Soil is a complex mixture that forms the outer layer of the Earth. It is the product of weathering processes acting on rocks and sediments, and contains minerals, organic matter, water, and air. When a soil profile is examined, distinct horizontal layers called horizons can be seen, which differ in color, structure, and chemical composition. The topsoil A horizon contains the most organic matter, while subsoil B horizons below contain fewer nutrients and clays. Soil types and profiles can vary significantly depending on the underlying geology and climate of the location.
Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents differentiated into horizons - usually unconsolidated - of variable depth which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics
Fundamentals of Soil Science (Soil formation, Structuexture)agriyouthnepal
This document provides an overview of the fundamentals of soil science. It defines soil science and lists its six disciplines. It also defines various views on soil and provides several definitions of soil from soil scientists over time. The document outlines the composition and interior structure of the Earth, theories on its origin and development, and the geological time scale and evolution of life. It also defines different types of rocks and their formation.
Soil is the upper layer of earth that plants grow in and is made up of weathered rock, minerals, organic matter, water and air. It forms through geological and biological processes over long periods of time. Soil supports plant growth by providing nutrients, water and oxygen to roots and is vital for sustaining life on Earth.
This document discusses the key factors that affect soil formation: climate, parent material, topography, and organic factors. Climate, especially temperature and moisture, influence chemical weathering and biological activity during soil formation. The parent material refers to the underlying rock, which affects soil properties as it weathers. Topography determines drainage and erosion patterns. Organic factors like vegetation, animals, and microorganisms also impact soil properties through leaf litter, root systems, burrowing, and decomposition.
In this presentation, you can found that, what is soil, Definition of soil science and all details, properties of soil. This Presentation made by Md Rubel Hossain.
Thanks..
http://www.agrislide.com/
www.leadmoneymedia.com
please follow me here :
https://www.behance.net/rubel570
https://plus.google.com/u/0/+MdRubelHossain570
https://www.facebook.com/rubel570
Here is a proposed way to take care of or conserve soil:
Plant trees and bushes along slopes and riverbanks. The roots will hold soil in place and prevent erosion during heavy rains or strong winds.
The document discusses factors that affect soil formation and pollution. It identifies causes of soil pollution like deforestation, dumping of industrial and agricultural waste, and excessive fertilizer use. This damages the soil and harms plant growth. To conserve soil, the document recommends practices like planting trees to prevent erosion, proper waste disposal, using alternative planting strategies, minimizing chemical use, and informing others about soil pollution issues.
This document provides information about soil including its definition, composition, formation, and importance. It defines soil as a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air that supports life on Earth. Soil is formed over long periods of time through the weathering of rock and interaction with climate and living organisms. It is composed of layers or horizons that develop distinct properties. Soil performs vital functions like sustaining plant and animal life, regulating water flow, filtering pollutants, storing nutrients, and providing structural support. Soil science studies soil as a living ecosystem and its role in agriculture, the environment, and supporting human civilization.
Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents differentiated into horizons - usually unconsolidated - of variable depth which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics
Fundamentals of Soil Science (Soil formation, Structuexture)agriyouthnepal
This document provides an overview of the fundamentals of soil science. It defines soil science and lists its six disciplines. It also defines various views on soil and provides several definitions of soil from soil scientists over time. The document outlines the composition and interior structure of the Earth, theories on its origin and development, and the geological time scale and evolution of life. It also defines different types of rocks and their formation.
Soil is the upper layer of earth that plants grow in and is made up of weathered rock, minerals, organic matter, water and air. It forms through geological and biological processes over long periods of time. Soil supports plant growth by providing nutrients, water and oxygen to roots and is vital for sustaining life on Earth.
This document discusses the key factors that affect soil formation: climate, parent material, topography, and organic factors. Climate, especially temperature and moisture, influence chemical weathering and biological activity during soil formation. The parent material refers to the underlying rock, which affects soil properties as it weathers. Topography determines drainage and erosion patterns. Organic factors like vegetation, animals, and microorganisms also impact soil properties through leaf litter, root systems, burrowing, and decomposition.
In this presentation, you can found that, what is soil, Definition of soil science and all details, properties of soil. This Presentation made by Md Rubel Hossain.
Thanks..
http://www.agrislide.com/
www.leadmoneymedia.com
please follow me here :
https://www.behance.net/rubel570
https://plus.google.com/u/0/+MdRubelHossain570
https://www.facebook.com/rubel570
Here is a proposed way to take care of or conserve soil:
Plant trees and bushes along slopes and riverbanks. The roots will hold soil in place and prevent erosion during heavy rains or strong winds.
The document discusses factors that affect soil formation and pollution. It identifies causes of soil pollution like deforestation, dumping of industrial and agricultural waste, and excessive fertilizer use. This damages the soil and harms plant growth. To conserve soil, the document recommends practices like planting trees to prevent erosion, proper waste disposal, using alternative planting strategies, minimizing chemical use, and informing others about soil pollution issues.
This document provides information about soil including its definition, composition, formation, and importance. It defines soil as a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air that supports life on Earth. Soil is formed over long periods of time through the weathering of rock and interaction with climate and living organisms. It is composed of layers or horizons that develop distinct properties. Soil performs vital functions like sustaining plant and animal life, regulating water flow, filtering pollutants, storing nutrients, and providing structural support. Soil science studies soil as a living ecosystem and its role in agriculture, the environment, and supporting human civilization.
Soil, Pedological and Edaphological ConceptsDINESH KUMAR
This document discusses concepts related to soil science. It defines soil as a natural body that forms at the earth's surface due to the combined effects of climate, organisms, relief, and parent material over time. Soil is a three-dimensional body with distinct layers and varying properties depending on location. Pedology studies soil as a natural body, while edaphology considers soil properties in relation to plant growth. The main components of soil are mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air. The document also outlines major branches and approaches within soil science.
Soil components and their properties Lecture by Allah Dad Khan Mr.Allah Dad Khan
This document discusses the key components and properties of soil over time. It explains that soils are composed of minerals, organic materials, water, and air. The proportions of these components determine the type and usefulness of a soil. For example, a productive agricultural soil contains around 45% minerals, 5% organic matter, 25% air and 25% water. The document then provides details on each component, particularly noting the importance of organic matter and minerals for nutrient retention and plant growth.
**needs updates and improvements
these slide is made with excerpts from other published and unpublished books,journals, studies and om-line references.No Plagiarism was intended.
Made for April-May 2015 Agriculture Major Admission test Review. Cavite State University.
This document provides details about a course on introduction to soil science. It is divided into three modules that will be covered across 15, 9, and 8 classes respectively. Module 1 covers topics like soil formation processes, properties, classification, and profiles. Module 2 focuses on soil water, temperature, air, colloids, and adsorption. Module 3 examines soil organic matter, biology, and ion exchange. The corresponding practical sessions provide hands-on experience in analyzing various physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils.
This document discusses soil formation and composition. It states that soil is formed from weathered rock and mineral particles through chemical and environmental processes like weathering and erosion. Key factors that influence soil formation are parent material, climate, topography, biological activity, and time. The document describes various soil layers and horizons that form as a result of these processes, and notes that soil composition and type can vary significantly depending on location.
Soil is composed of minerals, organic materials, and living organisms. It is formed through the weathering of parent rock materials by erosion. There are two concepts of soil - pedology, which considers soil formation and classification, and edaphology, which considers soil properties related to plant growth. Soil consists of mineral matter, organic matter, soil air, and soil water. Mineral matter includes particles of various sizes from rock fragments to clay. Organic matter is made up of decomposing plant and animal residues. Soil air and water occupy the pore spaces between mineral and organic particles and influence soil conditions and plant growth.
Pedology is the study of soil formation, genesis, classification, and properties from a natural perspective. Edaphology focuses on how soil relates to plant growth, nutrition, and crop yields. Both fields examine the composition of soil, but pedology views soil as a natural body while edaphology emphasizes soil's relationship to agricultural production.
Soil formation is influenced by several factors including climate, topography, biological activity, and the underlying parent rock. The speed of soil formation increases in warmer climates with more biological and chemical activity. Sloping landscapes result in thinner soils than flat areas. Over long periods of time, ranging from hundreds to thousands of years, the weathering of rocks and decay of organic matter creates distinct soil layers and types tailored to the local environment. In India, the major soil types include forest and mountain soils, alluvial soils, red and yellow soils, black soils, laterite soils, and arid soils. Kerala soils consist of alluvial soils, laterite soils, forest soils, and red and black soils. Conservation
The document summarizes the key processes involved in soil formation. It explains that soil is formed through the weathering of rock by various physical, chemical, and biological processes over long periods of time. Temperature and rainfall are identified as particularly important factors that influence soil formation rates and characteristics. The different types of weathering processes that break down rock into smaller particles that eventually become soil are also described in detail.
The document discusses the formation and composition of soil. It describes how soil is formed through the weathering of rock and addition of organic matter from plants and animals over thousands of years. Soil has a profile of different layers called horizons, including the top organic-rich A horizon, the leached B horizon below it, and the unweathered C horizon of parent material. The type and quality of soil depends on factors like climate, vegetation, parent rock material, slope, and time for development.
Soil is a vital component of terrestrial ecosystems that provides support and nutrients for plant growth. It is formed through the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition that break down rock into particles over long periods of time. Soil has different layers and is composed of materials like sand, silt, clay, and humus. When healthy, soil supports agriculture and forests while cycling matter and energy in ecosystems, but depleting its nutrients can damage it for generations. The ideal soil composition is loam, containing a mixture of sand, silt and clay with organic matter.
A brief description about soil genesis formation, pedology and edaphology concept, solum and regolith, soil pH and soil profile for the Engineering student at Under Graduate level
This is the presentation deck I used when I spoke about "Soil" at the inaugural Brooklyn Dirt [http://goo.gl/fb/74fjT] on February 16, 2011 at Sycamore Bar and Flowershop.
Soil is composed of distinct layers called horizons. The topsoil or A-horizon is at the top and is dark, soft, and rich in nutrients. Below is the B-horizon, which is harder and contains fewer nutrients. The lowest layer, the C-horizon, consists of small rock fragments. Soil forms through weathering of rocks by water, wind, and climate, and it supports plant growth by providing structure, water, and nutrients. The type of soil depends on the proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles.
This document provides an overview of soil profile and soil degradation. It begins by defining soil and its components. Soil formation is influenced by parent material, climate, organisms, topography, and time. A soil profile displays the vertical distribution of soil components in horizons. Major horizons include organic (O) and mineral (A, E, B, C, R) layers. Soil degradation occurs through physical, chemical and biological factors such as erosion, nutrient depletion, acidity/alkalinity, and reduced microbial activity. Common causes are deforestation, overgrazing, improper cultivation, and excessive or imbalanced fertilizer use. Water erosion, in particular, is a major driver of degradation globally and in India
Soil & its formation by Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
Soil is formed over long periods of time through the weathering of rock and decay of organic matter. Many factors interact during soil formation, including air, water, plants, animals, rocks, and chemicals. Soil provides habitat for many organisms and is vital to nutrient cycles. The weathering of bedrock materials and activity of soil organisms leads to distinct soil layers and horizons that take hundreds of thousands of years to form. Soil erosion negatively impacts soil fertility, water supply, and crop yields if not properly managed through techniques such as maintaining vegetation cover, contour plowing, and terracing.
This document discusses soil, including its composition, formation processes, and classification. Soil forms through weathering of parent materials and is influenced by climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Key processes in soil formation include leaching, eluviation, illuviation, podsolisation, and gleying. Soil taxonomy classifies soils into orders, suborders, great groups, and subgroups based on properties related to formation factors. Soil provides the medium for plant growth and is a natural resource consisting of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and living organisms.
The document discusses several key topics related to biogeochemical cycles and the biosphere:
- Water and carbon cycles are central to life as they cycle essential materials through ecosystems. Water is key to all life and cycles through evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation. Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, respiration, and is stored globally in rocks, oceans, soils, and the atmosphere.
- Biogeochemical cycles transfer necessary nutrients and materials, like nitrogen and carbon, to sustain life through geological and biological processes. Life requires matter and energy provided by these cycles.
- Ecosystems involve interactions between living and non-living elements. Primary producers, herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers make up food
11 29 2017 the ground beneath my feet save soilaalleyne
Here are three ways to conserve soil:
1. Plant cover crops or leave plant residue on top of soil to prevent erosion from wind and water. Plant roots and above-ground matter hold soil in place.
2. Practice no-till or minimum tillage farming techniques to limit soil disturbance from tilling or plowing. This preserves soil structure and prevents erosion.
3. Leave buffer strips along waterways and avoid overgrazing or over-application of fertilizers/pesticides. This helps maintain soil nutrients and protects soil from running off into water sources.
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminologyMichael Newbold
The document provides an introduction to soils and soil terminology. It defines soil and discusses soil formation factors such as parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. It also examines soil processes like weathering, decomposition, humification, capillary action, leaching, and translocation. Key terms are explained, like soil horizons, soil texture, and different types of humus. Soil features including color, structure, and drainage properties are also covered.
Soil is formed through the interaction of various factors over long periods of time. A soil profile consists of horizontal layers called horizons, with the topsoil A horizon and subsoil B horizon typically showing the most development. Key processes in soil formation include weathering, decomposition, humification, leaching, and translocation of minerals between horizons. The type of parent material, climate, vegetation, topography, and time all influence soil development.
The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of soil exposed when a soil pit is dug from the surface to the underlying bedrock. It contains different horizontal layers: the topsoil is the upper layer with the most organic matter and biological activity; the subsoil layers below accumulate materials leached from above; and the parent material is what the soil is forming from, influencing the soil composition based on its chemical and physical properties. The main cause of soil contamination is man-made waste containing unnatural chemicals, whereas natural waste adds fertility.
Soil, Pedological and Edaphological ConceptsDINESH KUMAR
This document discusses concepts related to soil science. It defines soil as a natural body that forms at the earth's surface due to the combined effects of climate, organisms, relief, and parent material over time. Soil is a three-dimensional body with distinct layers and varying properties depending on location. Pedology studies soil as a natural body, while edaphology considers soil properties in relation to plant growth. The main components of soil are mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air. The document also outlines major branches and approaches within soil science.
Soil components and their properties Lecture by Allah Dad Khan Mr.Allah Dad Khan
This document discusses the key components and properties of soil over time. It explains that soils are composed of minerals, organic materials, water, and air. The proportions of these components determine the type and usefulness of a soil. For example, a productive agricultural soil contains around 45% minerals, 5% organic matter, 25% air and 25% water. The document then provides details on each component, particularly noting the importance of organic matter and minerals for nutrient retention and plant growth.
**needs updates and improvements
these slide is made with excerpts from other published and unpublished books,journals, studies and om-line references.No Plagiarism was intended.
Made for April-May 2015 Agriculture Major Admission test Review. Cavite State University.
This document provides details about a course on introduction to soil science. It is divided into three modules that will be covered across 15, 9, and 8 classes respectively. Module 1 covers topics like soil formation processes, properties, classification, and profiles. Module 2 focuses on soil water, temperature, air, colloids, and adsorption. Module 3 examines soil organic matter, biology, and ion exchange. The corresponding practical sessions provide hands-on experience in analyzing various physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils.
This document discusses soil formation and composition. It states that soil is formed from weathered rock and mineral particles through chemical and environmental processes like weathering and erosion. Key factors that influence soil formation are parent material, climate, topography, biological activity, and time. The document describes various soil layers and horizons that form as a result of these processes, and notes that soil composition and type can vary significantly depending on location.
Soil is composed of minerals, organic materials, and living organisms. It is formed through the weathering of parent rock materials by erosion. There are two concepts of soil - pedology, which considers soil formation and classification, and edaphology, which considers soil properties related to plant growth. Soil consists of mineral matter, organic matter, soil air, and soil water. Mineral matter includes particles of various sizes from rock fragments to clay. Organic matter is made up of decomposing plant and animal residues. Soil air and water occupy the pore spaces between mineral and organic particles and influence soil conditions and plant growth.
Pedology is the study of soil formation, genesis, classification, and properties from a natural perspective. Edaphology focuses on how soil relates to plant growth, nutrition, and crop yields. Both fields examine the composition of soil, but pedology views soil as a natural body while edaphology emphasizes soil's relationship to agricultural production.
Soil formation is influenced by several factors including climate, topography, biological activity, and the underlying parent rock. The speed of soil formation increases in warmer climates with more biological and chemical activity. Sloping landscapes result in thinner soils than flat areas. Over long periods of time, ranging from hundreds to thousands of years, the weathering of rocks and decay of organic matter creates distinct soil layers and types tailored to the local environment. In India, the major soil types include forest and mountain soils, alluvial soils, red and yellow soils, black soils, laterite soils, and arid soils. Kerala soils consist of alluvial soils, laterite soils, forest soils, and red and black soils. Conservation
The document summarizes the key processes involved in soil formation. It explains that soil is formed through the weathering of rock by various physical, chemical, and biological processes over long periods of time. Temperature and rainfall are identified as particularly important factors that influence soil formation rates and characteristics. The different types of weathering processes that break down rock into smaller particles that eventually become soil are also described in detail.
The document discusses the formation and composition of soil. It describes how soil is formed through the weathering of rock and addition of organic matter from plants and animals over thousands of years. Soil has a profile of different layers called horizons, including the top organic-rich A horizon, the leached B horizon below it, and the unweathered C horizon of parent material. The type and quality of soil depends on factors like climate, vegetation, parent rock material, slope, and time for development.
Soil is a vital component of terrestrial ecosystems that provides support and nutrients for plant growth. It is formed through the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition that break down rock into particles over long periods of time. Soil has different layers and is composed of materials like sand, silt, clay, and humus. When healthy, soil supports agriculture and forests while cycling matter and energy in ecosystems, but depleting its nutrients can damage it for generations. The ideal soil composition is loam, containing a mixture of sand, silt and clay with organic matter.
A brief description about soil genesis formation, pedology and edaphology concept, solum and regolith, soil pH and soil profile for the Engineering student at Under Graduate level
This is the presentation deck I used when I spoke about "Soil" at the inaugural Brooklyn Dirt [http://goo.gl/fb/74fjT] on February 16, 2011 at Sycamore Bar and Flowershop.
Soil is composed of distinct layers called horizons. The topsoil or A-horizon is at the top and is dark, soft, and rich in nutrients. Below is the B-horizon, which is harder and contains fewer nutrients. The lowest layer, the C-horizon, consists of small rock fragments. Soil forms through weathering of rocks by water, wind, and climate, and it supports plant growth by providing structure, water, and nutrients. The type of soil depends on the proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles.
This document provides an overview of soil profile and soil degradation. It begins by defining soil and its components. Soil formation is influenced by parent material, climate, organisms, topography, and time. A soil profile displays the vertical distribution of soil components in horizons. Major horizons include organic (O) and mineral (A, E, B, C, R) layers. Soil degradation occurs through physical, chemical and biological factors such as erosion, nutrient depletion, acidity/alkalinity, and reduced microbial activity. Common causes are deforestation, overgrazing, improper cultivation, and excessive or imbalanced fertilizer use. Water erosion, in particular, is a major driver of degradation globally and in India
Soil & its formation by Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
Soil is formed over long periods of time through the weathering of rock and decay of organic matter. Many factors interact during soil formation, including air, water, plants, animals, rocks, and chemicals. Soil provides habitat for many organisms and is vital to nutrient cycles. The weathering of bedrock materials and activity of soil organisms leads to distinct soil layers and horizons that take hundreds of thousands of years to form. Soil erosion negatively impacts soil fertility, water supply, and crop yields if not properly managed through techniques such as maintaining vegetation cover, contour plowing, and terracing.
This document discusses soil, including its composition, formation processes, and classification. Soil forms through weathering of parent materials and is influenced by climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Key processes in soil formation include leaching, eluviation, illuviation, podsolisation, and gleying. Soil taxonomy classifies soils into orders, suborders, great groups, and subgroups based on properties related to formation factors. Soil provides the medium for plant growth and is a natural resource consisting of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and living organisms.
The document discusses several key topics related to biogeochemical cycles and the biosphere:
- Water and carbon cycles are central to life as they cycle essential materials through ecosystems. Water is key to all life and cycles through evaporation, transpiration, and precipitation. Carbon cycles through photosynthesis, respiration, and is stored globally in rocks, oceans, soils, and the atmosphere.
- Biogeochemical cycles transfer necessary nutrients and materials, like nitrogen and carbon, to sustain life through geological and biological processes. Life requires matter and energy provided by these cycles.
- Ecosystems involve interactions between living and non-living elements. Primary producers, herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers make up food
11 29 2017 the ground beneath my feet save soilaalleyne
Here are three ways to conserve soil:
1. Plant cover crops or leave plant residue on top of soil to prevent erosion from wind and water. Plant roots and above-ground matter hold soil in place.
2. Practice no-till or minimum tillage farming techniques to limit soil disturbance from tilling or plowing. This preserves soil structure and prevents erosion.
3. Leave buffer strips along waterways and avoid overgrazing or over-application of fertilizers/pesticides. This helps maintain soil nutrients and protects soil from running off into water sources.
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminologyMichael Newbold
The document provides an introduction to soils and soil terminology. It defines soil and discusses soil formation factors such as parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. It also examines soil processes like weathering, decomposition, humification, capillary action, leaching, and translocation. Key terms are explained, like soil horizons, soil texture, and different types of humus. Soil features including color, structure, and drainage properties are also covered.
Soil is formed through the interaction of various factors over long periods of time. A soil profile consists of horizontal layers called horizons, with the topsoil A horizon and subsoil B horizon typically showing the most development. Key processes in soil formation include weathering, decomposition, humification, leaching, and translocation of minerals between horizons. The type of parent material, climate, vegetation, topography, and time all influence soil development.
The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of soil exposed when a soil pit is dug from the surface to the underlying bedrock. It contains different horizontal layers: the topsoil is the upper layer with the most organic matter and biological activity; the subsoil layers below accumulate materials leached from above; and the parent material is what the soil is forming from, influencing the soil composition based on its chemical and physical properties. The main cause of soil contamination is man-made waste containing unnatural chemicals, whereas natural waste adds fertility.
The key factors that influence soil formation are climate, parent material, topography, organisms, and time. Climate, especially temperature and precipitation, determines the rate of weathering and types of organic material. Parent material provides the initial minerals and properties. Topography influences moisture and temperature. Organisms like plants and microbes break down materials and mix the soil. Finally, soil formation is a long process, and soils change and develop over hundreds of years as these factors interact.
41. soil components and their properties by allah dad khanMr.Allah Dad Khan
This document discusses the key components and properties of soil over multiple paragraphs. It explains that soils are composed of four main components - soil minerals, organic materials, water, and air. It provides details on each component, including that soil minerals make up 45-49% and are derived from primary and secondary types, organic matter is 1-5% and derives from dead plants/animals, water holds and transports minerals and occupies spaces, and air occupies the same spaces as water at 2-50% and provides oxygen for roots and microbes.
Soil is formed from the weathering of underlying rock and organic material from dead plants and animals. It is composed of various horizons with organic material concentrated near the surface. The O horizon contains freshly fallen plant material while the A horizon contains more decomposed organic matter mixed with minerals. Deeper horizons like the B contain fewer organics that have been further broken down. The C horizon is mostly unchanged parent material. Soil quality indicates environmental quality as soil is essential for plant growth and supports many ecosystem processes. Maintaining soil quality through sustainable land management practices is important for long term agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.
The document defines several elementary soil forming processes (ESP) that occur during pedogenesis. Biogenic-accumulative ESP involve accumulation of organic matter and litter. Hydrogenic-accumulative ESP result in accumulation of soluble salts, carbonates, and iron compounds from groundwater. Metamorphic ESP transform soil minerals without gains or losses. Eluvial ESP remove materials via leaching and podsolization. Illuvial-accumulative ESP deposit materials removed by eluvial processes. Pedoturbative ESP involve mixing of soil by freezing/thawing or bioturbation. Destructive ESP physically destroy soil through erosion.
An introduction to soils, soil formation and terminologyakida mbugi
This document provides an introduction to soils and soil terminology. It defines soil and discusses soil profiles, horizons, and the five factors that influence soil formation: parent material, climate, organisms, relief, and time. Soil forming processes like weathering, decomposition, humification, capillary action, leaching, and translocation are also explained. The document discusses additional soil features including color, texture, and structure.
The document provides information on basic soil science concepts. It discusses soil profiles, horizons, texture, structure, bulk density, organic matter content, hydrology, pH, cation exchange capacity, and soil mapping. Key points covered include the major horizons in a soil profile, factors that control soil organic matter levels, the difference between plant available water and total water held in soils, and how soils are delineated on maps.
This document provides information about soil profiles, physical properties, components, texture, structure, reaction, biology, and problem soils in Kerala. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
Soil profiles have distinct horizontal layers called horizons that differ in properties and characteristics. The main horizons are O (organic), A (topsoil), E (eluviated), B (subsoil), C (parent material), and R (bedrock). Physical properties of soil include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and water content which influence properties like aeration, drainage, and nutrient availability. Problem soils in Kerala include saline soils with high salt content, alkaline soils with pH above 8
This document discusses soil profiles and soil horizons. It begins by defining soils and how they are formed through geological and environmental processes over thousands of years. It then defines a soil profile as a cross-sectional view of the layers or horizons of soil beneath the surface, which are formed by weathering and decomposition in response to factors like leaching. It identifies the main soil horizons - O, A, E, B, C, and R - and provides brief descriptions of each. The document aims to explain what constitutes a soil profile and the layered structure of soils.
Chemistry and physics of submerged soilAnandhan Ctry
This document summarizes submerged soils. It discusses four main types: waterlogged (gley) soils, marsh soils, paddy soils, and subaquatic soils. It describes the characteristics of submerged soils, including the absence of oxygen, chemical changes that occur like reduction, and transformations of carbon, nitrogen, iron, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and trace elements. Key points are that submerged soils become anaerobic, chemical elements shift to their reduced forms, and decomposition of organic matter produces gases like methane and hydrogen sulfide.
The document discusses soil formation and the factors that influence it. It describes the two stages of soil formation - weathering of rock into regolith, and the formation of true soil from regolith. It identifies five main soil forming factors: parent material, climate, relief, organisms, and time. Parent material and relief are considered passive factors, while climate and organisms are active factors. It provides details on each of these factors and how they influence soil properties and formation of different soil types. It also discusses various soil forming processes like podzolization, laterization, and gleization.
This document discusses soil formation and the physical properties of soils. It defines soil and lists the major factors that influence soil formation: parent material, climate, biota, relief, and time. The key physical properties discussed are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, color, consistence, temperature, air, and water. Forest soils tend to have darker color, higher clay content, lower bulk density, greater porosity, better structure, and ability to hold more water and nutrients compared to other soil types due to higher organic matter levels.
Soil formation or pedogenesis is the combined effect of human impact on the environment, physical, chemical and biological processes working on soil parent material.
Soil formation and topography A Lecture By Allah Dad Khan Agri Expert KPK Mr.Allah Dad Khan
The document discusses several key factors that influence soil formation: climate, living organisms, parent material, topography, and time. It explains how each factor affects processes of soil development like mineral weathering, organic matter decomposition, and translocation of materials. Specifically, it outlines how climate influences these processes through precipitation levels and temperature, and how topography determines drainage and microclimates. The summary emphasizes that over long periods of time, climate becomes the dominant influence on soil properties.
39. soil formation and topography by Allah Dad KhanMr.Allah Dad Khan
The document discusses several key factors that influence soil formation: climate, living organisms, parent material, topography, and time. It explains how each factor affects processes like weathering, decomposition, leaching, and erosion that create distinct soil horizons and properties over long time periods. The dominant role of climate is emphasized, particularly how precipitation and temperature influence chemical reactions and biological activity in soils.
Sagar Chougule presented on soil analysis using remote sensing. He defined soil as the thin layer at the earth's surface formed by the breakdown of underlying parent materials. Soil horizons are layers that form vertically in soil due to biological, chemical and physical processes. The main horizons are O (organic matter), A (topsoil), B (subsoil), C (weathered parent material), and R (unweathered bedrock). Remote sensing uses optical sensors to analyze soil properties based on spectral reflectance, which varies by texture, moisture, organic content, and iron-oxide levels. Landsat and other satellite imagery allow mapping of soil types at different resolutions to study erosion, moisture levels, and other soil characteristics
Chemistry of Soil. Layer composition factors etcmiraronald16
Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, air and water that forms from the weathering of rock and decay of organic material. Soil chemistry focuses on chemical reactions in soil and the fate of contaminants and nutrients, allowing scientists to monitor pollution effects. Soil formation is influenced by climate, organisms, topography, the underlying parent material, and time. These factors work together over long periods to break down parent material and produce distinct soil layers with varying compositions.
El documento describe los elementos químicos en el suelo, incluyendo que pueden estar contenidos en la fase sólida o líquida. Explica que la solución del suelo contiene nutrientes disueltos y que los compuestos químicos se disocian en cationes y aniones. También describe los coloides del suelo, incluyendo que retienen iones de manera reversible debido a su carga eléctrica y gran área de superficie.
1) Las rocas, suelos y sedimentos proporcionan hábitats para una gran diversidad de microorganismos. 2) Los suelos se forman a partir de la meteorización y descomposición de rocas por procesos físicos, químicos y biológicos que incluyen la actividad de bacterias, hongos y plantas. 3) Los suelos albergan una gran variedad de microorganismos que desempeñan funciones importantes como la fijación de nitrógeno y la descomposición de la materia orgánica.
El documento describe las reacciones químicas dominantes que ocurren en diferentes rangos de pH, incluyendo la oxidación de piritas entre 4.0-2.0, la hidrólisis de aluminio entre 4.0-6.0, el intercambio de hidrógeno entre 6.0-7.0, la hidrólisis de bases intercambiables entre 7.0-8.0, la hidrólisis de carbonato de calcio entre 8.0-8.5 y la hidrólisis de carbonato de Na entre 8.5-10.0.
Este documento describe los cationes presentes en el suelo y los factores que afectan su contenido. Explica que los cationes son fundamentales para la fertilidad del suelo y se adhieren a las partículas a través de intercambio iónico. Luego detalla los principales cationes presentes, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico y cómo factores como el tipo de roca, actividad biótica, pH y clima afectan el contenido de cationes en el suelo.
El documento describe las propiedades de aireación del suelo y su importancia para el crecimiento de las plantas. La aireación del suelo permite el intercambio de gases entre el suelo y la atmósfera, lo que es necesario para la respiración de raíces y microorganismos. La aireación es problemática cuando el contenido de aire en el suelo (Ea) es menor al 10% del volumen total.
Este documento describe las propiedades físico-químicas de los suelos, incluyendo la acidez, composición de cationes intercambiables, capacidad de intercambio de cationes (CIC), y pH. Explica cómo estos factores varían según el tipo de suelo y cómo afectan su fertilidad. También proporciona ejemplos de valores típicos encontrados en suelos uruguayos.
Este documento describe las propiedades físico-químicas de los suelos, incluyendo la composición de la fracción sólida, el estado coloidal, la superficie específica y tamaño de partículas, la importancia agronómica de las propiedades coloidales, y el intercambio catiónico. Explica que las arcillas y materia orgánica del suelo tienen cargas eléctricas que atraen iones, y que este proceso de intercambio iónico es fundamental para la nutrición de las plantas.
Este documento trata sobre las propiedades químicas del suelo, incluyendo los elementos químicos presentes en el suelo, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico, el pH y la conductividad eléctrica. Explica que los elementos químicos pueden encontrarse en las fases sólida y líquida del suelo, y que la capacidad de intercambio catiónico determina la fertilidad del suelo a través de la adsorción y el intercambio de cationes. También clasifica los suelos según su pH y conductividad el
Este documento describe las propiedades físico-químicas de los suelos, incluyendo la composición de la fracción sólida, el estado coloidal, la superficie específica y tamaño de partículas, la importancia agronómica de las propiedades coloidales, y el intercambio catiónico. Explica que las arcillas y materia orgánica del suelo tienen cargas eléctricas que atraen iones, y que este proceso de intercambio iónico es fundamental para la nutrición de las plantas.
El documento describe las propiedades hidráulicas de los suelos, incluida la capilaridad, el flujo de agua y la permeabilidad. Explica que la capilaridad crea dos zonas en el suelo - una zona saturada donde el agua se mantiene por encima del nivel freático debido a la succión capilar, y una zona parcialmente saturada donde algunos canales de agua son continuos y otros discontinuos. También describe métodos para medir la carga capilar, como ensayos de laboratorio y fórmulas empíricas
El documento describe la microbiología del suelo. Explica que el suelo está formado por minerales procedentes de la meteorización de las rocas y materia orgánica de plantas y animales muertos. Contiene numerosos microorganismos como bacterias, hongos y protozoos que desempeñan un papel importante en la descomposición de la materia orgánica y el ciclo de nutrientes. Los microorganismos viven en nichos diferentes en los horizontes y agregados del suelo, y han desarrollado mecanismos para sobrevivir en
El documento describe las propiedades físicas del agua en el suelo, incluyendo el ciclo hidrológico, formas de agua, retención de humedad, potencial matricial, infiltración, conductividad hidráulica y pérdidas de agua. Explica conceptos como capacidad de campo, punto de marchitez permanente, curvas de retención, uso consuntivo de cultivos y cálculos relacionados con riego.
El documento describe las propiedades físicas del suelo, en particular la textura. La textura se refiere al tamaño de las partículas del suelo y cómo estas se clasifican en arenas, limos y arcillas. La proporción de estas fracciones determina las propiedades físicas y químicas del suelo. La estructura del suelo, definida como la agrupación de las partículas, también influye en estas propiedades. Un análisis de la textura y estructura permite evaluar la capacidad de uso del suelo.
El documento describe las propiedades físicas de los suelos relacionadas con su consistencia. La consistencia se refiere a las fuerzas de cohesión y adhesión dentro del suelo a diferentes contenidos de humedad. La consistencia depende principalmente de la humedad, el contenido de arcilla y la estructura del suelo. Se definen varios términos relacionados con la consistencia como plasticidad, friabilidad y dureza. También se explican métodos para medir la consistencia del suelo y se da un modelo para evaluar la estabilidad de la
El documento describe las propiedades físicas de densidad aparente y densidad de partículas en los suelos. La densidad aparente incluye el volumen de partículas sólidas y espacios porosos, mientras que la densidad de partículas solo considera el volumen de sólidos. Se explican los usos y valores típicos de estas propiedades en diferentes tipos de suelo.
El documento describe las propiedades físicas relacionadas con el color y la temperatura de los suelos. El color del suelo depende del contenido de materia orgánica, la condición de drenaje, el clima y la génesis. Se mide el color usando la tabla Munsell, la cual clasifica el matiz, valor y croma. La temperatura del suelo depende de factores como la incidencia solar, profundidad, contenido de agua y color, e influye en procesos como la actividad microbiana. La conductividad térmica var
Este documento describe las propiedades físicas del suelo, incluyendo la textura, estructura, consistencia, densidad y porosidad. Explica que la textura se refiere a la composición de partículas del suelo como arena, limo y arcilla. También describe los diferentes tipos de estructura del suelo como granular, bloques y laminar, y los factores que afectan la agregación de partículas como cationes, materia orgánica y agua. Finalmente, cubre conceptos como la densidad, porosidad, color y temperatura del
This document provides an overview of soils in Argentina, including their nature, classification, and distribution across different regions. It discusses the key soil forming factors of climate, parent material, vegetation, and topography. The major soil orders found in Argentina are described, with Mollisols and Alfisols being most extensive and important for agriculture. The document traces the history of soil mapping and research in Argentina and how classification systems have evolved over time.
The document describes two methods for determining soil texture in the field:
1. The "feel method" involves moistening soil and examining its properties like stickiness, graininess, and ribbon formation to estimate clay, sand, and silt content.
2. The "runoff method" involves saturating soil with water and counting how many rinses are needed until the runoff is clear to estimate total silt and clay content. Results from both methods can be used to classify the soil sample on a texture triangle.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/how-axelera-ai-uses-digital-compute-in-memory-to-deliver-fast-and-energy-efficient-computer-vision-a-presentation-from-axelera-ai/
Bram Verhoef, Head of Machine Learning at Axelera AI, presents the “How Axelera AI Uses Digital Compute-in-memory to Deliver Fast and Energy-efficient Computer Vision” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
As artificial intelligence inference transitions from cloud environments to edge locations, computer vision applications achieve heightened responsiveness, reliability and privacy. This migration, however, introduces the challenge of operating within the stringent confines of resource constraints typical at the edge, including small form factors, low energy budgets and diminished memory and computational capacities. Axelera AI addresses these challenges through an innovative approach of performing digital computations within memory itself. This technique facilitates the realization of high-performance, energy-efficient and cost-effective computer vision capabilities at the thin and thick edge, extending the frontier of what is achievable with current technologies.
In this presentation, Verhoef unveils his company’s pioneering chip technology and demonstrates its capacity to deliver exceptional frames-per-second performance across a range of standard computer vision networks typical of applications in security, surveillance and the industrial sector. This shows that advanced computer vision can be accessible and efficient, even at the very edge of our technological ecosystem.
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success StorySafe Software
Are you ready to revolutionize how you handle data? Join us for a webinar where we’ll bring you up to speed with the latest advancements in Generative AI technology and discover how leveraging FME with tools from giants like Google Gemini, Amazon, and Microsoft OpenAI can supercharge your workflow efficiency.
During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
Custom AI Models: Discover how to leverage FME to build personalized AI models using your data. Whether it’s populating a model with local data for added security or integrating public AI tools, find out how FME facilitates a versatile and secure approach to AI.
We’ll wrap up with a live Q&A session where you can engage with our experts on your specific use cases, and learn more about optimizing your data workflows with AI.
This webinar is ideal for professionals seeking to harness the power of AI within their data management systems while ensuring high levels of customization and security. Whether you're a novice or an expert, gain actionable insights and strategies to elevate your data processes. Join us to see how FME and AI can revolutionize how you work with data!
Conversational agents, or chatbots, are increasingly used to access all sorts of services using natural language. While open-domain chatbots - like ChatGPT - can converse on any topic, task-oriented chatbots - the focus of this paper - are designed for specific tasks, like booking a flight, obtaining customer support, or setting an appointment. Like any other software, task-oriented chatbots need to be properly tested, usually by defining and executing test scenarios (i.e., sequences of user-chatbot interactions). However, there is currently a lack of methods to quantify the completeness and strength of such test scenarios, which can lead to low-quality tests, and hence to buggy chatbots.
To fill this gap, we propose adapting mutation testing (MuT) for task-oriented chatbots. To this end, we introduce a set of mutation operators that emulate faults in chatbot designs, an architecture that enables MuT on chatbots built using heterogeneous technologies, and a practical realisation as an Eclipse plugin. Moreover, we evaluate the applicability, effectiveness and efficiency of our approach on open-source chatbots, with promising results.
Main news related to the CCS TSI 2023 (2023/1695)Jakub Marek
An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
Connector Corner: Seamlessly power UiPath Apps, GenAI with prebuilt connectorsDianaGray10
Join us to learn how UiPath Apps can directly and easily interact with prebuilt connectors via Integration Service--including Salesforce, ServiceNow, Open GenAI, and more.
The best part is you can achieve this without building a custom workflow! Say goodbye to the hassle of using separate automations to call APIs. By seamlessly integrating within App Studio, you can now easily streamline your workflow, while gaining direct access to our Connector Catalog of popular applications.
We’ll discuss and demo the benefits of UiPath Apps and connectors including:
Creating a compelling user experience for any software, without the limitations of APIs.
Accelerating the app creation process, saving time and effort
Enjoying high-performance CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operations, for
seamless data management.
Speakers:
Russell Alfeche, Technology Leader, RPA at qBotic and UiPath MVP
Charlie Greenberg, host
5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
Power Grid Model is an open source project from Linux Foundation Energy and provides a calculation engine that is increasingly essential for DSOs. It offers a standards-based foundation enabling real-time power systems analysis, simulations of electrical power grids, and sophisticated what-if analysis. In addition, it enables in-depth studies and analysis of the electrical power grid’s behavior and performance. This comprehensive model incorporates essential factors such as power generation capacity, electrical losses, voltage levels, power flows, and system stability.
Power Grid Model is currently being applied in a wide variety of use cases, including grid planning, expansion, reliability, and congestion studies. It can also help in analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration, assessing the effects of disturbances or faults, and developing strategies for grid control and optimization.
What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
-Insightful presentations covering two practical applications of the Power Grid Model.
-An update on the latest advancements in Power Grid -Model technology during the first and second quarters of 2024.
-An interactive brainstorming session to discuss and propose new feature requests.
-An opportunity to connect with fellow Power Grid Model enthusiasts and users.
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
Discover top-tier mobile app development services, offering innovative solutions for iOS and Android. Enhance your business with custom, user-friendly mobile applications.
Digital Banking in the Cloud: How Citizens Bank Unlocked Their MainframePrecisely
Inconsistent user experience and siloed data, high costs, and changing customer expectations – Citizens Bank was experiencing these challenges while it was attempting to deliver a superior digital banking experience for its clients. Its core banking applications run on the mainframe and Citizens was using legacy utilities to get the critical mainframe data to feed customer-facing channels, like call centers, web, and mobile. Ultimately, this led to higher operating costs (MIPS), delayed response times, and longer time to market.
Ever-changing customer expectations demand more modern digital experiences, and the bank needed to find a solution that could provide real-time data to its customer channels with low latency and operating costs. Join this session to learn how Citizens is leveraging Precisely to replicate mainframe data to its customer channels and deliver on their “modern digital bank” experiences.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/temporal-event-neural-networks-a-more-efficient-alternative-to-the-transformer-a-presentation-from-brainchip/
Chris Jones, Director of Product Management at BrainChip , presents the “Temporal Event Neural Networks: A More Efficient Alternative to the Transformer” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
The expansion of AI services necessitates enhanced computational capabilities on edge devices. Temporal Event Neural Networks (TENNs), developed by BrainChip, represent a novel and highly efficient state-space network. TENNs demonstrate exceptional proficiency in handling multi-dimensional streaming data, facilitating advancements in object detection, action recognition, speech enhancement and language model/sequence generation. Through the utilization of polynomial-based continuous convolutions, TENNs streamline models, expedite training processes and significantly diminish memory requirements, achieving notable reductions of up to 50x in parameters and 5,000x in energy consumption compared to prevailing methodologies like transformers.
Integration with BrainChip’s Akida neuromorphic hardware IP further enhances TENNs’ capabilities, enabling the realization of highly capable, portable and passively cooled edge devices. This presentation delves into the technical innovations underlying TENNs, presents real-world benchmarks, and elucidates how this cutting-edge approach is positioned to revolutionize edge AI across diverse applications.
“Temporal Event Neural Networks: A More Efficient Alternative to the Transfor...
Que Es El Suelo
1. Introduction
What is soil?
There is an old Chinese proverb that states: The soil in profile In many European soil types, between the dark coloured ‘A’
and brighter ‘B’ horizons, is a pale coloured layer. This
Soil is the product of various environmental weathering horizon has a smaller content of very fine material such as
“Man…despite his artistic pretensions and many processes that operate on geological materials on the clay, organic matter, nutrients and chemicals such as iron
accomplishments, owes his existence to a thin layer of Earth’s surface over a period of time. If we dig down into than either the overlying A or underlying B, hence its paler
topsoil …and the fact that it rains”. the soil to about 1 or 2 metres depth and look at the vertical colour. Such layers, from which some soil components have
section revealed, we notice a number of roughly horizontal been ‘leached’ out, are known as ‘eluvial’ or ‘E’ horizons and
layers that look slightly different. These layers are the result usually represent the most impoverished parts of the soil
When different people refer to ‘The Soil’ they usually have of the local environmental weathering processes and they profile with respect to biological activity and nutrient
rather different ideas of what this means. To the gardener have colour, physical structure and chemical characteristics availability.
or farmer, soil is the upper few centimetres of ground that that differ significantly from those of the underlying rocks
is cultivated and nurtured to produce crops. To the engineer, and sediments. Soil scientists call the layers ‘soil horizons’ Towards the base of the subsoil, the soil structure gradually
it is the ‘overburden’ or unwanted loose material at the and, as a means of shorthand and easy communication, dies out as the factors affecting its development decrease
ground surface that needs to be removed to provide a more assign letters of the alphabet to distinguish the different in influence.
stable foundation upon which to work. To the geologists it types.
is the loose ‘unconsolidated’ material overlying the rocks Eventually a layer is reached where the influence of
they study. However, to the vast majority of the human race environmental weathering processes is minimal, either
living in cities and towns, soil is simply the ‘dirt’ or ‘dust’ to Know Your A, B, C! because there is hard rock present or because there has not
be cleaned from their hands or the vegetables that they buy been enough time for the processes to have a significant
to eat. Many large supermarket retailers in the western When a soil pit is dug and the vertical profile of the soil impact or because the layer is too far from the land surface
world now do this before putting them on display in order examined, normally, an uppermost layer that is darker than to be affected. This layer is called the soil ‘substrate’ or ‘C
to make such produce ‘more attractive and presentable’. those beneath can be recognised. This is the ‘topsoil’ or ‘A horizon’ or ‘soil parent material’ and has either no
horizon’ which contains most of the organic material within structural development or shows joints and bedded layers
In fact, soil is all of these different things. Soil is the living, the soil; hence its darker colour. It is the engine room of the characteristic of rock formations.
breathing skin of our planet and it is affected by, and is the soil where most of its biological and chemical activity
result of, the many and varied interactions that occur occurs. If the topsoil layer is removed by erosion or human
between the atmosphere, as governed by climate and activity, most of the soil’s ecological potential goes with it.
weather patterns, the biosphere, that is the local vegetation Although the topsoil layer will regenerate over time, if left
and animal activities including those of man, the geosphere, undisturbed, it may take hundreds of years for its full
the rocks and sediments that form the upper few metres of original potential to be restored.
the Earth’s solid crust. Those of us who study soil have a
definition for it. We say ‘soil is any loose material at the Below the dark-coloured topsoil are one or more brighter
surface of the Earth that is capable of supporting life’ and coloured layers; the ‘subsoil’ or ‘B horizons’. These layers
A
these life-supporting functions have been understood for a contain much less organic material (making them different
very long time. in colour) but are still exploited by plant roots and soil
animals that use the water, air and nutrients stored in them.
They are usually brown or reddish in colour because they
What is soil made of? contain iron oxides weathered from clay minerals in the soil.
All of us have come into contact with soil at some time in
our lives and most are familiar with such terms as clay, sand These photographs show how soil profiles can differ quite
or peat. In reality, soil consists of a complex mixture of radically in their appearance depending on their position in
mineral and organic particles that represent the products of the landscape (JH).
B
weathering and biochemical processes that break down the
local rocks and sediments into individual grains of The profile on the right, a Cambisol under woodland, shows
increasingly smaller sizes and also break down the dead a classic A-B-C sequence of soil horizons, with colour
vegetation and organisms that fall on or remain within it. differences reflecting the relative distributions of organic
When we handle the soil, the fact that it usually stains and matter and iron oxide produced by the weathering of
moistens our fingers, shows that it also holds different minerals in the soil (JH).
amounts of water and chemicals and the amounts of these
that can be held by the soil are determined by the size and In contrast the profile on the left, a Stagnic Luvisol under
origin of the mineral and organic particles present. The two pasture, shows an more complex sequence of A-E-B
C
other final components that make up the soil are the horizons. Colour differences again reflect changes in the
organisms, both plants and animals, that live (and die) distribution of organic matter and iron oxide minerals, with
within it and the air that enables them to live there. the paler coloured E horizon containing less clay or iron
oxide than the A or B horizons. However, superimposed on
these basic colour differences is a ‘mottling’ effect caused
by periodic waterlogging of the soil as a result of the
impermeable clayey nature of the B and C horizons (JH).
A
E
B
10
2. Introduction
What is soil?
Within the A, E and B horizons, various clods, aggregates
and grains of different sizes can be seen. These are the
building blocks of the soil that together form its
architectural fabric or ‘structure’. Soil structure determines
the amount and rate of water and air movements. The
structure of the soil results from natural processes such as
seasonal cycles of wetting and drying and freezing and
thawing and, especially in the topsoil, from interactions
between the mineral components and substances derived
from living and dead plants and animals.
Structure in the upper parts of the soil is also affected by
human activities, in particular, agricultural cultivations,
vehicle trafficking and building operations. However, it is
also important to remember that simply walking over the
soil surface alters its soil structure and the more frequently
this happens the greater the alteration.
These photographs show two very different soils in a
mountain landscape.
The profile on the right is a Leptosol where the dark,
A organic-rich A horizon lies directly over an R horizon of
calcareous (lime rich) rock (IB).
A
In contrast, the profile on the left, a Fluvisol on the river
floodplain is a deep soil, with a thick, organic-rich A horizon
merging downwards into the C horizon of relatively
unaltered rich river silt over sands and gravels. The lower
parts of the C horizon are periodically waterlogged by a
rising groundwater table and show a similar grey and
orange ‘mottled’ effect to that in the E horizon of the soil
shown on the previous page. Because of their fertility and
C reliable water supply, such river floodplain soils were usually
the first to be exploited for agriculture by humans (JH).
Key Facts You Should Know About Soil
R
• Soil makes up the outermost layer of our planet and
is formed from rocks and decaying plants and
animals.
• Soil has varying amounts of organic matter (living
and dead organisms), minerals, and nutrients.
• An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals, 25
percent water, 25 percent air, and four percent
organic matter. Different-sized mineral particles, such
as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its texture.
• Topsoil is the most productive soil layer.
• Ten tonnes of topsoil spread evenly over a hectare is
only as thick as a one Euro coin.
Do you say earth, soil or dirt?
• Natural processes can take more than 500 years to
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word So many differences
form 2 centimetres of topsoil.
“soil” is an Old English term coming from the Latin,
solium, meaning seat but used to imply ground (solum). The characteristics and vertical arrangement of soil horizons
• In some cases, up to 5 tonnes of animal life can live in
can vary greatly from place to place, often over surprisingly
one hectare of soil.
The word soil can also be used in a derogatory sense to short distances. This is because of the diverse range of
mean something is damaged or unclean, “these clothes surface geological materials across Europe, combined with
• Fungi and bacteria help break down organic matter in
are soiled”. However, this sense of the word soil has a the geographic variability of the environmental weathering
the soil.
different derivation, coming instead from the Old French processes that alter them.
word suiller, which in turn is derived from the Latin for • Earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients,
pig, sus. More than likely, people who tended pigs In addition to this variability, the environmental weathering
and make the surface soil richer.
generally had unclean clothes and were identified by processes vary over time, both in the short term with
their soil-covered clothes. Over time the differences in seasonal weather and vegetation cycles and in the long
• Roots loosen the soil, allowing oxygen to penetrate.
meaning were forgotten. term, as climate and land use patterns change in response
This benefits animals living in the soil. They also hold
to external drivers.
soil together and help prevent erosion.
Although the term “dirt” is an often used as a substitute
for soil, the word dirt often implies an unclean It is this complexity across Europe that gives rise to the
• A fully functioning soil reduces the risk of floods and
appearance. The word dirt originates from the Old Norse, incredible diversity of soil. The same type of geological material
protects underground water supplies by neutralising
drit, meaning excrement. The common meaning of the will have a different arrangement of soil horizons in a
or filtering out potential pollutants and storing as
words dirt and soil probably relate to the use of farmyard Mediterranean environment than it will in Scandinavia or under
much as 3,750 tonnes of water per hectare.
manure as a fertilizer to improve soil. Crops would be intensive lowland agriculture than under ancient woodland.
planted in soil fertilized by dirt. • Soil scientists have identified over 10,000 different
This then is soil; a dynamic body that acts as the home to
types of soil in Europe.
The term, “earth” has a Germanic or Saxon origin that
a myriad of organisms, responds to the changing seasons
gave rise to the Old English word, eorthe, while the word
and weather patterns with associated changes in its
• Research indicates that soil captures approximately 20% of
for wet soil, “mud,” also has a Saxon origin that became
organic, liquid and gaseous composition and, chameleon-
the man-made carbon emitted to the atmosphere annually.
the Old English word, mot, meaning a bog or a marsh.
like, gradually changes to reflect its local environment.
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