Movement Psychological Theories/Factors That Influence Sport and Their Interaction

Foundation Degree in Sports Coaching
Reflective Account
Psychology – Learning and Performing
Carl Page (1008889)
University of Bedfordshire
Mr. M Lambert

Contents
Topic 1: Motor Performance ................................................................................................................... 3
Principles ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Key Principles Application Sport/Activity Practitioner ............................................................................ 4
Personal Reflection.................................................................................................................................. 5
References ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Topic 2: Cognitive Models of Human Behaviour ..................................................................................... 7
Principles ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Key Principles Application Sport/Activity Practitioner ............................................................................ 8
Personal Reflection................................................................................................................................ 10
References ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Topic 3: Perceptual and Input Processes .............................................................................................. 11
Principles ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Key Principles Application Sport/Activity Practitioner .......................................................................... 13
Personal Reflection................................................................................................................................ 14
References ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Carl Page (1008889) Page 2 Foundation Degree in Sports Coaching

Topic 1: Motor Performance
Figure 2.3 Hick’s Law the time it takes to make a decision increases as the number of the
alternatives increases.
Principles
Firstly motor is defined as relating to muscle activity, especially voluntary muscle activity, and the
consequent body movements. While performance is the way in which somebody does a job, judged
by its effectiveness. Consequently motor performance is known basically as the psychological factors
that affect basic movements of performers. As motor performance is used for measurement of
human performance, since each body movement is made up of four essential actions; firstly it
becomes aware of a difficulty or aim, secondly judges the presented selections to resolve the
difficulty or accomplish the aim. Thirdly make a decision on a choice, finally executes the specific
choice.
As in Hick’s Law it explains how motor performance of an individual can be affected. Since the law
describes the stable relationship that exists between the number of stimulus response alternatives
and choice reaction time; specifically, as the logarithm of the number of stimulus – response pairs
increases, choice reaction time increases linearly. As a result Hick’s Law is appropriate to the third
stage: making a decision on a choice. Plus the motor performance finding is exemplified in Figure 2.3
Though with George A. Miller, he gave rise to offer two theoretical thoughts which are essential to
cognitive psychology and the information processing structure which affect an individual’s motor
performance. The primary idea in the Information Processing Theory (IPT) is "chunking" and the
ability of short term functioning memory or an individual’s concentration duration. As Miller (1956)

presented the idea that an individual’s short term memory can simply retain five to nine chunks of
information (seven plus or minus two) whereby a chunk is whichever significant element.
Therefore a chunk is identified as "a collection of elements having strong associations with one
another, but weak associations with elements within other chunks" (Gobet et al., 2001, p. 236). A
chunk could refer to numbers, words and player’s positions on field of play or even individual faces.
The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of
all subsequent theories of memory.
Key Principles Application Sport/Activity Practitioner
The subsequent key principles that is appropriate to sport coaching:
Key Principles Application To Sport Coaching
Cognitive Processing Although needing to instruct appropriate movement on the field is used
so that performers are assisted so they start attaining the awareness with
the use of analysis, instinct, and awareness when executing a particular
action or movement in their sport.
Information Processing Also with motor performance it can be difficult for a foundation level
participant as they need to spend a longer amount of time concentrating
on what to do as the skill/movement isn’t autonomous compared to elite.
Thus in coaching I would be required to demonstrate the skill and get the
participants to focus on what they have to do to complete the
skill/movement properly.
Chunking However with Miller (1956) Chunking concept whereby someone can only
retain seven plus or minus two chunks. I have to be aware of this when
drilling as I make the participants are able to use it to their advantage as
pick up relevant chunks of information in their game for instance digits,
words, people positions, or people's faces. This will result in a positive
effect to an individual’s motor performance since they can process
information a lot quicker than previously.
Reaction Time Likewise with Hick’s Law it affects a person’s motor performance as it’s
determined on their reaction time. As a result I would create training
sessions which are sport specific scenarios and decrease the number of
the alternatives available to those and they’re able to make a decision on

the choices available which will result in improving their motor
performance further.
Personal Reflection
Currently I’m an undergraduate doing a F.D. in Sports Coaching, my deliberation of motor
performance can be used as a way of determining someone’s execution. As I will consider that Hick’s
Law can be applied to approximate the total time taken for individuals to make a decision whenever
offered with several alternatives. Since whichever age group I’m teaching everyone has to process
information and that time required to make a decision is a function of the number of available
options. Therefore I must be aware not to overwork information when coaching children and young
people as tasks will become harder as misunderstanding sets in the mind. Also using Miller (1956)
Information processing theory of Chunking, I must get individuals to focus on appropriate 5-9 chunks
of information to perform the task efficiently and effectively.
References
Online Books
Motor learning and performance: a situation-based learning approach By Richard A. Schmidt, Craig A.
Wrisberg. Pages 32–33 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ejc27Wrg5rMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Schmidt+and+Wrisbe
rg&source=bl&ots=IFdxuivVLU&sig=wX8vLOB6bh-
YOq3oy938UbQGJew&hl=en&ei=8VgTTfPIGoOAhAflnvC2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
Motor control and learning: a behavioral emphasis By Richard A. Schmidt, Timothy Donald Lee. Pages
64–66 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z69gyDKroS0C&pg=PA64&dq=Hick’s+law&hl=en&ei=qVkTTcrm
A8eHhQeW9Z23Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q
=Hick’s%20law&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
Universal principles of design: 100 Ways to Enhance Usability, Influence Perception, Increase
Perception, Increase Appeal, Make Better Design Decisions, and Teach through Design.
By William Lidwell, Kritina Holden, Jill Butler. Page 102 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e4AaWB3QX6cC&pg=PA102&dq=Hick’s+law&hl=en&ei=qVkTTc
rmA8eHhQeW9Z23Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw#v=onepag
e&q=Hick’s%20law&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)

Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing: An Introduction By R. Lachman, J. L. Lachman, E. C.
Butterfield. Pages 140–145 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UhtlyKk4vv8C&pg=PA140&dq=Hick’s+law&hl=en&ei=vFsTTdb_
EtO7hAeHrf22Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&
q=Hick’s%20law&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
A. and C. Black Publishers, (07/2006), Dictionary of Sport and Exercise Science, A & C Black, 1-225.
MyAthens (ebrary) Available at:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/treshamins/docDetail.action?docID=10196632 (Accessed: 28/12/2010)
Idea Group Inc. (2005) Advanced methods in distance education: applications and practices for
educators, trainers and learners. By Kim E. Dooley, James R. Lindner, Larry McCoy Dooley, Larry M.
Dooley, Chapter 3 Learning Theories with Tim Murphy, Texas A&M University, USA Page 44 Available
at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IOGgchlg748C&pg=PA38&dq=mind+Black+box+model&hl=en&
ei=FM4dTfvrJ9C2hAfJpM24Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=5&ved=0CEUQ6wEwBA#v=onepage&q=mind%20Black%20box%20model&f=fals
e (Accessed: 31/12/2010)
Websites
Originally published in The Psychological Review, 1956, vol. 63, pp. 81-97 (reproduced here, with the
author's permission, by Stephen Malinowski). Available at: http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/
(Accessed: 29/12/2010)
Wikipedia (2010) Chunking (psychology). Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(psychology) (Accessed: 29/12/2010)
Theory Into Practice (TIP) (2010) Miller. Available at: http://tip.psychology.org/miller.html (Accessed:
29/12/2010)
The Theories Used in IS Research (2005) Information Processing Theory. Available at:
http://www.istheory.yorku.ca/informationprocessingtheory.htm (Accessed: 29/12/2010)
Classics in the History of Psychology, Miller. Available at: http (Accessed: 29/12/2010)

Topic 2: Cognitive Models of Human Behaviour
Figure 8.3 A basic adaptation of Welford’s information
processing model.
Principles
Cognitive is relating to the process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or
perception. Yet behaviour is the way in which a person, organism, or group responds to a specific set
of conditions. The use then of cognitive models is an excellent means of being familiar with human
behaviour. Hence the information processing method in psychology passes onto “the study of
cognitive processes by analogy with the computer” (Jarvis 1994. P. 12).
Therefore the earliest psychologist to
relate the information processing
method to skill acquisition was
Welford (1968). For instance a
computer operation is like human skill
as it’s perceived as containing three
stages. First the input of information
(perception), secondly the thought
process (decision making) and finally
output (response). This information
processing method is illustrated in Figure 8.3
Also Welford regarded short term memory as not merely a supply of information yet known as the
place in the information processing system where the thoughts and result deciding happens. As it
utilises information from the perceptual processes and long term memory. While the result deciding
happens when needed information has been through the procedure in the short term memory, then
indicators are fired into the muscles so that it influences the suitable motor reaction.
However with additional current research interested in information processing its shown particular
matters aren’t dealt by Welford’s attempt. The matter of automatic processing such as its not
adequately described. Likewise with the Welford model it doesn’t tackle the issues which place
restrictions on the amount of information we’re able to handle at one time and react to with
immediate performances.

Whereas in Figure 1 Skinner (1987,
p. 782) proposes that every
cognitive learning theory matches
within the “black box”. As in nearly
all Cognitive Information Processing
(CIP) models, counting the adopted
one by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968,
1971), beginners deal with information
Figure 1 Skinner “black box” theory.
in the identical means like a computer performs this of which is parallel to Welford’s theory. Since
information (or data) is “input” starting the environment all the way through the senses (or input
systems), process, kept in memory and expressed (or output) in the appearance of behaviours.
Figure 2 Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) comparing
computing model to the common learning model.
For example in Figure 2 it matches
up to a simple computing model to
the common learning model
projected by Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968). Since both have five parts;
input, short term memory,
processing, long term memory,
and output.
Short Term Memory Whenever trying to train the participants especially children and
young people a new skill or movement I must make sure my
instructions are short and sharp. This is because I don’t want to
overload the information going into their mind in a short time frame.
As this will in turn cause confusion on what to do as having to

remember each part. Therefore I ought to breakdown the
movement/skill into small reachable targets and progress steadily to
the completed action.
Long Term Memory Whereas for elite performers their use of long term memory is better
than beginners as their mind is trained and used for retaining key
information permanently to do a movement/skill correctly
repetitively. Consequently with lower skilled performers I have to
teach the individuals to remember and perform the movement
correctly so later in life false habits don’t occur which will affect their
performances dramatically.
Cognitive Anxiety &
Cognitive Behavioural
Although as a coach their purpose is to mentally and physically
prepare the participant for optimum performance. Therefore with
help from the coach the direct thought processes of an
individual/group are able to react under a specific set of conditions in
order to succeed. Since the mental processes decide on the
behaviour and the stress placed thus their development is
influenced.
Cognitive Learning &
Cognitive Stage
Also performances can be increased through guidance of a coach
whenever being trained of a new skill. Seeing as with young people
and children whilst they at the cognitive stage by instructing and
performing each progression of actions should be gathered of skill
acquisition will be improved. This emphasises involvement and
analysis on the component of the leaner as the skills are being
taught.
Controlled & Automatic
Processing
Subsequently the participant through further coaching will be able to
then be able to process information controlled or automatic. As with
a semi pro player their able to do the skill with thoughts and control
to accomplish the task, exclusive of doing not much or above.
Whereas the progression through persistent training tasks is
completed with no attentive processes as they have become
accustom to it.

Personal Reflection
Currently I’m an undergraduate doing a F.D. in Sports Coaching, my thoughts on cognitive models of
human behaviour is that it depends on an individual’s time taken and the attention limits of them to
complete an action. Since I must acknowledge their movement is affected by their mental state and
the stage of their skill acquisition. Therefore I must teach and get the individual or group to practice,
so they learn the sequence of movements involved. Also this relates to the way of their cognitive
process decides on movement and how they are able to be adapted and made use of developing
accomplishment. Also I will prepare the participants to play under stress as this would be damaging
to their performance if I don’t. Consequently I will help performers work their way from controlled
processing to automatic processing and learn how to manage their behaviour skillfully.
References
Online Books
Motor control and learning: a behavioural emphasis By Richard A. Schmidt, Timothy Donald Lee.
Pages 92 – 106 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z69gyDKroS0C&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=Welford's+Theory&so
urce=bl&ots=4TO_P_L_AF&sig=prt2JH826qqTIVR1byc7rnzC6gM&hl=en&ei=i40QTY3YLMqzhAffpvW2
Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Welford's%20
Theory&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
John Wiley & Sons Ltd (2004) Acquisition and performance of sports skills By Terry McMorris
Chapter 2 Perception & Chapter 4 Reaction Time Available at:
http://books.google.com/books?id=EoxZcI6lmIYC&pg=PA37&dq=Welford’s+Theory&hl=en&ei=pLQc
TdnZA6KShAe5uv22Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=3&ved=0CC0Q6wEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=Welford’s%20Theory&f=false
(Accessed: 21/12/2010)
Idea Group Inc. (2005) Advanced methods in distance education: applications and practices for
educators, trainers and learners. By Kim E. Dooley, James R. Lindner, Larry McCoy Dooley, Larry M.
Dooley, Chapter 3 Learning Theories with Tim Murphy, Texas A&M University, USA Page 38-40
Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IOGgchlg748C&pg=PA38&dq=mind+Black+box+model&hl=en&
ei=FM4dTfvrJ9C2hAfJpM24Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=5&ved=0CEUQ6wEwBA#v=onepage&q=mind%20Black%20box%20model&f=fals
e (Accessed: 31/12/2010)

Hodder Education (02/2002) Psychology in Practice : Sport Chapter 8 Attention and imagery in sport
Page 114 By Barbara Woods. MyAthens (ebrary) Available at:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/treshamins/docDetail.action?docID=10295041&p00=automatic%20proces
sing (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
Routledge, (09/1999), Sport Psychology, Skill acquisition, Pages 96-98 By Matt Jarvis. MyAthens
(ebrary) Available at:
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/treshamins/docDetail.action?docID=10289033&p00=welford (Accessed:
21/12/2010)
Topic 3: Perceptual and Input Processes
Figure 2.2 Visual searches used in gymnastics. Reprinted
from Human Movement Science, Vol, 7, J. Vickers,
“Knowledge structures of elite-novice gymnasts,” pp.
47-72, Copyright 1988, with permission from Elsevier.
Principles
Perceptual is firstly identified as relating to or involving sensory perception. While input it’s known as
something that enters a process or situation from the outside and is then acted upon or integrated
(sensory input). Likewise with process is recognised as a series of actions directed towards a specific
aim. Thus making use of perception your processing uses the senses to acquire information about
the surrounding environment or situation to perform a task. As being able to anticipate what going
to happen next, so through kinaesthesia sensing position of the body and perform accordingly.
During a run of investigations (Allard,
1984; Allard, Graham, & Paarsalu,
1980; Allard & Starkes, 1980; Bard &
Fleury, 1976; Bard, Fleury, Carriere, &
Halle, 1980; Chase & Simon, 1973;
Starkes & Deakin, 1984), performers
being expected to search short
movies then perceive, distinguish, or
remember objects in prepared and
unprepared positions in sporting

environment. The elite possess greater remembrance also identification of game particular
sequences of performance (e.g. Allard & Starkes, 1980; Starkes & Deakin, 1984; Williams & Davids,
1995). Also the elite are quicker in noticing plus understanding items for example a ball in the visual
area (Allard & Starkes, 1980; Millslagle, 1988; Starkes, 1987).
Figure 2.3 The visual-search paradigm as used in
soccer. Reprinted, by permission, from A.M. Williams,
K. Davids and J.G. Williams, 1999, Visual perception
and action is sports (London: E &FN Spon), 149.
However equally elite and beginner
performers found extra trouble in ball
recognition for reversed non sport films
when contrasted to appropriate
associated sport ones. Likewise
volleyball performers didn’t display
greater signal recognition ability in non
volleyball conditions or for non-ball
goals in volleyball conditions (Allard &
Starkes, 1980). Millslagle (1988)
implemented Prinz’s (1977) obstacle
practice to consider if signal
recognition in sport environment is in
circumstance or goal management. Recognition of the obstacle will believe a circumstance influence
search. Nevertheless Millslagle’s information contain showing to together elite and beginner
performers function in goal management.
During the visual search procedure it’s understood to a focus is primarily noticed through peripheral
vision this offers information regarding “where it is”. Whereas the foveal phase of functioning is
believed to be mindful or concentration challenging it’s named the “attentive” phase of the visual
search procedure (Neisser 1967).
The visual system hardware terms;
Visual acuity (static)
Visual acuity (dynamic)
Contrast sensitivity
Colour vision
Eye movement (ocular motility)
Focus flexibility (accommodation)

Fusion Flexibility (Binocularity)
Depth Perception (Stereopsis)
Visual reaction time
Central peripheral awareness
Eye hand body coordination
Visual adjustability
Visualisation
The visual system hardware adapted Table 3.1 Explanations of the most common terms used in
sport vision. (Source: Planer, P.M. (1994) Sports Vision Manual, PA: International Academy of
Sport Vision.)
Exteroceptor Additionally when coaching I need to be aware that the participants of all
levels are able to receive outside stimuli so that they can perform the desired
task successfully. As their ability to see and to anticipate possible future events
and developments improves performance. Also their process of hearing vital
information helps direct them in good stead too.
Perception However the information that peripheral vision can as well be utilised
knowingly throughout the visual search process (Williams and Davids 1998b).
Therefore training somebody/group who are learning an activity with little skill
in it they eventfully be able to process information using their senses to
acquire information about the surrounding environment or situation to their
advantage. Compared to elite whereby they have a great deal of knowledge
and skill of using perception in game situations through experience in their
sport.
Spatial (Or Event)
& Temporal
Anticipation
Equally through mentoring an individual/group of participants they'll start the
feeling of something that is going to happen in the activity they are
participating in successfully. Since they’re gaining knowledge of predicting
what is going to happen before the signal is presented. Plus start to become
skilled at predicting the time-course of a sequence of events more efficiently.

Kinesthesia While through guidance the participant’s ability will improve more by assisting
them to make intelligent decisions with a particular sense or move than one
sense. As they will be able to start sensing the motion of their body parts to
create swift movement to complete a specific task.
Advanced Cue
Utilisation
However it’s been identified for particular time that the visual search guidance
shown by elite performers aren’t done in a disorderly way. Yet are supported
by conscious perceptual approaches (Bard and Fleury 1981). Therefore when
preparing athletes for optimum performance they’re trained to make use of
any stimulus consciously perceived through specific learned behavioural
responses effectively. Plus when at a higher stage development than other
people they can process this information quicker.
Personal Reflection
Currently I’m an undergraduate doing a F.D. in Sports Coaching, my consideration on perceptual and
input processes of an individual at any skill level have three issues which affect their reaction time
and decision making. Firstly is the amount of stimulus-response options; secondly is the preparation
of the individual. Also there’s stimulus-response as being able to work together without difficulty.
Consequently the advantage is if correct the response will be faster, while the disadvantage is if
incorrect their response is slower by the error. Furthermore I have discovered that participants need
good awareness of their surroundings which is received from sensation and the use of their sense
organs to help better themselves/groups performance.
References
Online Books
Signal detection: Speed of detecting and locating objects of relevance in the visual field. Routledge
(1999) A. M. Williams, K. Davids and J.G. Williams Chapter 3 Sport functional properties & Chapter 5
Visual search strategy in sport. Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=_1QOAAAAQAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&ots=ZlygqnuIRC
&sig=ot8Wb4YPqnlq_2Aeb3rMCwMzC4E#v=onepage&q&f=false
Motor learning and performance: a situation-based learning approach By Richard A. Schmidt, Craig A.
Wrisberg. Pages 35 – 38 Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ejc27Wrg5rMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Schmidt+and+Wrisbe
rg&source=bl&ots=IFdxuivVLU&sig=wX8vLOB6bh-

YOq3oy938UbQGJew&hl=en&ei=8VgTTfPIGoOAhAflnvC2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnu
m=2&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false (Accessed: 21/12/2010)
Essential readings in sport and exercise psychology By Daniel Smith, Michael Bar-Eli, Page 109 ,
Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IE6IMsD-FhwC&
pg=PA109&dq=Allard+and+Starkes&hl=en&ei=P1w0TfvWO4yKhQfIz6jaCw&sa=X&oi=book_re
sult&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6wEwAg#v=onepage&q=Allard%20and%20Starkes&f=false
(Accessed: 17/01/2011)
International handbook of personality and intelligence By Donald H. Saklofske, Moshe Zeidnerm Page
696, Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tNMTKjUjuHEC&pg=PA696&dq=Allard+and+Starkes&hl=en&ei=
P1w0TfvWO4yKhQfIz6jaCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6wEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Allard%20and%20Starkes&f=false
(Accessed: 17/01/2011)
Perception, cognition, and decision training: the quiet eye in action By Joan N. Vickers Chapter 2
Measuring What Athletes See, Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2iVyZNLnVxMC&pg=PA36&dq=Allard+and+Starkes&hl=en&ei=P
1w0TfvWO4yKhQfIz6jaCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&
resnum=5&ved=0CEAQ6wEwBA#v=onepage&q=Allard%20and%20Starkes&f=false
(Accessed: 17/01/2011)
Cognitive issues in motor expertise By Janet L. Starkes, Fran Allard Chapter 3 The role of three
dimensional analysis in the assessment of motor expertise By Heather Carnahan, Available at:
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ohr9hVbJ_eYC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=Allard+and+Starkes&s
ource=bl&ots=umXiw17zAV&sig=iGOR9xa8Fx8f3IXULjkV7ZKid4A&hl=en&ei=gVs0Tfy3AtGLhQeztJ3YC
w&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Accessed: 17/01/2011)

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