystem types described include forests, grasslands, deserts, tundra, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. The document also covers biogeochemical cycles, succession, and renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages - the light-dependent reactions where solar energy is captured and converted to ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where carbon is fixed into sugars like glucose. Chloroplasts are the organelles where photosynthesis takes place, containing chlorophyll and an internal membrane system where the light reactions occur. The sugars produced through photosynthesis provide the main source of food and energy throughout the biosphere.
1. DNA cloning is the process of making multiple copies of a piece of DNA by inserting it into a plasmid and using bacteria to replicate the plasmid, thereby producing many copies of the DNA fragment.
2. The DNA fragment of interest is inserted into a plasmid using enzymes that cut and join DNA fragments. The plasmid is then introduced into bacteria which replicate, making many copies of the plasmid and DNA insert.
3. DNA cloning is used to mass produce DNA or proteins, such as using E. coli bacteria to produce human insulin after inserting the human insulin gene into a plasmid. The bacteria then act as "factories" to produce large quantities of the protein.
Dependent personality disorder is characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and submissive behavior stemming from a fear of separation. It is thought to develop from overprotective parenting or childhood anxiety/illness. Common presenting issues include depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms. Diagnosis requires a pervasive need for care from others and difficulty with independence in multiple contexts. Treatment focuses on building independence through techniques like cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy to address unconscious dependency and develop self-confidence.
This document discusses various methods for fighting world hunger including: 1) Improving agriculture to boost incomes by helping smallholder farmers gain skills and market access; 2) Teaching shared responsibility for health and nutrition through education on proper nutrition, sanitation, and hygiene; 3) Empowering women in agriculture by helping them start businesses to feed their families; 4) Managing natural resources and preparing for disasters by teaching sustainable practices and disaster preparedness; and 5) Meeting immediate needs through humanitarian assistance like food aid during crises. It also lists the top 10 world hunger solutions such as sustainable food projects, access to credit and education, food donations, transitioning families to self-sufficiency, and urban farming.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
1. Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual
organisms – “offspring” – are produced from their “parents”. Reproduction is a fundamental
feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction.
Reproduction is the sine-qua-non of ‘Continuity of Life’ and without it, all life will cease to exist.
This article is based on reproduction in plants.
There are two forms of Reproduction: Asexual and Sexual. In asexual reproduction, an organism
can reproduce without the involvement of another organism; while Sexual reproduction typically
requires the sexual interaction of two specialized organisms, with typically a male fertilizing a
female of the same species to create offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived
from those of the two parental organisms.
Reproduction in plants is no different. It takes place via both Sexual and Asexual mechanisms and
differs according to the plant species. We will learn here in depth about the various modes of
reproduction in plants:
Asexual Reproduction in Plants:
In asexual reproduction, new plants are produced that are genetically identical clones of the parent
plant, and without the contribution of genetic material from another plant. Asexual reproduction
in plants can be further divided into two Vegetative Reproduction and Apomixis.
• Vegetative Reproduction in Plants:
When a a vegetative piece of the original plant such as root, stem or leaf is involved in producing
an offspring, it is know as ‘Vegetative Reproduction in Plants.’ It is often known as a process of
‘Survival’ and expansion of Biomass.
The various types of Asexual Vegetative Reproduction in Plants are:
1.Budding:Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an
outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site. The new organism remains attached as
it grows, separating from the parent organism only when it is mature, leaving behind scar tissue.
For example: Yeast is a single-celled organism which reproduces by this mode.
2. Fragmentation:Fragmentation in plants is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning in which
an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown
individuals that are clones of the original organism. Fragmentation is the mode of reproduction
in Algae such as Spirogyra.
2. 3. Spore Formation:
The term ‘Sporogenesis’ is used to refer to the process of reproduction in plant via spores.
Reproduction via spores involves the spreading of the spores by water or air. Reproductive spores
grow into multi-cellular haploid individuals or sporelings. Each spore is covered by a hard
protective outer covering to withstand unfavorable conditions such as high temperature and low
humidity, thus enabling survival for a long time. Once conditions are favorable, a spore germinates
and develops into a new individual. The plant organisms which reproduce by this method are Fungi
on bread, certain types of moss and ferns, etc.
4. Vegetative Propagation:Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new
plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the
vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as Vegetative Propagation.
3. Apomixis:
It is a replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction without fertilization.
Seeds generated by Apomixis are a means of asexual reproduction, involving the formation and
dispersal of seeds that do not originate from the fertilization of the embryos. The Offspring is
genetically similar to parents. For example: Dandelion.
Sexual Reproduction In Plants:
For sexual reproduction of plants, interaction between the male and female species is a prerequisite.
The offsprings’ genetic structure is not identical but derived from the combination of parent
plants.The sexual reproduction in plants takes place in two phases:
Meiosis: Through meiosis, the genes of the organism are rearranged and the number of
chromosomes is reduced to half i.e Haploid. The plant Produces Gametophytes through the process
of meiosis. The Gametophyte then produces the Male or Female Gametes by cell division or
mitosis.
Fertilization: It involves union of both Male and Female ‘Gametes’ and leads to restoration of the
number of chromosomes to form a Diploid Zygote, which then develops into the offspring. The
resulting genetic composition has characteristics of both the parent plants from which it is derived.
Parts of the Reproductive Systemin Plants:
The Flower is the basic reproductive organ in plants.
4. A flower is called Unisexual if it has only either the male or the female reproductive parts in it;
example: flowers of Corn, Papaya, Cucumber.
A flower is called bisexual if it has both the male and the female reproductive parts in it; example:
flowers of Mustard, Rose, Petunia.
Structure of the Flower:
The flowers are made up of the vegetative parts i.e. the calyx and the corolla and the reproductive
parts i.e. the androecium and the gynoecium which are arranged in layers or ‘whorls’
The male reproductive part or the Androecium is made up of units called ‘Stamen‘. Each Stamen
consists of two parts: A stalk called the ‘Filament‘ which is topped by ‘Anther.‘ ‘Pollen Grains‘
which contain the male gametes or sperms are produced in the Anther.
The female reproductive part or the Gynoecium is the immermost whorl of the flower. It is made
up of units called ‘Carpel.’ Multiple fused carpels form the ‘Ovary‘ where ‘Ovules’ containing
female gametes are produced. Pistil is a structure comprising of fused carpels and has a sticky tip
called the Stigmawhich acts as a receptor of pollen. The long Stalk acts as a supporting structure
and aids development of Pollen tubes from the stigma downwards.
ProcessofSexual Reproductionin Plants:
The sexual reproduction ins plants is carried out majorly by the process of Pollination. It is a
process through which the pollen grain from an anther (male gamete) lands on to the stigma and
gradually mates with the ovule (female gamete)
5. ProcessofFertilization:
The formation of a Diploid Zygote by the union of two Haploid male and female gametes is known
as ‘Fertilization’
The process begins after the pollen grain sticks to the stigma and begins sending down the pollen
tube through which the male gametes pass and unite with the female gametes in the ovary.
Fertilization in flowering plants is unique among all known organisms, in that not one but two
cells are fertilized, in a process called Double Fertilization. One sperm nucleus in the pollen
tube fuses with the egg cell in the embryo sac, and the other sperm nucleus fuses with the diploid
endosperm nucleus. The fertilized egg cell is a zygote that develops into the diploid embryo of
the sporophyte. The fertilized endosperm nucleus develops into
the triploid endosperm, a nutritive tissue that sustains the embryo and seedling.
6. Reproduction in animals
Most of animals, even the simplest ones, have a sexed reproduction, which allows to increase the
genetic variability of individuals and organisms’ diversity. Their internal organs, which are
different in males and females, are called gonads and specifically produce gametes (sexed cells:
sperms and egg-cells). They are bound to join and form a single cell called zygote or fertilized egg,
from which the embryo, that is the new organism, will develop.
Some animals, even invertebrates, are hermaphrodites, as they are able to produce both sperms and
egg-cells. The chance to be able to behave as male and female individuals is an advantage for
animals like earthworms, snails and slugs, very slow animals that in this way double their
possibility to meet a mate. In this case both individuals will be able to produce new offspring.
Where does fertilization occur?
Animals that live in a water habitat release a high number of gametes into the water, where they
will meet to form the zygote. This is called external fecundation. Those organisms that live on the
land had to solve a serious problem: providing gametes with a liquid environment that allows their
survival and fertilization. Some amphibians have adopted a simple solution: male and female
exchange particular signs and go back into the water to release the gametes at the same time.
Almost all terrestrial animals have adopted another solution: the male introduces the sperms into
the female body, where the fertilization occurs (internal fecundation). This solution is
advantageous as it protects the offspring during the first growth stages. The male individuals of
insects, vertebrates and many animals that have a specialized organ (sexual organ) to insert the
sperms inside the female organ and in particular into a hollow organ (vagina or cloaca). Other
organisms have found particular solutions. For example some male arthropoda like mites and
scorpions or some male amphibians like tritons build “bags” of sperms (spermatophore) and it’s
the females who insert them into their own bodies. As for some spiders and squid, the male collects
the bag he has formed and, by helping himself with his forelegs and tentacles, he inserts them into
the female body.
Embryo protection/ The care for the new individual during his growth
From the zygote, the cell that forms after the insemination, the embryo develops, that is the new
organism that at the beginning needs to be protected. In particular the embryo will have to be fed,
oxygen will be needed for its breathing, and carbon dioxide will have to be kept away. Animals
have solved this problem in two ways:
• Insects, reptiles, birds and mammals monotremata like echidna (oviparous animals) lay
the eggs in the same environment as they live. The embryo grows inside the egg that
contains all the nutritional substances it needs. The eggshell protect it from dehydration,
but allows oxygen to enter and prevents carbon dioxide from disperse outside. Some
parents, however, take care of the eggs by building a nest and hatching them. Once the
new organism has developed and gets free from the egg protection, he will need more
care.
• Mammals are viviparous animals since the females keep the embryo inside their body
until a determined stage in its development. Marsupialia (kangaroo and opossum) deliver
the babies when they have not completely developed yet. Then they are kept inside a
7. special pouch until the growth has been completed. Mammals other than marsupialia and
monotremata are called placentalia, as they can count on a structure (placenta) that allows
the embryo to grow completely inside the female body, guaranteeing an efficient supply
of nutrients.
Growth and development in plants
Development is the progression from earlier to later stages in maturation, e.g. a fertilized egg
develops into a mature tree. It is the process whereby tissues, organs, and whole plants are
produced. It involves: growth, morphogenesis (the acquisition of form and structure), and
differentiation. The interactions of the environment and the genetic instructions inherited by the
cells determine how the plant develops.
Growth is the irreversible change in size of cells and plant organs due to both cell division and
enlargement. Enlargement necessitates a change in the elasticity of the cell walls together with an
increase in the size and water content of the vacuole. Growth can be determinate—when an organ
or part or whole organism reaches a certain size and then stops growing—or indeterminate—
when cells continue to divide indefinitely. Plants in general have indeterminate growth.
Plants differ from animals in their manner of growth. As young animals mature, all parts of their
bodies grow until they reach a genetically determined size for each species. Plant growth, on the
other hand, continues throughout the life span of the plant and is restricted to certain meristematic
tissue regions only. This continuous growth results in:
• Two general groups of tissues, primary and secondary.
• Two body types, primary and secondary.
• Apical and lateral meristems.
Apical meristems, or zones of cell division, occur in the tips of both roots and stems of all plants
and are responsible for increases in the length of the primary plant body as the primary tissues
differentiate from the meristems. The plant may continue to grow in length, but no longer does it
grow in girth. Herbaceous plants with only primary tissues are thus limited to a relatively small
size.
Woody plants, on the other hand, can grow to enormous size because of the strengthening and
protective secondary tissues produced by lateral meristems, which develop around the periphery
of their roots and stems. These tissues constitute the secondary plant body.
Growth and development in animals
Animal development, the processes that lead eventually to the formation of a new animal
starting from cells derived from one or more parent individuals. Development thus occurs
following the process by which a new generation of organisms is produced by the parent
generation.
Reproduction and development
8. A common feature of all forms of asexual reproduction is that the cells—always a substantial
number of cells, never only one cell—taking part in the formation of the new individual are not
essentially different from other body, or somatic, cells. The number of chromosomes (bodies
carrying the hereditary material) in the cells participating in the formation of a blastema is the
same as in the other somatic cells of the parent, constituting a normal, double, or diploid (2n), set.
In sexual reproduction, a new individual is produced not by somatic cells of the parent but by sex
cells, or gametes, which differ essentially from somatic cells in having undergone meiosis, a
process in which the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half of the diploid (2n) number
found in somatic cells; cells containing one set of chromosomes are said to be haploid (n). The
resulting sex cells thus receive only half the number of chromosomes present in the somatic cell.
Furthermore, the sex cells are generally capable of developing into a new individual only after
two have united in a process called fertilization.
Each type of reproduction—asexual and sexual—has advantages for the species. Asexual
reproduction is, at least in some cases, the faster process, leading most rapidly to the
development of large numbers of individuals. Males and females are independently capable of
producing offspring. The large size of the original mass of living matter and its high degree of
organization—the new individual inherits parts of the body of the parent: a part of the alimentary
canal, for instance—make subsequent development more simple, and the attainment of a stage
capable of self-support easier. New individuals produced by asexual reproduction have the same
genetic constitution (genotype) as their parent and constitute what is called a clone. Though
asexual reproduction is advantageous in that, if the parent animal is well adapted to its
environment and the latter is stable, then all offspring will benefit, it is disadvantageous in that
the fixed genotype not only makes any change in offspring impossible, should the environment
change, but also prevents the acquisition of new characteristics, as part of an evolutionary
process. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, provides possibilities for variation among
offspring and thus assists evolution by allowing new pairs of genes to combine in offspring.
Since all body cells are derived from the fertilized egg cell, a mutation, or change, occurring in
the sex cells of the parents immediately provides a new genotype in each cell of the offspring. In
the course of evolution, sexual reproduction has been selected for, and established in, all main
lines of organisms; asexual reproduction is found only in special cases and restricted groups of
organisms.
Plants movement
The movement of higher plants are chiefly in the form of bending, twisting, and elongation of
certain plant parts or organs.
Spontaneous movement: There are other plant movements which take place
spontaneously, without any external stimuli. These movements are described spontaneous or
autonomic movements.
Induced movement: Some plant movements are caused in response to certain to certain
stimuli and they are said to be induced or plant movement which take place spontaneously,
without any irritability and sensitivity of protoplasm.
There are the following three types of autonomic movements:-
9. 1. Movements and locomotion
2. Growth and curvature movement
3. Variation movements
Similarly, paratonic movements also of three kinds:-
1. Tropic movements
2. Tactic movements
3. Nastic movements
1. TROPIC MOVEMENTS :
Growth movements, which occur in response to unidirectional external stimuli & result in
positioning of the plant part in the direction of the stimulus, are said to be tropic movements.
Depending upon the nature of stimuli, these movements are of following types:-
A) Phototropism
B) Geotropism
C) Hydrotropism
D) Chemotropism
2. TACTIC MOVEMENTS
Tactic movements are movements of locomotion, which are induced by some unidirectional
external stimuli.
Their direction is controlled by the direction of the stimulus.
Depending upon the nature of stimuli, these movements are of following types:-
A) Phototactic
B) Chemotactic
C) Thermotactic
3. NASTIC MOVEMENTS
The movement can be due to changes in turgor or changes in growth
Depending upon the nature of stimuli, these movements are of following types:-
o A) Nyctinasty
o B) Chemonasty
o C) Seismonasty
10. Plant hormones
Auxin
This hormone is present in the seed embryo, young leaves, and apical buds' meristem.
Functions of Auxins
Stimulation of cell elongation, cell division in cambium, differentiation of phloem and xylem, root initiation
on stem cuttings, lateral root development in tissue culture
Cytokinin
They are synthesized in roots and then transported to other parts of the plant.
Functions of Cytokinins
Stimulation of cell division, growth of lateral buds, and apical dominance
Ethylene
Ethylene is present in the tissues of ripening fruits, nodes of stems, senescent leaves, and flowers.
Functions of Ethylene
Leads to release of dormancy state
Stimulates shoot and root growth along with differentiation
Abscisic Acid
Abscisic acid is found mostly near leaves, stems, and unripe fruit.
Functions of Abscisic Acid
Stimulation of closing of stomata
Gibberellin
Gibberellins are present in the meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves, and embryo.
Functions of Gibberellins
Stimulates stem elongation