1. Learning disability is a classification that includes difficulties learning in a typical manner, often caused by unknown factors, but it does not exclude the ability to learn. Some may be better described as having a "learning difference".
2. Learning disability, learning disorder, and learning difficulty are often used interchangeably but differ in severity and diagnosis. A learning disability is an official clinical diagnosis determined by professionals, while a learning disorder describes significant academic problems.
3. Types of learning disabilities include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia affecting reading, math, and writing abilities respectively. Current technologies and tailored interventions can help individuals with learning disabilities develop strategies to become independent learners.
This powerpoint presentation provides a basic overview of special education and examples of accommodations, modifications and AT devices used in Karen Lee's 3rd grade classroom.
This document provides an overview of a final project for an SPED 410 course. It outlines the roles of three students - Phoenix Chen who discusses autism recommendations, David Valtierra who discusses visual impairments and inclusion, and Madihah Sharif who discusses emotional/behavioral disabilities. It also provides demographic information about the high school being discussed. Each section provides academic, social, and behavioral recommendations for the specific disabilities addressed based on research sources. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of collaboration between teachers and utilizing planning time effectively.
The document provides information on teaching students with lower-incidence disabilities. It discusses physical disabilities, visual impairments, autism, severe and multiple disabilities. For physical disabilities, it defines and describes various conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, traumatic brain injury, and others. It also discusses considerations for teaching students with autism, severe disabilities, and visual impairments. Recommendations are provided for classroom adaptations and strategies to support students with these disabilities.
This document provides an overview of various disabilities, disorders, and syndromes that can impact learning. It defines key terms like disability, disorder, and syndrome. It then describes several categories of conditions - learning disabilities, speech disabilities, reading disabilities, writing disabilities, mathematics disabilities, physical disabilities, and disorders like ADHD, autism, Tourette's syndrome. For each one, it briefly outlines what they are, their impact on learning or brain development, and examples of specific disabilities or disorders that fall under that category. The document concludes with a list of resources for further information.
Educational psychology.....Santrock book....
Its all learning disabilities of exceptional child as well as technologies which are used to teach them.....
This document discusses six big ideas for supporting students with low incidence disabilities: 1) Cultivating local leadership to oversee programs and professional development. 2) Ensuring teachers meet certification requirements. 3) Providing ongoing professional development opportunities. 4) Actively including all students in literacy initiatives. 5) Ensuring accessible instructional materials are available. 6) Ensuring IEPs address the unique needs of students with low incidence disabilities.
1. Learning disability is a classification that includes difficulties learning in a typical manner, often caused by unknown factors, but it does not exclude the ability to learn. Some may be better described as having a "learning difference".
2. Learning disability, learning disorder, and learning difficulty are often used interchangeably but differ in severity and diagnosis. A learning disability is an official clinical diagnosis determined by professionals, while a learning disorder describes significant academic problems.
3. Types of learning disabilities include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia affecting reading, math, and writing abilities respectively. Current technologies and tailored interventions can help individuals with learning disabilities develop strategies to become independent learners.
This powerpoint presentation provides a basic overview of special education and examples of accommodations, modifications and AT devices used in Karen Lee's 3rd grade classroom.
This document provides an overview of a final project for an SPED 410 course. It outlines the roles of three students - Phoenix Chen who discusses autism recommendations, David Valtierra who discusses visual impairments and inclusion, and Madihah Sharif who discusses emotional/behavioral disabilities. It also provides demographic information about the high school being discussed. Each section provides academic, social, and behavioral recommendations for the specific disabilities addressed based on research sources. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of collaboration between teachers and utilizing planning time effectively.
The document provides information on teaching students with lower-incidence disabilities. It discusses physical disabilities, visual impairments, autism, severe and multiple disabilities. For physical disabilities, it defines and describes various conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, traumatic brain injury, and others. It also discusses considerations for teaching students with autism, severe disabilities, and visual impairments. Recommendations are provided for classroom adaptations and strategies to support students with these disabilities.
This document provides an overview of various disabilities, disorders, and syndromes that can impact learning. It defines key terms like disability, disorder, and syndrome. It then describes several categories of conditions - learning disabilities, speech disabilities, reading disabilities, writing disabilities, mathematics disabilities, physical disabilities, and disorders like ADHD, autism, Tourette's syndrome. For each one, it briefly outlines what they are, their impact on learning or brain development, and examples of specific disabilities or disorders that fall under that category. The document concludes with a list of resources for further information.
Educational psychology.....Santrock book....
Its all learning disabilities of exceptional child as well as technologies which are used to teach them.....
This document discusses six big ideas for supporting students with low incidence disabilities: 1) Cultivating local leadership to oversee programs and professional development. 2) Ensuring teachers meet certification requirements. 3) Providing ongoing professional development opportunities. 4) Actively including all students in literacy initiatives. 5) Ensuring accessible instructional materials are available. 6) Ensuring IEPs address the unique needs of students with low incidence disabilities.
IRJET- Mainstreaming in Education Advantages and DisadvantagesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of mainstreaming, or including students with disabilities in regular classrooms. It defines key terms like mainstreaming, inclusion, special education, and categories of disabilities. The main points covered are:
- Mainstreaming can benefit both students with disabilities and regular students by teaching acceptance and empathy. However, some students may not be able to keep up academically.
- It can be challenging for teachers who may not have training for working with students with disabilities. It also increases costs for schools.
- The document analyzes a case study of a student with Down syndrome named Peter who was successfully included in a regular classroom.
Summary of identification and assessment of student with disabilities by shee...Edi sa puso mo :">
The document discusses the identification and assessment of students with disabilities. There are two main purposes of identification and assessment: to determine if a student is eligible for special education services, and to decide what those services will be. A student must meet at least one of the thirteen disability criteria under IDEA and require special education services to access an appropriate education. While some students are eligible but do not need services, others need services but may not meet eligibility criteria. Classification focuses on both medical and social models of disability, with more clearly medical disabilities identified early by physicians. The current classification system has benefits but alternatives focus more on dimensions of performance and the knowledge base for effective interventions.
Placing students in the Least Restrictive Environment adriewool
The document discusses various models for placing students with disabilities, including full inclusion in general education, part-time placement in special education, and full-time special education. It also provides tips and strategies for general education teachers to accommodate students with different types of disabilities in their classrooms, such as modifying assignments, preferential seating, and using visual aids. Recommendations are given for data special education teachers should collect prior to IEP meetings and for monitoring students placed in general education.
This document provides an overview and discussion for the course SPED 1004 Strategies for Teaching Children with Developmental & Behavior Problems. It outlines the topics to be covered, including feedback on the first assignment, options for special education placement on a continuum of services, definitions of developmental disabilities and behavior problems, and types of developmental disabilities. The second assignment is also mentioned.
Characteristics of Learners with Exceptional Learning NeedsJohn Philip Peñales
This document discusses characteristics of learners with exceptional learning needs. It begins by noting the diversity among students with disabilities and how their needs vary based on the nature of their disability. It then covers the main disability categories taught in classrooms, including learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The document also discusses less common disabilities like autism, physical disabilities, deafness/blindness, and multiple disabilities. Finally, it discusses instructional implications and strategies for meeting the needs of students with various learning challenges, social-emotional needs, and language issues.
Classroom accommodations & teaching strategies for Intellectually disabled, C...Nusrat Zerin
This document provides strategies and accommodations for teaching children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and multiple disabilities. It discusses their common characteristics and challenges in the areas of physical, mental, social, and emotional development. It then outlines numerous classroom strategies to support their learning and academic performance, such as using simple language, visual aids, hands-on materials, modified assignments, and assistive technology. Specific considerations are also given to addressing needs related to motor skills, mobility, fatigue, sensory issues, and peer support. The classroom environment should be modified to remove physical barriers and minimize distractions.
This document provides an overview of a high school, including its demographics, academic achievement levels, special education services, and recommendations for supporting various disabilities. It notes that the school has high percentages of low-income students, homeless students, and students with disabilities. Academic achievement is below state averages. The document then outlines principles of inclusion and least restrictive environments from IDEA. It provides recommendations for supporting students with disabilities like ADHD, autism, and hearing loss through academic accommodations, behavioral support, and assistive technology.
The document discusses gifted students with dyslexia and how remedial programs can help enhance their potential. It defines dyslexia as a specific learning disability involving difficulties with word recognition, spelling, and decoding abilities. While gifted dyslexics show different patterns of challenges than non-gifted dyslexics, such as issues with spelling, reading aloud, writing, and note-taking. The document also discusses different brain imaging research on dyslexia and various multi-sensory remedial programs and assessments that can help gifted students with dyslexia.
This chapter summarizes the findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the research study. Key findings include: as grade level increases, the number of male and female students with learning disabilities also increases; the most common types of learning disabilities are dyslexia and dysgraphia; common characteristics of students with learning disabilities are messy papers, poor letter formation, and difficulty processing language; and response-to-intervention is commonly used to help students with learning disabilities. The conclusion is that classrooms should have appropriate student-teacher ratios and facilities to support students with special needs. Recommendations include training teachers, considering different learning strategies, and raising community awareness of special needs.
The document discusses various barriers that adult learners face such as attitudinal barriers where learners fear failure and rejection, as well as time and financial barriers with balancing work, family, and school. It also provides strategies for overcoming these barriers like developing time management plans and ensuring the classroom environment meets students' basic needs. Educators are advised to understand adult learning principles and provide a supportive environment to help learners feel respected and successful.
This document provides an overview of Exceptional Lives High School, including demographics, academics, and special education services. It discusses the school's priorities in special education which include inclusion, accommodations, and ensuring equal access to education for all students. Specific disabilities and challenges discussed include language delay, intellectual disabilities, and physical disabilities. Recommendations are provided for supporting students with each disability in the classroom.
This document discusses assistive technologies used to help students with special needs in the classroom. It defines special needs and important terms like IEPs, inclusion, and least restrictive environment. It provides examples of assistive technologies like transcription software, voice amplifiers, and magnifiers. It then describes a third grade class with several students with disabilities like ADHD, auditory problems, and difficulties with reading/writing. It explains the specific technologies and classroom accommodations used to help each student, such as transcription software, seating arrangements, behavior rewards, and larger text.
A mini research investigating the challenges experienced by special needs students in a mainstream classroom, in Antigua and Barbuda, following the implementation of an initiative to prepare them for the Common Entrance Examinations (now called national Assessment)
This document discusses mainstream education for students with special needs, particularly those who are hearing impaired. It defines key terms like special education, mainstreaming, inclusion, and categories of hearing impairment. It also outlines common learning styles of hearing impaired students and the planning process for mainstreaming hearing impaired students, which involves assessment, teacher training, class placement, monitoring, and continuing support services. The overall goal is to modify practices and services to help special needs students develop to their maximum capabilities within mainstream education programs.
The document discusses creating responsive learning environments for students at risk of school failure. It outlines characteristics of students at risk, components of Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) including present levels of performance, annual goals and special education services. It also discusses key principles like the continuum of services and least restrictive environment for providing educational services to students with disabilities.
1) The document discusses guidelines for placing special education students in the least restrictive environment (LRE) according to NYSUT. The LRE aims to educate students with non-disabled peers while still providing needed supports.
2) A team including parents, teachers, and therapists determines the service delivery and educational placement for each student. Parents must agree to any decisions.
3) Several court cases established laws requiring students receive a free and appropriate public education in the LRE. Parents of Student X want to move their daughter from a special education class to a general education setting with supports.
What are the different categories of disabilityDeepika Sharma
There are many types of disabilities, such as those that affect a person's: Vision. Hearing. Thinking. Learning. Movement. Mental health. Remembering. Communicating.
This document discusses inclusion and inclusive education. It defines inclusion as minimizing exclusion and fostering participation for all students, including those who are often excluded from mainstream society such as those with disabilities, illnesses, or from marginalized social groups. Inclusive education is defined as educating all students of all abilities in age-appropriate general education classrooms with supports to help all students succeed academically and socially. The document outlines principles of inclusive education, groups who are often excluded, and requirements for making schools more inclusive such as curriculum modifications, accessibility improvements, resources teachers, and support services.
This document provides an overview of laws and practices related to teaching learners with special needs. It discusses key laws like PL 94-142/IDEA which require schools to provide students with disabilities a free and appropriate public education. It also covers Section 504, ADA, and NCLB which extended civil rights protections. Key concepts discussed include individualized education programs (IEPs), inclusion, response to intervention (RTI), universal design for learning (UDL), and differentiated instruction. The document emphasizes that teachers must consider the diverse needs and dimensions of diversity among learners with special needs.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی شناختی در اختلالات یادگیری توسط دکتر هاشم فرهنگ دوست ارائه شده است.
برای مطالعه مطالب بیشتر در این زمینه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
www.farvardin-group.com
The document discusses several key aspects of special education including:
1) The federal categories of special education disabilities and examples like specific learning disability, speech impairment, and autism.
2) The learning environments of students with special needs, with 80% typically in regular classrooms requiring additional supports.
3) The individuals involved in IEP development including parents, teachers, representatives and the student.
4) Elements of IEPs like present levels, goals, family involvement and instructional implications.
5) Approaches to support students such as positive behavior supports, differentiated instruction, study skills and functional academics.
IRJET- Mainstreaming in Education Advantages and DisadvantagesIRJET Journal
This document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of mainstreaming, or including students with disabilities in regular classrooms. It defines key terms like mainstreaming, inclusion, special education, and categories of disabilities. The main points covered are:
- Mainstreaming can benefit both students with disabilities and regular students by teaching acceptance and empathy. However, some students may not be able to keep up academically.
- It can be challenging for teachers who may not have training for working with students with disabilities. It also increases costs for schools.
- The document analyzes a case study of a student with Down syndrome named Peter who was successfully included in a regular classroom.
Summary of identification and assessment of student with disabilities by shee...Edi sa puso mo :">
The document discusses the identification and assessment of students with disabilities. There are two main purposes of identification and assessment: to determine if a student is eligible for special education services, and to decide what those services will be. A student must meet at least one of the thirteen disability criteria under IDEA and require special education services to access an appropriate education. While some students are eligible but do not need services, others need services but may not meet eligibility criteria. Classification focuses on both medical and social models of disability, with more clearly medical disabilities identified early by physicians. The current classification system has benefits but alternatives focus more on dimensions of performance and the knowledge base for effective interventions.
Placing students in the Least Restrictive Environment adriewool
The document discusses various models for placing students with disabilities, including full inclusion in general education, part-time placement in special education, and full-time special education. It also provides tips and strategies for general education teachers to accommodate students with different types of disabilities in their classrooms, such as modifying assignments, preferential seating, and using visual aids. Recommendations are given for data special education teachers should collect prior to IEP meetings and for monitoring students placed in general education.
This document provides an overview and discussion for the course SPED 1004 Strategies for Teaching Children with Developmental & Behavior Problems. It outlines the topics to be covered, including feedback on the first assignment, options for special education placement on a continuum of services, definitions of developmental disabilities and behavior problems, and types of developmental disabilities. The second assignment is also mentioned.
Characteristics of Learners with Exceptional Learning NeedsJohn Philip Peñales
This document discusses characteristics of learners with exceptional learning needs. It begins by noting the diversity among students with disabilities and how their needs vary based on the nature of their disability. It then covers the main disability categories taught in classrooms, including learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The document also discusses less common disabilities like autism, physical disabilities, deafness/blindness, and multiple disabilities. Finally, it discusses instructional implications and strategies for meeting the needs of students with various learning challenges, social-emotional needs, and language issues.
Classroom accommodations & teaching strategies for Intellectually disabled, C...Nusrat Zerin
This document provides strategies and accommodations for teaching children with intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and multiple disabilities. It discusses their common characteristics and challenges in the areas of physical, mental, social, and emotional development. It then outlines numerous classroom strategies to support their learning and academic performance, such as using simple language, visual aids, hands-on materials, modified assignments, and assistive technology. Specific considerations are also given to addressing needs related to motor skills, mobility, fatigue, sensory issues, and peer support. The classroom environment should be modified to remove physical barriers and minimize distractions.
This document provides an overview of a high school, including its demographics, academic achievement levels, special education services, and recommendations for supporting various disabilities. It notes that the school has high percentages of low-income students, homeless students, and students with disabilities. Academic achievement is below state averages. The document then outlines principles of inclusion and least restrictive environments from IDEA. It provides recommendations for supporting students with disabilities like ADHD, autism, and hearing loss through academic accommodations, behavioral support, and assistive technology.
The document discusses gifted students with dyslexia and how remedial programs can help enhance their potential. It defines dyslexia as a specific learning disability involving difficulties with word recognition, spelling, and decoding abilities. While gifted dyslexics show different patterns of challenges than non-gifted dyslexics, such as issues with spelling, reading aloud, writing, and note-taking. The document also discusses different brain imaging research on dyslexia and various multi-sensory remedial programs and assessments that can help gifted students with dyslexia.
This chapter summarizes the findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the research study. Key findings include: as grade level increases, the number of male and female students with learning disabilities also increases; the most common types of learning disabilities are dyslexia and dysgraphia; common characteristics of students with learning disabilities are messy papers, poor letter formation, and difficulty processing language; and response-to-intervention is commonly used to help students with learning disabilities. The conclusion is that classrooms should have appropriate student-teacher ratios and facilities to support students with special needs. Recommendations include training teachers, considering different learning strategies, and raising community awareness of special needs.
The document discusses various barriers that adult learners face such as attitudinal barriers where learners fear failure and rejection, as well as time and financial barriers with balancing work, family, and school. It also provides strategies for overcoming these barriers like developing time management plans and ensuring the classroom environment meets students' basic needs. Educators are advised to understand adult learning principles and provide a supportive environment to help learners feel respected and successful.
This document provides an overview of Exceptional Lives High School, including demographics, academics, and special education services. It discusses the school's priorities in special education which include inclusion, accommodations, and ensuring equal access to education for all students. Specific disabilities and challenges discussed include language delay, intellectual disabilities, and physical disabilities. Recommendations are provided for supporting students with each disability in the classroom.
This document discusses assistive technologies used to help students with special needs in the classroom. It defines special needs and important terms like IEPs, inclusion, and least restrictive environment. It provides examples of assistive technologies like transcription software, voice amplifiers, and magnifiers. It then describes a third grade class with several students with disabilities like ADHD, auditory problems, and difficulties with reading/writing. It explains the specific technologies and classroom accommodations used to help each student, such as transcription software, seating arrangements, behavior rewards, and larger text.
A mini research investigating the challenges experienced by special needs students in a mainstream classroom, in Antigua and Barbuda, following the implementation of an initiative to prepare them for the Common Entrance Examinations (now called national Assessment)
This document discusses mainstream education for students with special needs, particularly those who are hearing impaired. It defines key terms like special education, mainstreaming, inclusion, and categories of hearing impairment. It also outlines common learning styles of hearing impaired students and the planning process for mainstreaming hearing impaired students, which involves assessment, teacher training, class placement, monitoring, and continuing support services. The overall goal is to modify practices and services to help special needs students develop to their maximum capabilities within mainstream education programs.
The document discusses creating responsive learning environments for students at risk of school failure. It outlines characteristics of students at risk, components of Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) including present levels of performance, annual goals and special education services. It also discusses key principles like the continuum of services and least restrictive environment for providing educational services to students with disabilities.
1) The document discusses guidelines for placing special education students in the least restrictive environment (LRE) according to NYSUT. The LRE aims to educate students with non-disabled peers while still providing needed supports.
2) A team including parents, teachers, and therapists determines the service delivery and educational placement for each student. Parents must agree to any decisions.
3) Several court cases established laws requiring students receive a free and appropriate public education in the LRE. Parents of Student X want to move their daughter from a special education class to a general education setting with supports.
What are the different categories of disabilityDeepika Sharma
There are many types of disabilities, such as those that affect a person's: Vision. Hearing. Thinking. Learning. Movement. Mental health. Remembering. Communicating.
This document discusses inclusion and inclusive education. It defines inclusion as minimizing exclusion and fostering participation for all students, including those who are often excluded from mainstream society such as those with disabilities, illnesses, or from marginalized social groups. Inclusive education is defined as educating all students of all abilities in age-appropriate general education classrooms with supports to help all students succeed academically and socially. The document outlines principles of inclusive education, groups who are often excluded, and requirements for making schools more inclusive such as curriculum modifications, accessibility improvements, resources teachers, and support services.
This document provides an overview of laws and practices related to teaching learners with special needs. It discusses key laws like PL 94-142/IDEA which require schools to provide students with disabilities a free and appropriate public education. It also covers Section 504, ADA, and NCLB which extended civil rights protections. Key concepts discussed include individualized education programs (IEPs), inclusion, response to intervention (RTI), universal design for learning (UDL), and differentiated instruction. The document emphasizes that teachers must consider the diverse needs and dimensions of diversity among learners with special needs.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی شناختی در اختلالات یادگیری توسط دکتر هاشم فرهنگ دوست ارائه شده است.
برای مطالعه مطالب بیشتر در این زمینه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
www.farvardin-group.com
The document discusses several key aspects of special education including:
1) The federal categories of special education disabilities and examples like specific learning disability, speech impairment, and autism.
2) The learning environments of students with special needs, with 80% typically in regular classrooms requiring additional supports.
3) The individuals involved in IEP development including parents, teachers, representatives and the student.
4) Elements of IEPs like present levels, goals, family involvement and instructional implications.
5) Approaches to support students such as positive behavior supports, differentiated instruction, study skills and functional academics.
Problems faced in spoken english among learning disabilities studentsTompok Manggis
This document discusses problems faced in spoken English among learning disabilities students. It summarizes four major areas of speech and language impairments: articulation, fluency, voice, and language. Articulation refers to producing sounds incorrectly, fluency refers to disrupted speech flow, voice refers to abnormal pitch/resonance/loudness, and language refers to problems expressing/understanding words. The document then provides examples of characteristics within each area, such as difficulties with certain sounds in articulation, stuttering in fluency, and improper grammar in language. Effective teaching strategies are suggested, including reasonable accommodations, open communication, and focusing on students' individuality rather than disability.
This document discusses modifying learning and assessment techniques to accommodate students with hearing impairment. It outlines several challenges faced by students with hearing impairment including language deprivation affecting language processing, comprehension, and production. This lag in language development affects literacy acquisition and educational outcomes. The document recommends classroom accommodations like ensuring the teacher directly faces students and speaks clearly, as well as providing materials in advance. It suggests modifying assessment techniques for students with hearing impairment by allowing extra time, providing questions in print, and altering response requirements without changing content.
The document discusses learning disabilities, including definitions, types, characteristics, identification, assessment, and instructional strategies. It defines specific learning disabilities as difficulties learning some skills despite adequate cognitive abilities. Common types include dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. Students with learning disabilities may struggle with tasks requiring various cognitive processes. Effective identification involves ruling out other factors and determining if problems persist after quality instruction. Teachers should use techniques like advance organizers, thinking aloud, and extended practice to help students with learning disabilities succeed.
The document provides information from a multidisciplinary team at Illinois High School about special education. It discusses what special education is, recommendations to enhance access for students with disabilities, inclusion, and recommendations for specific disabilities including autism, emotional/behavioral disorders, visual impairment. It emphasizes creating inclusive classrooms where students receive supports to maximize participation in general education.
This document discusses the pedagogical foundations of special education. It defines pedagogy as learner-centered teaching that includes skills instruction, encourages reflection, and motivates students. It describes characteristics of special education pedagogy like patience, organization, creativity, acceptance, and having a calming nature. It outlines aims of pedagogy and discusses pedagogy in special education, including evidence-based practices. It explores the scope of pedagogy for different disabilities/disorders and concludes that the scope is wide given the nature of pedagogy and its role in special education, especially for different types of disabilities/disorders.
The document discusses low-incidence disabilities which affect less than 1% of students. It defines various low-incidence disabilities like deafness, blindness, deaf-blindness, traumatic brain injury, orthopedic impairments, and health impairments. For each disability, it describes characteristics, service delivery options, and teaching strategies. Common to all low-incidence disabilities is that they are difficult to serve due to lack of school knowledge and resources to support the students.
The document discusses curriculum and teaching strategies for students with learning disabilities. It defines learning disabilities and lists common traits, such as difficulties with literacy, dyslexia, math, memory, attention, and low academic achievement. It then outlines Malaysia's special education curriculum for students with learning problems, which focuses on life skills, basic academics, art, and physical education. Key teaching strategies mentioned include providing clear expectations, flexibility, immediate feedback, multi-sensory learning, and praise.
The document discusses resources and instructional practices for meeting the needs of students with special needs. It provides overviews of different disabilities including ADHD, auditory processing disabilities, and mild learning disabilities. For each, it describes key facts, areas of difficulty, assistive technologies, and modifications that can be made to teaching practices to enhance learning for students with special needs. The overall message is that all students can learn with the right support.
Dyslexia is a language-based learning disability that causes difficulties with reading, writing, and spelling. It is characterized by problems with phonological processing and sound-symbol recognition. Dyslexia affects approximately 15-20% of the population and can be diagnosed through comprehensive testing of language skills, reading, and academic achievement. While dyslexia is lifelong, early identification and treatment using structured, multisensory methods can help individuals with dyslexia learn to read and write successfully. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Section 504, and the Americans with Disabilities Act protect the rights of people with dyslexia to receive appropriate educational support and accommodations.
1) Early identification of reading difficulties is critical to prevent long-term academic problems. A preventative model of intervention is preferable to remedial intervention after issues have developed.
2) Students who struggle with reading are at risk for various academic, behavioral, social, and emotional difficulties, and some may be identified as having a learning disability.
3) A three-step framework is outlined for assessing students with reading problems and developing intervention plans, beginning with classroom assessment and moving to formal testing and individualized programming if needed.
This document discusses assistive technology in the classroom for students with disabilities. It defines disabilities that qualify students to receive special education services under IDEA. IDEA requires students receive education in the least restrictive environment and inclusion places students in regular classrooms. The document defines an IEP and assistive technology. It identifies ADHD, auditory disabilities, and mild learning disabilities as specific needs and provides examples of assistive technologies and instructional best practices for each, such as FM systems for auditory disabilities and audiobooks for reading difficulties.
This document discusses various topics related to English education, including inclusive education, gifted and talented children, learning disabilities, and theoretical bases of education. It provides definitions and characteristics for each topic. Inclusive education aims for all students to attend regular neighborhood schools and participate in all aspects of school life, regardless of ability. Gifted children have exceptional innate ability in one domain, while talented children have already demonstrated high achievement. Learning disabilities affect how the brain processes information and can make learning tasks difficult without proper support.
Some learners have difficulty communicating either verbally expressing ideas and needs or understanding what others say, which is known as a communication difficulty. Communication difficulties can include limited or unclear speech, difficulty saying or understanding words, and problems interacting socially. Specialists determine if a learner has a speech or language problem by taking a case history, testing hearing, assessing articulation skills, and evaluating language development, vocabulary, and language use through formal tests and natural observations. Communication difficulties are often first noticed by family, teachers, and caregivers and can negatively impact a child's academic performance if left untreated.
The document discusses teaching students with special needs. It outlines laws like IDEA and NCLB that require providing students with disabilities a free public education and support services. Teachers are responsible for understanding students' IEPs and providing appropriate accommodations and modifications. A variety of assistive technologies can help students with different needs succeed in the classroom. Teachers should collaborate with other professionals and use available resources to best support all students.
Introduction to Special Education: Group One- Specific Learning Disabilities TylerCorley
This document provides information about specific learning disabilities, including definitions, prevalence, types of language, reading, and math disabilities. It discusses potential causes such as brain injury, heredity, chemical imbalances, and environmental factors. Prevention strategies are described including early intervention and improving instruction. National, state, and local resources are listed to support students with learning disabilities and their families. Finally, classroom accommodations are outlined to help students in areas of academics, organization, reading, writing, and math.
This document discusses strategies and considerations for supporting students with disabilities at a high school. It provides statistics on the student demographics and performance. It then defines an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) and the process for developing one. Specific sections address approaches for students with language delays, learning disabilities, and behavioral/emotional disabilities. Key recommendations include identifying individual student needs, using positive reinforcement, ensuring understanding of material, and maintaining close communication between teachers, students and parents.
This document discusses resources and instructional practices to assist teachers in educating students with special needs and learning disabilities. It provides an overview of relevant laws like IDEA, FERPA, and Section 504. It discusses developing IEPs and providing education in the least restrictive environment. It then examines characteristics and challenges of specific disabilities like ADHD, visual impairments, and learning disabilities. For each, it recommends instructional strategies and assistive technologies to help students learn effectively.
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Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
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Remediating learners with learning challenges resulting from
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Remediating Learners with Learning Challenges Resulting from
Obvious Physiologically –Influenced Special Needs in the Regular
Classroom Setting
Ayo Osisanya*
Department of Special Education, University of Ibadan, P.M.B.1 (001) UI POST OFFICE
*E-mail: ayo_osisanya@yahoo.com
Abstract
Learning as a dynamic task requires the synergy of various factors in order for the learner to benefit from the
instruction being passed. Several factors could however impede on the successful transmission of ideas, as well
as effective learning, among which is the learner’s innate ability, learning style, cultural background and
emotional status. Also, an important factor affecting learning is the learner’s physiological makeup - some
conditions that at times could present as a special need area and would require effective management for
adequate learning to transpire. The author examined how learners with physiological peculiarities could be
helped to learn appropriately in the classroom setting, and their learning poblems ameliorated.
Keywords: classroom, learner, learning, special needs
1. Introduction
Learners whose skills, mastery and academic achievement fall below expectation for their age, level of exposure
and/ or experience as well as intellectual potentials, may be classified as the individuals with learning difficulties
in any classroom setting. Such individuals always experience difficulties with their learning or acquisition of
relevant required for satisfactory academic attainment. Such difficulties are not peculiar to any level of learning
and age bracket. It cuts across all level of learning and all ages ranging from pre-primary to tertiary (higher)
education as well as from school-age to adulthood. These learning difficulties may arise as a result of one or
more of the following: developmental delays such as speech and language difficulties, hearing difficulties, visual
difficulties; poor coordination (poor or faulty motor skills); emotional difficulties and trauma; limited
environmental experiences; lack of appropriate educational opportunities; interrupted school calendar; family
problems and parental neglect/ ignorance; and health related issues.
It has been reported that 10-16% of children and students exhibit difficulties in academic and developmental
skills (Lovden, Chan, Elkins, Greavens, House, Milton & Van Kraeyenord, 2000). Most learners observed
having learning difficulties due to some of the obvious physiological related challenges, most especially
communication and visual special needs do experience one or more of these conditions: visual perception
difficulties; communication difficulties (difficulty with oral or written language); difficulty copying from board;
misreading words and numbers, losing place, difficulties retaining information over time; auditory perception
difficulties; difficulty in identifying and discriminating sounds; slowness in writing, and problems with motor
skills and difficulty with letter formation and appropriateness of letters. In case a child experiences any of the
aforementioned problems, the academic performance of such a child will become impaired as the condition will
manifest impact on learning in a number of ways. Therefore, such individual will need early intervention
learning difficulties strategic plan and rehabilitative programme.
Most often, learners with learning difficulties in the regular classroom setting, which is predominantly
dominated by the learners without any kind of visible disabilities; are always being neglected and deprived from
having maximum benefit from such learning environment. In the regular school setting, specialized form of
teaching-learning and equipment as well as methods are not being utilized. Therefore, any individual with
learning difficulties would not be discovered, classified or catered for appropriately; rather such individual
would be labeled derogatory. This in effect makes teaching and learning in the regular classroom setting
unattractive and hostile to individuals with learning difficulties. A learner with learning difficulties in the regular
school setting could still perform exceptionally better and well in school environment with specialized methods
and equipment (where principles of Special Education is being practiced),where there is no proper consideration
of individuals’ strength and weakness as well as the practice of Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) being
emphasized or considered worthwhile. Here, effort will geared towards addressing how learners with
communication, and those with visual problems in the regular classroom setting.
Learners with communication (speech or hearing) and/ or visual difficulties are the mostly affected categories of
learners in such environment-where there is no specialized teaching methods and materials to meet the needs of
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persons with Special needs. Learners with communication difficulties are the individuals (students) with varied
challenges in the utilization of speech and/or hearing organs towards effective, maximum and successful
processing of linguistic profiles through audition. Individuals with communication difficulties always perform at
a poor or insufficient academic level, struggle with reading, have difficulty understanding and expressing
language, misunderstanding social cues, avoid attending school, show poor judgment and have difficulty with
tests (ASHA, 2012). These categories of students would need psycho-acoustical test of auditory sensation and
perception as well as capability to make use of speech for intended purpose and needs. On the other hand,
students with visual difficulties have fewer natural learning experiences due to the fact that they are unable to
observed objects and interactions. Most of the time, individuals with visual impairment differently always
manifest poor contest developmental and interpersonal communication skills; negative orientation and mobility
skills; as well as academic development (Carney, Engbertson, Scammek, & Sheppard, 2003). Students with
visual impairment can be regarded as persons with blindness or partially sightedness based on visual acuity tests.
While, students with hearing impairment might be classified as persons with total or partial loss of hearing
depending on the outcome of hearing assessment (measurements).
The impairment can be congenital, or even acquired as a result of illness or an accident. As well, methods of
assessing categories of students who have been identified as having visual or hearing impairments depend on the
individual capabilities or needs. Through assessment mechanism, the remediating process of any student
discovers with learning difficulties in classroom would begin with structured plans and referrals; getting
professionals and special services which will assist in the educational (or even vocational) placement,
performance and development. With this, students, with learning difficulties might need to receive instructional
services in the general education classroom or in the resource room, based on individual needs. To this end,
Eniola (2005) concludes that teachers would know what kind of adaptations to make in the classroom, such as in
room arrangement, equipment placement, or getting arrangements so as to accommodate students with special
needs. Also, it will help the class teachers or other instructors to know what kind of instructional modifications
to make, such as dictating overhead notes, writing on the chalkboard or speaking in complete sentences.
To ensure success among students with visual and hearing impairments in the classroom setting, such
environment must be structured to suit their peculiar needs and basic services as well as essentially required
equipment must be put in place to ensure maximum benefit. Thus, this paper considers several methods of
remediating the aforementioned categories of special learners in the regular classroom setting, as follows.
2. Learners with Communication Difficulties
Identification and rehabilitation of students with hearing and speech impairment remain imperative in the overall
goal of helping students with communication disorders in the schools to achieve language and literacy
competence. Children with communication disorders always perform at a poor or insufficient academic level.
They always struggle with reading, having regular difficulty understanding and expressing language,
misunderstanding social cues, avoid attending school, showing poor judgment and having difficulty with tests
(ASHA, 2005). Most times, they express difficulty in learning to listen, speak, read, or write as the problem
always occur in the production, comprehension, and awareness of language at the sound, syllable, word,
sentence and formation. Therefore, it is important to identify the students with hearing impairment as early as
possible; otherwise they will be missing out on important educational experiences (Pagliano, 2012). These will
in turn manifest in difficulties understanding the word and in expressing personal needs, resulting in limited
interactions and social isolation. Assessment and treatment of students’ communication problems involve
cooperative efforts of many professionals which include: audiologists, speech/language pathologists, otologists,
psychologists, special education teacher, classroom teachers etc. Hence the possible-signs and/or symptoms of
hearing impairment include: turning head to position ear in the direction of the speaker, using loud voice when
speaking, difficulty in following instructions, giving incorrect answers to questions, intently watching faces of
the speaker during conversation or teaching, being distracted easily by visual or auditory stimuli, and asking for
information to be repeated frequently. Playing alone rather than with a group, withdrawing from social activities
and play or being responsible in quiet conditions, showing difficulty listening to information whenever there is
no situational or speaker clues, frequent popping of ear, and delay or absence of speech and language
development (Pagliano, 2012).
Communication difficulties can create challenges of a personal, academic and social nature for students, and at
the same time interfere or deprive them from reaching their full potentials. For instance, if the difficult is not
detected or treated, it can cause permanent loss of hearing or poor expressive and receptive for speech/language,
and the long term effects on the quality of life would be seriously impaired.
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2.1 Consideration of Audiologic Rehabilitation
Audiologic assessment is designed to evaluate and determine communication status: strength and weakness of
persons who might likely have auditory or speech/language disorders (even both) that may interfere with their
education, social, health and psychological development cum wellbeing. Audiologic assessment is conducted to
quantify and qualify by site of lesion, peripheral hearing loss on the basis of perceptual, physiological or
electrophysiologic responses to acoustic stimuli. Also, it is conducted to identify individuals of allergies with
conditions that place them at risk for hearing loss or speech problems. Communication (hearing and speech)
evaluation is conducted in a clinical or natural environment conducive to obtaining reliable and valid results.
2.1.1Audiologic Assessment
The essence of audiologic assessment is meant to evaluate and describe the communication needs and skills of
any individual with communication disorder(s). Audiologic assessment is designed towards determination of
needs, selection and fitting of personal and classroom amplifications, as well as hearing assistance technologies
and determination of the effectiveness of such devices (Martin & Clark, 2012).
2.1.2 Basic Communication Assessment
Pure-Tone Audiometry (PTA) which is the Air-conduction and Bone-conduction Pure-Tone threshold measures
with appropriate masking towards accurate and reliable test outcome. Speech Audiometry which measures and
determines threshold for speech and ability to perceive spoken words. Tympananometry and Reflexometry,
which are structured to determine the flow of acoustic energy within the middle ear apparatus. Auditory Evoked
Potentials, which is designed to evaluate hearing mechanism when traditional audiometry cannot be employed,
and Evoked Otoacoustic Emissions, which is structured to determine the functional ability of both the cochlear
and retro cochlear apparatus. Word recognition and speech recognition/discrimination measures with
appropriate masking. Evaluation and determination of oral, signed or written communication modalities, as well
as multimodal communication trials based on Auditory, Visual and Tactile communication assessment strategies.
Assessment of production and comprehension of language in oral, signed or written models based on
the efficiency of speech and voice potentials. Determination of communication ability via appropriate modalities
towards perception of speech and non-speech stimuli in listening and auditory situations. Assessment or
additional trials via structured strategies towards pre and post device performance on speech and non-speech
tasks.
2.1.3 Essential hints on how to help students with communication difficulties
Once the communication needs of an individual is determined, then comes the process of remediation, which is
generally referred to as communication therapy based on the individual needs and condition(s).
The communication therapies include: Aural rehabilitation which is specially designed to improve
communication ability of those with hearing loss acquired after the development of spoken language. Aural
rehabilitation follows a thorough audiologic evaluation and medical care. It is a specific
management/intervention based on the individual needs towards improving communication skills. Aural
rehabilitation includes auditory training, speech reading and speech therapy. Auditory training is a kind of
rehabilitative programme which starts with the developing of awareness and sensitivity to meaningful acoustic
signals and increases to encompass discrimination and perception of speech. The training encourages the use of
amplification system. Speech reading is a kind of therapeutic programme which provides avenue for individuals
with communication problem by watching the lip and facial expressions of the speaker so as to infer the
conveyed messages. This strategy helps them to receive information and messages by associating meaning to the
observed cues from the speakers, while speech therapy is a kind of rehabilitative strategy to effectively help
individuals with expressive communication difficulty develop good communication ability. Multimodal training
communication strategies with emphasis on auditory, visual and tactile therapeutic orientation or re-orientation
and rehabilitation. Comprehensive rehabilitation protocols to enhance adequate compensation, restoration and
utilization of residual communication abilities and cues to benefit from the communication world. Audiologic
rehabilitation, which is the treatment of those with adventitious hearing loss so as to improve communication
through hearing aids, hearing therapy, speech reading skills, speech/language therapy, auditory training and
manual communication strategies. Aural rehabilitation specially designed to improve communication ability of
those with hearing loss acquired after the development of spoken language. Hearing therapy which is usually
given to enhance recognition of and intervention for those individuals with poor communication ability.
Speech/language therapy which is structured to rehabilitate and orientate any individual with speech and
language disorders, and communication methodological strategies specially designed to rehabilitate persons with
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communication difficulties via some specialized approaches such as: Auditory-Verbal Approach with emphasis
on the use of audition and early amplification with hearing aids, so as to develop spoken, receptive and
expressive communication skills, Aural/Oral Method which can also be called multisensory or auditory-global
approach with attempt to combine auditory training and speech reading skills in remediating communication
disorders, and Cued Speech, which is devised to aid speech reading and speech development as it meant to assist
in differentiating among sounds that appear to be same on the lips.
Most often, students with communication problems always experience difficulty in accessing spoken language.
Thus, services or remediation strategies to assist them should be provided to integrate students’ communicative
goals with academic and social goals. This could be done with the use of hearing aids, induction loops, speech
trainers or any other audio materials. Hearing Aid is a kind of amplifying system designed to reproduce sounds
at intensity levels strong enough to be useful to the individuals with hearing impairment. This aid is to make
speech intelligible and deliver the sounds loud enough to be heard easily without discomfort by stimulating the
auditory nerve in a pattern as near normal as possible (Bakare, 1991).
Induction Loop is a kind of audiocoil or a continuous wire surrounding a room or listening area that radiates a
magnet field as electric energy with mechanism to induce induction coil of hearing aid (Martin & Clark, 2012).
Speech Trainers is a kind of speech and hearing enhancement equipment and protocol which involves providing
additional attenuation to allow the output attenuators to adjust the sound output to each ear in improved models.
3. Learners with Visual Impairment in the Classroom
Visual impairment/difficulty indefinitely needs attention in the classroom because of the following impacts:
Socially, students with visual impairment have limitations in interacting with the environment, as they cannot see
the facial expressions of parents and teachers; cannot perceive social behaviours; and sometimes, are unaware of
the presence of others unless a sound is made (Celeste, 2002). Psychologically, low vision has consequences that
often lead students to become confused, fearful, anxious and depressed. Also denial, withdrawal and autism are
common psychological problems that restrict the students from being socially as well as educationally integrated
(Sharma, Sigafoos & Caroll, 2006). According to Corn, Wall, Jose, Bell, Wilcox & Perez (2002), in the
educational environment; the major challenge facing the students with visual impairment is the overwhelming
mass of the visual materials to which they are continually exposed. Low vision has a wide-ranging impact on the
lives of students, which should be accurately assessed and managed to lessen subsequent disability and handicap
that limit the integration of the patients with visual impairment into many of the daily life activities. Vision
rehabilitation strategy is a multidisciplinary approach involving many services (Lovie-Kitchin, Devereaux, Wells
& Sculpter, 2001). Most of the causes of blindness and low vision are preventable, so screening of preschool and
school children is very important to diagnose and manage any ocular pathology which may cause visual
impairment, and to allow early implementation of vision rehabilitation programmes, which will help minimize
the impact of visual impairment and maximize the efficacy of low vision aids (Donaldson, Karas, Charles &
Adams, 2002).
3.1 Assessment and Therapeutic Modalities for the Students with Visual Impairment
The first step in designing therapeutic modalities for any child with visual difficulties is assessment of the level
of visual performance of such an individual. If a pupil exhibits one or more of the following signs, it may be
possible that he is presenting with some form of visual impairment: if he holds his reading material too close or
too far, is sensitive to bright light, shuts or covers one eye constantly, squints, blinks or frowns when doing close
work, complains of pains, itching or aches in the eyes, tilts or thrusts his head forward, or rubs his eyes
excessively. Further characteristics includes complains of blurred or double vision or flashing lights, confusing
letters of similar shape, reversals of letters, syllables or words, may become clumsy, falling over objects or
bumping into obstacles which previously had not presented difficulties, and recurring inflammation, discharge
or other eye problems (Educational Service for Hearing and Vision- ESHV, 2012). It is imperative to subject any
student observed with aforementioned characteristics to a comprehensive diagnosis, in order to determine their
visual status and acuity. Eye health and visual states evaluation should be done thoroughly as this is pivotal in
the education of any individual with visual impairment. It is after the nature of visual impairment has been
known that such individual would be placed appropriately, with the process requiring teamwork of professionals
(Eniola, 2005). Visual Impairment could be determined or identified through the use of Snellen Eye Chart, with
the expectation that any individual with normal vision should be able to see letters imprinted on the chart clearly
at a distance of about 6 meters from the chart. Other assessment facilities include Massachusetts Vision Tests,
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Muscle Balance Test, Lens (optical) Test and Ophthalmological Test. All these tests could be used to determine
the visual acuity of the students.
3.2 Effective Ways of Helping Students with Visual Impairment in Classroom Setting
Students with learning difficulties due to visual impairments are constantly challenged by classroom
instructional strategies. Most of them can conveniently listen to lectures and discussions, but can be difficult for
some of them to access class facilities and materials, textbooks, chalkboard, written examinations questions,
demonstrations, library materials and films. Therefore, it is paramount to consider strategies towards remediating
these categories of students’ maximum benefit. The strategies include: classroom management- students who are
sensitive to bright light should be allowed to choose a place well away from direct glare and to move to
whenever the light changes. In essence, the classroom should be arranged or managed in such a way to revolve
around the needs of every individual in an integrated manner. These categories of students need preferential
treatment, since they depend largely on listening and same anonymity as other students. Many of them may need
to hold reading materials close to their face and should be provided with an adjustable desk top. Some of these
students might need additional provision of specific task lighting such as an angle pose lamp or tinted lenses to
reduce the shining effect of those brightly polished or reflective materials and books. After careful assessment of
the student’s vision might have been identified, then the movement and working position within the classroom
must be given careful consideration so as to enable the student benefit maximally. In fact, such student (be it new
or stale) must be oriented properly so as to provide him with the access to operate even with the challenges.
Since many students with visual impairment will be unable to see the blackboard unless they are allowed to sit
close to it or approach it in an obtrusive manner, therefore; when the blackboard is used for diagrams or note-
taking, it may be necessary for an alternative to be provided. More importantly, students with visual impairment
should be orientated to the physical layout of the room with locations of steps landmarks, furniture, lecture
position, low-hanging objects and other structures within and outside classroom setting that can hinder smooth
movement.
For a hitch-free atmosphere, it is necessary for teachers of students with visual impairment to seek guidance
from a specialist support teacher regarding how to help the student gain the appropriate mobility and orientation
skills. These skills need to be taught if he is to move safely and independently around the school environment
and then extend to travel within the locality and beyond. Also, school having students with visual impairment
must try to ensure that corridors and stairways are well illuminated, explore the possibility, through the class
teacher, of the school implementing a “keep to the left” rule for movement around the school, enquire whether
any changes in levels could be marked to provide enhanced visual feedback; perhaps for example using painted
bright yellow lines, and emphasize the importance to other staff of reducing unnecessary hazards around the
school e.g. electric cables trailing across the floor doors left ajar, windows or cupboard doors left open at head
height etc. As a general rule, visual displays should be bold, clear, well contrasted and as near to eye level as
possible. Tactual displays or those involving Braille should be lower, to facilitate comfortable tactual
exploration. If demonstrating to the child, the teacher should avoid standing with his/her back to the window, as
glare and light may well silhouette the demonstration. A student with visual impairment would need to be
encouraged to be tidy and methodical during desk-based activities. This will not only help him/her to find his
equipment with ease and expediency, but may provide him with the extra storage space he requires for his
specialist equipment. A Braille user will particularly need a large storage area to keep both the materials and
equipment.
Besides size of print, it is important to consider the quality and quantity of print used. The size, colour and
contrast of print on paper determine quality and should be the primary consideration. Print can be enlarged by
some form of magnification using a low vision aid, or by an enlarging photocopier but it can be
counterproductive to enlarge poor quality copies as the faults are also magnified. It is also the responsibility of
the teacher to always ensure that the child with visual impairment has the sole use of work materials, whether it
be books, diagrams, maps etc, avoiding the need to share. He will also need extra time to complete visually
demanding tasks and it may even be necessary to reduce the amount of reading/writing to be realistically
expected in the same time as the other pupils. A student with visual impairment should also have free access to
any Low Vision Aid (LVA) which will improve his functional vision. SLVAs include hand-held or stand
magnifiers, illuminated magnifiers, binoculars and hand-held telescopes, spectacles; including those with
specially prescribed telescopic attachments and Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) which is available in
black/white and colour models. The CCTVs electronically enlarges material onto a TV screen and most models
can flow/ accommodate a typewriter. The type of equipment used obviously would depend on the nature and
severity of the child’s visual impairment. However other equipment which may be used could include one of or
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several of Perkins Brailler for those unable to communicate through print, tape-recorder (perhaps with a variable
speech attachment or speed compressor so that listening rate can be speed up), talking calculator, talking
thermometer, Braille ruler, large print typewriter, to name be a few.
Students with visual difficulties should be given access to a mainstream curriculum as this would be in the
normal classroom setting working alongside fully sighted peers. Every opportunity should be afforded to such
children to participate as fully as possible in the life of the school. Preference should be placed on these four
areas of reading, writing, physical education and specialized curriculum areas for maximum benefits. Students
with visual impairment still need intensive help in acquiring reading skills. Fully sighted children are able to see
a clear and well defined image of the letter or word they are reading, but this is denied to an individual with
impaired vision. Regular, consistent, concentrated practice with carefully chosen material is essential. The
student with visual impairment will take longer to master reading skills, but given the correct level of support, he
will eventually acquire a standard of reading commensurate with his age and ability. He should be allowed to
hold his book at a distance or at an angle which he himself feels is the most comfortable. An adjustable sloping
desk top and extra lighting may also prove effective, but the pupil should be allowed to reject these if he does not
feel they are helpful. Careful consideration should be given to the type of writing instruments used by student
with visual impairment. Again, the student should be allowed to use whatever he feels most comfortable with
whether it be thick pencil, felt tipped pens or heavy ball points. Unlined paper, wide lines or specially printed
thickened and darkened lines can be usefully tried where normal-lined paper presents difficulties. Practice in
tracing the correct movement to produce the letter shape on a sand tray with a paint brush or thick chalk on a
blackboard may all be useful. Cursive writing may need to be delayed until the student is completely confident
with the use of un- joined script. Consideration should be given by the teacher in this respect however, in order
that student with visual impairment does not feel isolated from his sighted peers. Children with visual
impairment should be allowed to participate in the physical education programme as far as possible where the
activity is unstructured. The student can usually take part without difficulty but there are likely to be some
considerable disadvantages in many small ball games since the necessary hand/eye coordination may not be
present. The wearing of spectacles and participation on contact sports are not usually compatible but teachers
should consider whether the advantage of wearing the spectacles outweighs the normal safety considerations- it
is not an easy decision however. Where student’s eye condition dictates an absolute need to opt out e.g. detached
retina, an alternative activity should be provided in which he’s not degraded and which carries prestige with it.
Fostering a student’s sense of achievement will work wonders for his own self-esteem. Due to their visual
impairment, many children will need to develop skills not necessarily required by their fully sighted peers. For
appropriate remediation to be provided, again the peripatetic support teacher would be consulted at all times.
Such specialized skills could include emphasis being placed on listening skills, typing skills, Braille, mobility
and orientation skills, visual-motor and visual-perceptual skills, (ensuring the child makes the most effective use
of the vision he possesses by concentrating on activities such as matching, discriminating, hand-eye
coordination, tracking, scanning, copying, fine and gross motor activities etc), and independence and self help
skills.
5. Conclusion
Students with learning difficulties consequent upon visual impairment and/or hearing impairment should not be
deprived of their right to access and get maximum benefit from educational services available. These categories
of students should be encouraged to acquire the required skills and knowledge in ensuring their relevance in all
spheres of human endeavour. Such students should be allowed to access special educational services which will
assist in their educational performance and development. Although, they may receive the required services in the
regular setting, with resource room or itinerant resource personnel and varied teaching strategies based on
individual needs and capacity; the classroom teachers should be made to determine the required adaptations in
the classroom to suit the individual peculiarity. The adaptations may include room arrangement, equipment
placement, seating arrangements and instructional modifications in accordance with the students’ special needs.
Services to students with learning difficulties in any classroom setting should be provided in individual or small
group sessions, or in consultative models with teachers and family of such students for better follow-up.
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