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![4.What is forgetting?Explain the theories of
forgetting.
Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or
modification of information already encoded and
stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It
is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage. Problems with remembering, learning and
retaining new information are a few of the most
common complaints of older adults.[1] Studies show
that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This
improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to
transfer information into long-term memory.[2]
Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function
of time since an event was first experienced) have
been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence
suggests that a power function provides the closest
mathematical fit to the forgetting function.[3]
Displacement Theory of Forgetting
The displacement theory describes how forgetting
works in short-term memory. Short-term memory
has a limited capacity and can only hold a small
amount of information—up to about seven items—
at one time. Once the memory is full, new
information will replace the old one.
Free recall method
In studies based on the free-recall method,
participants are asked to listen to a list of words and
then try to remember them. The free recall
method, unlike the serial recall one, allows
remembering words in no particular order. These
studies show that the first and the last items on the
list are the easiest ones to remember.
Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting
The trace decay theory was formed by American
psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on
the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus.
The theory states that if we don’t access memories,
they will fade over time.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-38-320.jpg)
![4.Explain the measurement of intelligence.
It seems that the human understanding of intelligence is
somewhat limited when we focus on traditional or academic-
type intelligence. How then, can intelligence be measured?
And when we measure intelligence, how do we ensure that
we capture what we’re really trying to measure (in other
words, that IQ tests function as valid measures of
intelligence)? In the following paragraphs, we will explore the
how intelligence tests were developed and the history of their
use.
The IQ test has been synonymous with intelligence for over a
century. In the late 1800s, Sir Francis Galton developed the
first broad test of intelligence (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2004).
Although he was not a psychologist, his contributions to the
concepts of intelligence testing are still felt today (Gordon,
1995). Reliable intelligence testing (you may recall from
earlier chapters that reliability refers to a test’s ability to
produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early
1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet ([link]). Binet was
asked by the French government to develop an intelligence
test to use on children to determine which ones might have
difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks.
American researchers soon realized the value of such testing.
Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work by
standardizing the administration of the test and tested
thousands of different-aged children to establish an average
score for each age. As a result, the test was normed and
standardized, which means that the test was administered
consistently to a large enough representative sample of the
population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve
(bell curves will be discussed later). Standardization means
that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation
of results is consistent. Norming involves giving a test to a
large population so data can be collected comparing groups,
such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or
referential scores, by which to interpret future scores. Norms
are not expectations of what a given group should know but a
demonstration of what that group does know. Norming and
standardizing the test ensures that new scores are reliable.
This new version of the test was called the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916). Remarkably, an updated
version of this test is still widely used today.
ShortEssay:
1.Briefly explain the different types of intelligence.
Naturalistic intelligence
Have you noticed how some people can make anything grow?
It’s as if they have a ‘green thumb’. Others connect with animals
easily and some are completely at home in nature. Naturalistic
intelligence describes people who are sensitive to the natural
world. They enjoy being outside, nurturing and exploring the
environment. People with high naturalistic intelligence are
sensitive to subtle changes in nature and the environment
around them.
Musical intelligence
Not everyone has green thumbs and a love for the great
outdoors. Instead, some people are naturally drawn towards
music. People with musical intelligence are generally more
sensitive to sound and often pick up on noises that others would
not normally be aware of. They have an excellent sense of
rhythm and the ability to recognise tone and pitch. More often
than not they play an instrument or are involved in music as a
profession.
Logical–mathematical intelligence
Of all the types of intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence
is the most similar to what we typically associate with general
intelligence. People with this type of intelligence are excellent at
maths and working with numbers. They can recognise patterns
easily and work out processes in a logical manner. They have
excellent reasoning skills and can often talk themselves out of
trouble. People with high logical–mathematical intelligence are
often drawn to games involving strategy and the solving of
puzzles.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-47-320.jpg)
![7.Define conflict.Discuss types and resolution
of conflict
A conflict is a struggle and a clash of interest, opinion,
or even principles. Conflict will always be found in
society; as the basis of conflict may vary to be
personal, racial, class, caste, political and
international. Conflict may also be emotional,
intellectual, and theoretical, in which case academic
recognition may, or may not be, a significant motive.
Intellectual conflict is a subclass of cultural conflict,[1]
a conflict that tends to grow over time due to
different cultural values and beliefs.
Conflict in a group often follows a specific course.
Routine group interaction is first disrupted by an
initial conflict within the group, often caused by
internal differences of opinion, disagreements
between its members, or scarcity of resources
available to the group. At this point, the group is no
longer united, and may split into coalitions. This
period of conflict escalation in some cases gives way
to a conflict resolution stage, after which the group
can eventually return to routine group interaction or
split.
1. Avoiding
Someone who uses a strategy of "avoiding" mostly
tries to ignore or sidestep the conflict, hoping it will
resolve itself or dissipate.
2. Accommodating
Using the strategy of "accommodating" to resolve
conflict essentially involves taking steps to satisfy the
other party's concerns or demands at the expense of
your own needs or desires.
3. Compromising
The strategy of "compromising" involves finding an
acceptable resolution that will partly, but not entirely,
satisfy the concerns of all parties involved.
4. Competing
Someone who uses the conflict resolution strategy of
"competing" tries to satisfy their own desires at the
expense of the other parties involved.
5. Collaborating
Using "collaborating" involves finding a solution that
entirely satisfies the concerns of all involved parties.
The Thomas-Kilmann model identifies two dimensions
people fall into when choosing a conflict resolution
strategy: assertiveness and cooperativeness. Assertiveness
involves taking action to satisfy your own needs, while
cooperativeness involves taking action to satisfy the other's
needs.
Each of the conflict resolution strategies above involves
different degrees of assertiveness and cooperativeness. For
example, while accommodating includes a high degree of
cooperativeness and a low degree of assertiveness,
competing consists of a low degree of cooperativeness and
a high degree of assertiveness.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-59-320.jpg)
![8.Classify need,drive and motives.
A need is something that is necessary for organisms to live a
healthy life. Needs aredistinguished from wants because a
deficiency would cause a clear negative outcome,such as
dysfunction or death. Needs can be objective and physical,
such as food andwater, or they can be subjective and
psychological, such as the need for self-esteem.
Drive is the force that goads the organism to satisfy the needs.
A drive has a directionand a valence. The Drive is not always
that clear or simple. It sustains motivation.Motivation is the
reason we do something that we do. Motive is an impulse
thatacts as an incitement to action. In this unit, we will discuss
the definition, characteristics,theories and role of needs,
drives, and motives. Needs are something you fulfillbecause
you have to. They are basic and quite often instinctive. Drive is
somethingthat makes you keep going. It is more individual in
the sense that some people aremore driven than others.
Motives however are indicative of why you do what youdo.
Motives are factors within a human being or animal that
arouses and direct goaloriented behaviour. Motivation has
long been a central subject of study in psychology.Early
researchers, influenced by Charles Darwin, ascribed much of
animal andhuman behaviour to instinct. Sigmund Freud
believed that much of human behaviourwas also based on
irrational instinctive urges or unconscious motives. Walter
B.Cannon proposed that basic human drives served
homeostatic functions by directingenergies toward the
reduction of physiological tensions. Behavioural psychologists,
incontrast, stress the importance of external goals in
prompting action, while humanisticpsychologists examine the
role of felt needs. Cognitive psychologists have found thata
motive sensitizes a person to information relating to that
motive, as for instance, ahungry subject, will perceive food
stimuli as larger than other stimuli.
9.Describe the causes of frustration.
Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems
from a sense of inability to fulfill needs.[8] If the needs of an individual are
blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs
are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-
confidence,[9] annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to
follow.[10] Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally.
Internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of
ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking
happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks,
difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or
challenges were unexpected, or if the individual expected the goal to be easy to
accomplish. Frustration is usually less when an individual expected, or knew
beforehand, that the goal would be "challenging."
Some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms
of temperament (frustration) in adolescence, and neuroticism in adulthood.[5]
Temperamental frustration is associated with perceptual alterations including
changes in perceived relationship affection.
Frustration can be classed as a mental health problem–response behavior and
can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual.
In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the
individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at
solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or
physical harm. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the
source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus the frustration will
continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g.
violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies).
Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as
removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by
J.A.C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-
adaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of
reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a
frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration
as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects
which are entirely the opposite of those desired".](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-68-320.jpg)
![7.Explain the various alterations in personality.
To understand the changes that can happen within
personality, one must first understand personality. Personality
refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of
thinking, feeling and behaving.[1] Every person has their own
"individual differences in particular personality
characteristics"[2] that separate them from others. The
overall study of personality "focuses on two broad areas: One
is understanding individual differences in particular
personality characteristics... The other is understanding how
the various parts of a person come together as a whole."[3]
An easier way to understand or describe personality is simply
to say: one's personality is made up of events, circumstances,
and genetics, that come together to influence the
development of defining characteristics and traits. If
someone asked one of your friends to describe your
personality, what do you think they would say? Those traits
and characteristics that define someone are what the general
public like to describe as personality.
With each person having their own personality, there are
bound to be many differences and changes that confuse
people. Personality psychologists have taken much time to
search for answers and solutions to the changes that can
come to someone's personality. Although there is little
research overall, there has been compelling initial evidence
for personality change. The development of personality is
often dependent on the stage of life a person is in, and the
extent to which one's levels of characteristics, relative to their
age cohort, is stable across long periods of time.[4] Cultural
and environmental influence are large factors in personality
trait differences.[4] Personality change is usually seen over
longer periods of time and is analogical to height, as most
development occurs in the earlier stages of life and becomes
more stable as one grows into adulthood.
8.Describe psychoanalytical theory of
personality.
The Psychoanalytic Theory is the personality theory,
which is based on the notion that an individual gets
motivated more by unseen forces that are controlled
by the conscious and the rational thought.
Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in
English. The latter is the older term, and at first, simply
meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche.
But with the emergence of psychoanalysis as a distinct
clinical practice, both terms came to describe that.
Although both are still used, today, the normal
adjective is psychoanalytic.[3]
A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud,
for treating mental disorders by investigating the
interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in
the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and
conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques
such as dream interpretation and free association.
Also: a system of psychological theory is associated
with this method.[4]
Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans
are described as having sexual and aggressive drives.
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior
is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and
the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological
drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic
theorists do not believe in free will.[5]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-77-320.jpg)
![13.Briefly explain Hippocrates and CarlJung’s
classification of personality
ShortAnswers:
1.Define Id.
The one of the three divisions of the psyche in
psychoanalytic theory that is completely unconscious
and is the source of psychic energy derived from
instinctual needs and drives
2.DefineEgo.
The one of the three divisions of the psyche in
psychoanalytic theory that serves as the organized
conscious mediator between the person and reality
especially by functioning both in the perception of and
adaptation to reality
3.DefineTrait.
In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional
theory) is an approach to the study of human
personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the
measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual
patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion.[1]
According to this perspective, traits are aspects of
personality that are relatively stable over time, differ
across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing
whereas others are not), are relatively consistent over
situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast
to states, which are more transitory dispositions.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-80-320.jpg)
![9.Briefly explain defencemechanisms.
In psychoanalytic theory, a defence mechanism
(American English: defense mechanism), is an
unconscious psychological operation that functions to
protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts and
feelings related to internal conflicts and outer
stressors.[1][2][3]
Defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy
consequences depending on the circumstances and
frequency with which the mechanism is used.[4] Defence
mechanisms (German: Abwehrmechanismen) are
psychological strategies brought into play by the
unconscious mind[5] to manipulate, deny, or distort
reality in order to defend against feelings of anxiety and
unacceptable impulses and to maintain one's self-schema
or other schemas.[6] These processes that manipulate,
deny, or distort reality may include the following:
repression, or the burying of a painful feeling or thought
from one's awareness even though it may resurface in a
symbolic form;[4] identification, incorporating an object
or thought into oneself;[7] and rationalization, the
justification of one's behaviour and motivations by
substituting "good" acceptable reasons for the actual
motivations.[4][8] In psychoanalytic theory, repression is
considered the basis for other defence mechanisms.[4]
Healthy people normally use different defence
mechanisms throughout life. A defence mechanism
becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads
to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or
mental health of the individual is adversely affected.
Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to
protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety or social
sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with
which one cannot currently cope.
10.Define counselling and discuss the stages of
counselling.
Counselling is the psychotherapeutic relationship in
which an individual receives direct help from an adviser
or finds an opportunity to release negative feelings and
thus clear the way for positive growth in personality.
While counseling varies in both form and purpose, most
counseling theories embody some form of the following
three stages (Krishnan, n.d.): relationship building,
problem assessment, and goal setting.
Counselors and clients must both be aware that the
counseling process requires patience. There is rarely a
quick fix, and things may need to get worse before they
get better. In addition, the counseling process is
collaborative. The counselor does not fix the client; the
work requires interaction and commitment from both
parties (Krishnan, n.d.).
The counseling process is a planned and structured
dialogue between client and counselor. The counselor is
a trained and qualified professional who helps the client
identify the source of their concerns or difficulties; then,
together, they find counseling approaches to help deal
with the problems faced (Krishnan, n.d.).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-94-320.jpg)
![10.Define rationalization.
Rationalization is a defense mechanism (ego
defense) in which apparent logical reasons are given
to justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious
instinctual impulses.It is an attempt to find reasons
for behaviors, especially ones own. Rationalizations
are used to defend against feelings of guilt, maintain
self-respect, and protect oneself from criticism.
11.Define sublimation.
In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of
defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable
impulses or idealizations are transformed into
socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly
resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial
impulse.
12.Define projection.
Psychological projection is the process of
misinterpreting what is "inside" as coming from
"outside".[1] It forms the basis of empathy by the
projection of personal experiences to understand
someone else's subjective world.[1] In its malignant
forms, it is a defense mechanism in which the ego
defends itself against disowned and highly negative
parts of the self by denying their existence in
themselves and attributing them to others, breeding
misunderstanding and causing untold interpersonal
damage.
13.What is actingout?
In the psychology of defense mechanisms and self-
control, acting out is the performance of an action
considered bad or anti-social. In general usage, the
action performed is destructive to self or to others.
14.What is compensation?
In psychology, compensation is a strategy whereby one
covers up, consciously or unconsciously, weaknesses,
frustrations, desires, or feelings of inadequacy or
incompetence in one life area through the gratification
or (drive towards) excellence in another area.
Compensation can cover up either real or imagined
deficiencies and personal or physical inferiority.
Positive compensations may help one to overcome
one's difficulties. On the other hand, negative
compensations do not, which results in a reinforced
feeling of inferiority.
15.What is assertiveness?
Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured
and confident without being aggressive. In the
field of psychology and psychotherapy, it is a skill
that can be learned and a mode of
communication.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/psychology-1-230419015908-e5efaac8/85/Psychology-1-pptx-98-320.jpg)
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Psychology-1.pptx
- 1.
- 2. Unit–I:Definition and scopeof psychology ShortAnswers: 1. Define psychology. Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. 2. List down four uses of psychology in nursing. • attitude • way of thinking • coping abilities • mental mechanisms 3.List down the schools of psychology. • Early Schools of Thought. • Gestalt Psychology. • Behaviorism. • Psychoanalysis. 4.List down the branches of psychology. Clinical psychology Cognitive psychology Developmental psychology • Evolutionary psychology 5. What is parapsychology? Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, a.k.a. telekinesis, and psychometry) and other paranormal claims. 6. What is cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychology is the scientific investigation of human cognition, that is, all our mental abilities – perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and understanding.
- 3. 7.Define applied psychologywith an example. Applied psychology is the use of psychological methods and findings of scientific psychology to solve practical problems of human and animal behavior and experience 8.Define Purepsychology with anexample. Pure psychology is a theoretical science while applied is a practical one. For example, research on learning, by itself, would come under pure psychology, while the application of that research to design an actual paradigm for improving the performance of students would be applied psychology. 9.What is developmental psychology? Developmental psychologists study human growth and development over the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth. Developmental psychologists working in colleges and universities tend to focus primarily on research or teaching. 10.What is experimental psychology? Experimental psychology is concerned with testing theories of human thoughts, feelings, actions, and beyond – any aspect of being human that involves the mind. This is a broad category that features many branches within it 11.What is legal psychology? Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social principles and their usage in the legal system. It is based on empirical and psychological research of law along with legal institutions. ... They advise the judges and legal decision makers on some psychological issues pertaining to the concerned case.Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social principles and their usage in the legal system. It is based on empirical and psychological research of law along with legal institutions. ... They advise the judges and legal decision makers on some psychological issues pertaining to the concerned case. 12.What is clinical psychology? Clinical psychology is a subject that focuses on the psychological (that is, the emotional, biological, cognitive, social, and behavioral) aspects of human functioning in varying socioeconomic, clinical, and cultural groups as well as in different age groups. 13.What is abnormal psychology? Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which could possibly be understood as a mental disorder. Although many behaviors could be considered as abnormal, this branch of psychology typically deals with behavior in a clinical context
- 4. 14.What is physiologicalpsychology? Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments. 15.What is social psychology? Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others, 'imagined' and 'implied presences' referring to the internalized social norms that humans are influenced by even when they are alone. 16.What is child psychology? Child psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on children from infancy through adolescence. A wide variety of topics within psychology are encompassed by this discipline, including abnormal psychology, social psychology, developmental psychology, and so forth. 17.What is adult psychology? Adult psychology involves looking at the issues, stages and various influences that a child experiences throughout their development into functioning adults. 18.What is adolescent psychology? Adolescent psychology refers to the unique mental health needs of adolescents (defined as individuals between 10 and 19 years of age). 1. Many people have an idea of what traditional talk therapy looks like with adults, and they might have an idea of what play therapy looks like with young children. 19.What is militarypsychology? Military psychology is a specialization within psychology that applies psychological science to promote the readiness of military members, organizations, and operations. 20.What is legal psychology? Legal Psychology is a modern term that refers to the study and use of psychology as it applies to the legal system and people who come into contact with the legal system. People who work in the area of legal psychology work with methods of understanding, evaluating and questioning suspects, evaluating jury candidates, investigating crimes and crime scenes, forensic investigation and other legally-related situations. 21.What is industrial psychology? Industrial Psychology is the scientific study of the human behavior in the workplace environment, technically and industrially, pertaining to the organisations.
- 5. 22.Whatiseducationalpsychology? Educational psychology isthe branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. 23.Whatisanimalpsychology? Animal Psychologist is a professional who is adept in studying animal biology and behaviour in order to work safely and efficiently with them. They examine the cognitive processes of animals which includes phylogenetic history, adaptive significance and development of behaviour in order to diagnose any significant disorders. 24.What is legal psychology? Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social principles and their usage in the legal system. It is based on empirical and psychological research of law along with legal institutions. ... They advise the judges and legal decision makers on some psychological issues pertaining to the concerned case.Legal psychology deals with cognitive and social principles and their usage in the legal system. It is based on empirical and psychological research of law along with legal institutions. ... They advise the judges and legal decision makers on some psychological issues pertaining to the concerned case. 25.List down any four methods of psychology. • Case Study. • Experiment. • Observational Study. • Survey. • Content Analysis 26.What is introspection method of psychology? Introspection is a process that involves looking inward to examine one's own thoughts and emotions. ... The experimental use of introspection is similar to what you might do when you analyze your own thoughts and feelings but in a much more structured and rigorous way. 27.Write merits of introspection method of psychology. • This method can be used any time and anywhere. You can introspect while walking, traveling, sitting on a bed & so on. • It is the easiest method and is readily available to the individual. • The introspection data is first-hand as the person himself examines his own activities. 28.Write demerits of introspection method of psychology. • The state of one's mental processes is continuously changing. • Data collected cannot be verified. • Data is highly subjective.
- 6. 29.Write any twomerits and demerits of introspection method of psychology. Merits: • This method can be used any time and anywhere. You can introspect while walking, traveling, sitting on a bed & so on. • It is the easiest method and is readily available to the individual. Demerits: • Data collected cannot be verified. • Data is highly subjective. 30.Whatisobservationmethodofpsychology? Observation is one method for collecting research data. It involves watching a participant and recording relevant behavior for later analysis. ... The observation method has the advantage of providing direct evidence of the phenomenon that is being studied. 31.Writemeritsofobservationmethodofpsychology. • Simplest Method • Useful for Framing Hypothesis • Greater Accuracy • An Universal Method 32.Writedemeritsofobservationmethodofpsychology. • Lack of clarity • Little control over physical situation • Unmanageable data • Possibility of distortion 33.Write any two merits and demerits of observation method of psychology. Merits: • Simplest Method • Useful for Framing Hypothesis Demerits: • Lack of clarity • Little control over physical situation 34.What is experimental method of psychology? The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. 35.Write merits of experimental method of psychology. • researcher can have control over variables • humans perform experiments anyway
- 7. 36.Write demerits ofexperimental method of psychology • Results are highly subjective due to the possibility of human error • Experimental research can create situations that are not realistic • It is a time-consuming process • There may be ethical or practical problems with variable control 37.Write any two merits and demerits of experimental method ofpsychology Merits: • researcher can have control over variables • humans perform experiments anyway Demerits: • Experimental research can create situations that are not realistic • It is a time-consuming process 38.Listdownthestepsofexperimentalmethodofpsychology. • Ask a question or find a research problem to solve. • Determine what you will test to answer this question. • Review current knowledge on the subject. • Design an experiment. • Perform the experiment. • Analyze results using statistical methods. • Draw your conclusion and share the results with the scientific community. 39.Whatissurveymethodofpsychology? A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information about individuals, or it might aim to obtain the opinions of the survey takers. 40.Writemeritsofsurveymethodofpsychology • Low Costs • Convenient Data Gathering • Good Statistical Significance • Little or No Observer Subjectivity • Precise Results
- 8. 41.Write demerits ofsurvey method of psychology • Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers. • Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a unfavorable manner. 42.Write any two merits and demerits of survey method of psychology. Merits: • Low Costs • Convenient Data Gathering Demerits: • Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers. • Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a unfavorable manner 43.What is interview method of psychology? Focus group interview is a qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together, used to gain an in‐depth understanding of social issues. The method aims to obtain data from a purposely selected group of individuals rather than from a statistically representative sample of a broader population. 44.Write merits of Interview method of psychology. • It helps in obtaining in depth information. • It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is possible or adequate. • It can be used even with children, and non-literate persons. 45.WritedemeritsofInterviewmethodofpsychology. • Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming. • An interview can cause biases. • Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big concern for many respondents. 46.WriteanytwomeritsanddemeritsofInterviewmethodof p Merits: • It helps in obtaining in depth information. • It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is possible or adequate. Demerits: • Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well as very time-consuming. • An interview can cause biases.
- 9. 47.Whataretwotypesofinterview? There are twoprimary types of interviews used by companies: screening interviews, and selection interviews. Every company's hiring process is different. Some companies may require only two interviews while others may require three or more. 48.Whatiscasestudymethodofpsychology? Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). ... In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. 49.Writeanytwomeritsanddemeritsofcasestudymethodofpsy chology. Merits: • It turns client observations into useable data. • It turns opinion into fact. Demerits: • No Classification. • Possibility of Errors.
- 10. Unit–II:Biology of behaviour ShortEssay: 1.Explainthe role of heredity and environment in behaviour development? Human behavior is the potential, and expressed capacity for physical, mental and social activity during the phrases of human life. Like other species, we human beings have a typical life course that consist of successive phrases of growth, which is characterized by different sets of physical, behavioral and physiological features. It includes the way we human beings act basing on various…show more content… THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN SHAPING HUMAN BEHAVIOR: Heredity is one of the important factors that contribute to the formation of human personality. It refers to the biological process of transmission of certain biological and psychological characters from parents to children through genes. This genetic inheritance received by every individual at the time of conception is referred to as Heredity. As such the physical character of a person, like height, weight, color of skin, eyes, hair, social and intellectual behavior are all determined by heredity. It influences man’s social behavior too. A given social environment may change extensively in the lifetime of an individual. The effect of social environment upon the behavior of the individual maybe inferred point for point from an analysis of that environment. 2.Describe the factors influencing development of behaviour Behaviour is affected by factors relating to the person, including: physical factors - age, health, illness, pain, influence of a substance or medication personal and emotional factors - personality, beliefs, expectations, emotions, mental health life experiences - family, culture, friends, life events what the person needs and wants. Behaviour is also affected by the context, including: what is happening at the time the environment - heat, light, noise, privacy the response of other people, which is affected by their own physical factors, personal and emotional factors, life exper This means that a worker needs to consider a range of factors in order to understand behaviour, including their personal response and role. - A person with lived experience of a mental health conditioniences, wants and needs.
- 11. 3.Whatarecausesforindividualdifferences? • Heredity: • Oneof the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is heredity. Individuals inherit various physical traits like face with its features, colour of eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull and size of hands, colour blindness, baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer and tuberculosis, mental traits like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. • Environment: Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s environment are reflected in the changes in his personality. Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. • Influence of caste, race and nation: Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. It is generally seen that son of a Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son of a trader has the traits of business. Similarly individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality, character and mental abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and cultural environment. 4.Every individual is unique.Brieflyexplain. Everything in this world has a purpose. It might seem worthless, but the fact is that everyone plays a vital role in this Earth. People should appreciate what they have and always be grateful. As human beings, we are different in many ways. We are all created by the same God, but we do have some variations. Not all things are perfect, adorable and probably the best. But trust me; there is only that one thing that makes one to be exceptional, regardless of a family background and other problems. Everyone is unique and gifted in some way. Why exactly do we compare ourselves with others? We compare ourselves because we have never understood ourselves and are not aware of who we are and what we have. It is also because society has conditioned us from our birth to evaluate ourselves based upon others. Buddha says, 'Nothing exists except in relationship.' Suppose you were the only person on a new planet, how could you compare yourself with anyone? Could you c ..
- 12. 5.Explain the significanceof individual differences. The significance of individual differences in education has long been recognized. The extensive experimental work that has been undertaken, began by Galton and carried on up to the present time, has so increased our knowledge concerning individual differences and has so enhanced their significance to education that their existence and importance are now a matter of general acceptance. Now knowledge of these differences, their amount, interrelations, and causes, is very important and necessary in planning the education of a particular child. Exact knowledge of just what differences do exist between individuals and of the causes of these differences is important. Education is furthermore concerned with individual differences resulting from the differing degrees of maturity or growth, and those which previous education and training have caused. Education can only be made efficient with a minimum of effort, time, and expense by knowledge of which of the differences between people and the achievements of a given person are due to training, and which are due largely to the degree of maturity. 6.How heredity and environment influence the development of behaviour? Human behavioral genetic research aimed at characterizing the existence and nature of genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in cognitive ability, personality and interests, and psychopathology is reviewed. Twin and adoption studies indicate that most behavioral characteristics are heritable. Nonetheless, efforts to identify the genes influencing behavior have produced a limited number of confirmed linkages or associations. Behavioral genetic research also documents the importance of environmental factors, but contrary to the expectations of many behavioral scientists, the relevant environmental factors appear to be those that are not shared by reared together relatives. The observation of genotype-environment correlational processes and the hypothesized existence of genotype-environment interaction effects serve to distinguish behavioral traits from the medical and physiological phenotypes studied by human geneticists. Behavioral genetic research supports the heritability, not the genetic determination,of behavior.
- 13. 7.Roleofheredityandenvironmentinshapingbehaviour. The knowledge ofheredity and environment has a great influence on human development. Human development is the product of both heredity and environment. The development pattern of the children is determined by both heredity and environment. As per the developmental pattern of the children the educational pattern, methods and learning environment should be made by the teacher in the teaching-learning situation. So the knowledge of heredity and environment helps the teacher in various ways which are discussed hereunder. i. Knowledge of heredity and environment helps the teacher to know the varying needs and abilities of the children. ii. It helps to provide proper guidance to his children in the field of educational, vocational and personal. iii. It helps the teacher to classify the students as gifted, normal or slow learner and arrange different types of education for them. iv. It helps the teacher to provide better learning environment in the school. v. It helps the teacher to know the principle of individual differences and arrange the educational experience accordingly. vi. It helps the teacher to study the behaviour of the children under different situations. 8.Briefly explain the role of endocrine glands on behaviour. Endocrine glands play an important role in ensuring normal behaviour by modulating and influencing the other activities. Various kinds of endocrine glands are the hypothalamus, the pineal gland, the thyroid, the testes, the ovaries and the pituitary gland. Each gland has its unique function to perform and affect the functioning of the human body and behaviour differently. The hypothalamus connects the endocrine system with the nervous system, which is located at the base of the brain. The hypothalamus comprises of a collection of nuclei which controls human behaviour by a significant extent. The basic needs such as hunger, sleep, thirst, sex and stress as well as emotional responses are regulated by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus equally controls the functioning of the pituitary glands, which then regulates the hormonal secretion from other glands into the endocrine system. The functioning of the endocrine system is controlled by the central nervous system and basically the endocrine system work towards maintaining homeostasis or a chemical equilibrium bodily. Chemical disequilibrium can result because of the over activity or below optimum functioning of any of the endocrine glands, which may lead to both physiological and psychological abnormalities. Endocrine glands may be subdivided into the categories of minor and major glands.
- 14. 9.Briefly explain theglandular control of the behaviour. Endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones. Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike neurotransmitters, which are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors, hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the effects of hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting. 10.How hormones control the emotion and behaviour of an individual? Behavioral endocrinology is the scientific study of theinteraction between hormones and behavior. This interaction is bidirectional: hormones can affect behavior, andbehavior can feedback to influence hormone concentrations. Hormones are chemical messengers released fromendocrine glands that influence the nervous system toregulate the physiology and behavior of individuals. Overevolutionary time, hormones regulating physiological processes have been co-opted to influence behaviors linked tothese processes. For example, hormones associated withgamete maturation such as estrogens are now broadlyassociated with the regulation of female sexual behaviors.Such dual hormonal actions ensure that mating behavioroccurs when animals have mature gametes available forfertilization. Generally speaking, hormones change geneexpression or cellular function, and affect behavior byincreasing the likelihood that specific behaviors occur inthe presence of precise stimuli. Hormones achieve this byaffecting individuals’ sensory systems, central integrators,and/or peripherial effectors. To gain a full understandingof hormone– behavior interactions, it is important to monitor hormone values, as well as receptor interactions in thebrain. Because certain chemicals in the environment can mimic natural hormones, these chemicals can have profound effects on the behavior of humans and other animals
- 15. 11.Explain the bodyand mindrelationship. Mind-Body Connection is the belief that the causes, development and outcomes of a physical illness are determined from the interaction of psychological, social factors and biological factors. Your health can be affected by the stress from both good and bad life events like marriage/divorce, promotion/lay-off or the purchase of a house/home foreclosure. It also can be affected by daily routines such as fighting rush hour traffic, meeting a deadline, unrealistic self-expectations and interpersonal relationships. And your body responds to this stress and to anxiety or depression. For example, when you’re stressed—even by something positive—you might develop high blood pressure, a stomach ulcer, back pain, constipation or diarrhea, fatigue, headaches, shortness of breath, and you may have trouble falling or staying asleep. 12.Howdoesthebodyaffectthemind? The brain is considered to be the primary generator and regulator of emotions; however, afferent signals from throughout the body are detected by the autonomic nervous system and brainstem and in turn can modulate emotion processes. During stress and negative emotion states, levels of cardiorespiratory coherence decrease and there is a shift towards sympathetic dominance, while during more positive emotion states levels of cardiorespiratory coherence increase and there is a shift towards parasympathetic dominance. These dynamic changes in cardiorespiratory coherence that accompany different emotions could provide insights into how the limbic system and afferent feedback activity manifest as emotions. We propose that the brainstem and cardiorespiratory coherence are involved in important feedback mechanisms that modulate emotions and higher cortical areas. This mechanism may be one of many mechanisms that underlie the physiological and neurological changes experienced during pranayama and meditation and may support the use of these techniques to treat various mood disorders and reduce stress.
- 16. 13.How does themind affect the body? The brain is considered to be the primary generator and regulator of emotions; however, afferent signals from throughout the body are detected by the autonomic nervous system and brainstem and in turn can modulate emotion processes. During stress and negative emotion states, levels of cardiorespiratory coherence decrease and there is a shift towards sympathetic dominance, while during more positive emotion states levels of cardiorespiratory coherence increase and there is a shift towards parasympathetic dominance. These dynamic changes in cardiorespiratory coherence that accompany different emotions could provide insights into how the limbic system and afferent feedback activity manifest as emotions. We propose that the brainstem and cardiorespiratory coherence are involved in important feedback mechanisms that modulate emotions and higher cortical areas. This mechanism may be one of many mechanisms that underlie the physiological and neurological changes experienced during pranayama and meditation and may support the use of these techniques to treat various mood disorders and reduYour mind and body are powerful allies. How you think can affect how you feel. And how you feel can affect your thinking. An example of this mind-body connection is how your body responds to stress. Constant worry and stress over jobs, finances, or other problems can cause tense muscles, pain, headaches, and stomach problems. It may also lead to high blood pressure or other serious problems. On the other hand, constant pain or a health problem like heart disease can affect your emotions. You might become depressed, anxious, and stressed, which could affect how well you treat, manage, or cope with your illness. But your mind can have a positive effect on your health, too. Having a positive outlook on life might help you better handle pain or stress and stay healthier than someone who is less hopeful.ce stress.
- 17. Unit-III:CognitiveProcesses LongEssay: 1.Define attention. Writeclassification of attention.Briefly explain the determinants of attention. Attention is the term used or given to the perceptual processes that select certain inputs for inclusion in our conscious experience, or awareness at any given time. It is the process involving the act of listening, and concentrating on a topic, object or event for the attainment of desired ends. Types of Attention: Motives: Our basic needs and motives to a great extent, determine our attention, thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are some of the important motives that influence attention, e.g. small children get attracted towards eatables. Mind set: Person’s readiness to respond determines his attention. If we are expecting a stimulus, occurrence of that stimulus along with many other stimuli may not come in the way of attending to that particular stimulus. At a time when students are expecting the examination time table by the end of the semester the time table put out on the notice board along with other notices would attract their attention easily. Moods and attitudes: What we attend to is influenced by the moods and attitudes. When we are disturbed or in angry mood, we notice the smallest mistake of others very easily. Likewise our favourable and unfavourable attitudes also determine our attention. After discussing subjective and objective factors, we realize that these factors are interrelated. How much or in what way we attend to a stimulus depends on subjective as well as objective factors.
- 18. 2.Classify attention. Explainthe factors influencing attentionn. The strong interindividual variability in attention performance depends on a number of factors, both constitutional and environmental, that determine the different developmental paths that attention could follow. Thus, as with all cognitive skills which are developed, in order to be understood and evaluated as fully as possible, consideration should be given to the child’s characteristics, taking into account the influence of many factors the biological characteristics of the child (i.e., temperamental characteristics favouring girls for effortful control and boys for surgency maturation levels of the central nervous system (activation and visual spatial attention that show earlier development than other executive functions general cognitive and emotional capacity of the child and environmental variables, namely his/her personal experiences and the context in which he/she lives (for example, supporting parenting strategies).. As far as environmental variables are concerned, we take into consideration the primary school experience because this period is characterized by rapid changes in attention functions according to the literature, and thus the role of attention in academic learning and achievement may be critical . Scholastic achievement is positively correlated with attention-related skills and the development of attentional processes. However, in most investigations, attentional performance has been assessed using teacher and parent ratings of children’s ability to focus and shift attention, thereby introducing a risk of rater bias . While there appears to be an association between attentional processes and scholastic performance, the specific aspects of attentional performance that are associated with scholastic achievement are unknown. School is one of the most significant and privileged developmental contexts for the child. With his or her attendance of primary school, the child faces new developmental challenges compared to early childhood, which will lead him/her to an important cognitive, emotional, and social evolution . The class that the child attends, people around him/her, and everything defining the child in his/her specificity assume an important role in attention performance.
- 19. 3.What is spanof attention? Explain the factors influencing attention Attention span is the amount of time spent concentrating on a task before becoming distracted. Distractibility occurs when attention is uncontrollably diverted to another activity or sensation. Attention training is said to be part of education, particularly in the way students are trained to remain focused on a topic of observation or discussion for extended periods, developing listening and analytical skills in the process. Factors influencing attention The strong interindividual variability in attention performance depends on a number of factors, both constitutional and environmental, that determine the different developmental paths that attention could follow. Thus, as with all cognitive skills which are developed, in order to be understood and evaluated as fully as possible, consideration should be given to the child’s characteristics, taking into account the influence of many factors the biological characteristics of the child (i.e., temperamental characteristics favouring girls for effortful control and boys for surgency maturation levels of the central nervous system (activation and visual spatial attention that show earlier development than other executive functions general cognitive and emotional capacity of the child and environmental variables, namely his/her personal experiences and the context in which he/she lives (for example, supporting parenting strategies).. As far as environmental variables are concerned, we take into consideration the primary school experience because this period is characterized by rapid changes in attention functions according to the literature, and thus the role of attention in academic learning and achievement may be critical . Scholastic achievement is positively correlated with attention-related skills and the development of attentional processes. However, in most investigations, attentional performance has been assessed using teacher and parent ratings of children’s ability to focus and shift attention, thereby introducing a risk of rater bias . While there appears to be an association between attentional processes and scholastic performance, the specific aspects of attentional performance that are associated with scholastic achievement are unknown. School is one of the most significant and privileged developmental contexts for the child. With his or her attendance of primary school, the child faces new developmental challenges compared to early childhood, which will lead him/her to an important cognitive, emotional, and social evolution . The class that the child attends, people around him/her, and everything defining the child in his/her specificity assume an important role in attention performance.
- 20. ShortEssay: 1.Explain the determinantsof attention. Attention can be influenced by both external and internal factors. External Factors: These are the factors which are external in nature and are usually governed by the characteristics of the stimuli. These external factors could be related to the nature of the stimuli, the intensity as well as the size of the stimuli, the degree to which contrast, variety or change is present in the stimuli. The extent to which the exposure to a stimulus is repeated will, also determine the strength of the attention. Moreover, a stimulus which is in a state of motion will be able to catch our attention more quickly than a stationery one. Internal (Subjective) factors: The subjective factors which influence attention are interests, motive, mind set and our attitudes & moods. It is believed that interest is the mother of attention, as we pay attention or focus on those objects about which we have interest. Similarly, our needs or motives equally govern our attention for specific events or objects. Moreover, the mental readiness of a person to respond to certain stimuli or preparedness will also determine the attention level for that person. 2.Explain the factors influencing attention. The strong interindividual variability in attention performance depends on a number of factors, both constitutional and environmental, that determine the different developmental paths that attention could follow. Thus, as with all cognitive skills which are developed, in order to be understood and evaluated as fully as possible, consideration should be given to the child’s characteristics, taking into account the influence of many factors the biological characteristics of the child (i.e., temperamental characteristics favouring girls for effortful control and boys for surgency maturation levels of the central nervous system (activation and visual spatial attention that show earlier development than other executive functions general cognitive and emotional capacity of the child and environmental variables, namely his/her personal experiences and the context in which he/she lives (for example, supporting parenting strategies)..
- 21. LongEssay: 1.Define perception. Explainthe principles of perceptual organization Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent. Principle # 1. Closure: Gestalt psychologists claimed that when we receive sensations that form an incomplete or unfinished visual image or sound, we tend to overlook the incompleteness and perceive the image or sound as a complete or finished unit. This tendency to fill in the gaps is referred to as closure. Principle # 2. Pragnanz: The term pragnanz indicates fullness or completeness. Gestalt psychologists are of the view that the process of perception is dynamic and goes on changing until we reach a stage of perceiving with maximum meaning and completeness. Once we reach this point, the perceived gestalt remains stable. Such a stable gestalt is called a good gestalt. Principle # 3. Proximity: When objects are close to each other, the tendency is to perceive them together rather than separately. Even if the individual items do not have any connection with each other they will be grouped under a single pattern or perceived as a meaningful picture Principle # 4. Similarity: Similar elements tend to be perceived as belonging together. Stimuli that have the same size, shape and colour tend to be perceived as parts of the pattern Principle # 5. Continuity: Anything which extends itself into space in the same shape, size and colour without a break is perceived as a whole figure (Fig. 7.5). For example, when several dots form a curved line, an individual may perceive the figure as two different continuous lines irrespective of the factors like proximity and similarity of the dots. Thus, the whole figure is organised into a continuum though the dots are unconnected Principle # 6. Inclusiveness: The pattern which includes all the elements present in a given figure will be perceived more readily than the other figures. For example, in Fig.7.6 the hexagonal figure formed by all the dots may be perceived more readily than the square formed by the four middle dots. Single dots at either end act as a fence or enclosure within which all the other elements are included.
- 22. 2.Define perception.Writethecharacteristicsofperception. Explain extrasensory perception Perceptionincludes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent. Most Important Characteristics of Perception • Perception is a selective process • Perception requires sensation • Perception involves organisation • Perception involves past experience • Change is the basis of perception • Perception is objective as well as subjective • Perception has affective aspect Extrasensory perception Extrasensory perception (ESP), perception that occurs independently of the known sensory processes. Usually included in this category of phenomena are telepathy, or thought transference between persons; clairvoyance, or supernormal awareness of objects or events not necessarily known to others; and precognition, or knowledge of the future. Scientific investigation of these and similar phenomena dates from the late 19th century, with most supporting evidence coming from experiments involving card guessing. Subjects attempt to guess correctly the symbols of cards hidden from their view under controlled conditions; a better-than-chance percentage of correct calls on a statistically significant number of trials is considered to be evidence of ESP. Although many scientists continue to doubt the existence of ESP, people who claim this ability are sometimes used by investigative teams searching for missing persons or things.
- 23. 3.Explain the factorsaffecting perception INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Every person is unique and brings different attitudes to a team. You may work well when collaborating with others while your coworker prefers to work in isolation. Each of these differences affects your perception of your team and organization. You’ll behave differently when you’re working with your colleague as opposed to someone else. Your perception of your coworker shapes the way you work as well. In the workplace, it’s necessary to respect these differences and work with others to create harmony. MOTIVATIONS Say you want to work for a few years and gain enough experience to get into business school for an MBA. Your motivations will impact your perception of your work. You’re more likely to make just enough effort to work well, get positive feedback and fulfill your requirements. So, our motivations affect the way we approach a situation. When it comes to teamwork, each member’s motivations will be different. But to achieve collective goals, management has to bring everyone on the same page and communicate their expectations. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR For Priyanka, her informal organization transformed into a traditional hierarchical office. Her behavior as a professional had to change to accommodate her external environment. When you’re working with others and aiming to accomplish long-term goals, you have to meet them halfway. An organization’s values, mission and beliefs are important factors influencing perception. PAST EXPERIENCES Our past experiences shape us into who we are today. We can’t separate ourselves from them. Past experiences are also significant factors influencing perception. They shape our personal biases and opinions as well as our expectations from others and ourselves. It’s important to be open to changing our perceptions when situations change. For instance, the Earth wasn’t always considered to be round. EXTERNAL FACTORS Perception isn’t only affected by internal or personal factors. External factors affecting perception can include what people think of us, others’ expectations and cultural norms such as taboos or rules followed by society.
- 24. ShortEssay: 1.Explain the errorsin perception. 1.Selective Perception-People generally interpret according to their basis of interests,idea and backgrounds.It is the tendency not to notice and forget the stimuli that cause emotional discomfort.For example we might think that fresher graduates with above 80 % marks will exceptionally do well in technical interviews of respective subjects 2.Halo Effect-We misjudge people by concentrating on one single behavior or trait.It has deep impact and give inaccurate result most of the time.For example we always have an impression of a lazy person can never be punctual in any occasion. 3.Stereotypes-We always have a tendency to classify people to a general groups /categories in order to simplify the matter.For example-Women are always good homemakers and can do well in work life balance 4.Contrast Effect-We again sometimes judge people in comparison to others . This example generally found in sports,academics and performance review 5.Projection-This is very common among Perceptual errors.Projection of one's own attitude,personality or behavior into some other person.For example- To all honest people,everybody is honest. 2.Explain the various types of perceptual illusion. Perceptual Illusions: the misinterpretation of a real external, sensory experience. (MeSH) The action of deceiving, especially by appearances. An instance of the sense perception of an external object suggesting a false belief as to its nature. The experience of misperceiving the true characteristics of an object or an image. (Hockenbury, 116) A perceptual experience that is not a true representation of the physical event we are receiving through our senses. An illusion is more than a simple case of mistaken perception, it is an experience that cannot be predicted by a simple recording of the stimulus itself. Perceptual illusions underscore the fact that what we see is not merely a simple reflection of th • The Skye Blue Café Wall Illusion. • Confetti. • The Rice Wave Illusion. • The Tilted Road Illusion. • Lightness Illusion.
- 25. LongEssay: 1.Define learning. ExplainPavlov’s classical conditioning theory of learning Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many fields, including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, and pedagogy. Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness. In the Ivan Pavlov theory, there is a stimulus and a response. How the subject reacts to a stimulus depends on whether they’ve been conditioned or unconditioned. For instance, an infant wouldn’t know that a tiger in the wild can be dangerous. It’s only when they watch something educational or read about predators that they’ll find out. The classical conditioning theory operates in stages. The first is where you have no knowledge of how the stimulus will elicit a response, if at all. The second is where the stimulus is known to produce a specific response. The response is the result of an unconditioned or conditioned stimulus, respectively. Learning through association is universally applicable. For instance, employees who are discouraged from sharing their views the first three times may be too afraid to stand up the fourth time. In school, if a student is made to stand outside the class every time they talk to their friends it will likely change their habit. This is an example of learning through association. A lot of processes and procedures in school, home and work can be attributed to the classical conditioning theory. Going to work on time, delivering work on time or being polite to your teachers can be a result of classical conditioning where the conditioned response can even be ‘fear’. Let’s understand the terminology of the Pavlov theory of learning.
- 26. 2. Explain operantconditioning theory of learning Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning. Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by external stimuli. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli". Operant behavior is said to be "voluntary". The responses are under the control of the organism and are operants. For example, the child may face a choice between opening the box and petting a puppy. In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically significant events. The responses are under the control of some stimulus because they are reflexes, automatically elicited by the appropriate stimuli. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences, and they are not voluntarily "chosen". 3. Explain insightful theory of learning. insight, in learning theory, immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing. Insight occurs in human learning when people recognize relationships (or make novel associations between objects or actions) that can help them solve new problems. Much of the scientific knowledge concerning insight derives from work on animal behaviour that was conducted by 20th-century German Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler. In one experiment Köhler placed a banana outside the cage of a hungry chimpanzee, Sultan, and gave the animal two sticks, each too short for pulling in the food but joinable to make a single stick of sufficient length. Sultan tried unsuccessfully to use each stick, and he even used one stick to push the other along to touch the banana. Later, apparently after having given up, Sultan accidentally joined the sticks, observed the result, and immediately ran with the longer tool to retrieve the banana. When the experiment was repeated, Sultan joined the two sticks and solved the problem immediately. This result, however, is ambiguous, because it appeared that Sultan solved the problem by accident—not through insight.
- 27. 4.Enumerate the differenttypes of learning.Explain factors affecting learning. 1. Intellectual factor: The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual disabilities. 2. Learning factors: Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress. 3. Physical factors: Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth. 4. Mental factors: Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements. They are not to be confused with emotions that are characterized by internal visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the mental organization and general behavior of the individual. 5. Emotional and social factors: Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stim Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil may have developed a dislike for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or may lack foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional state. Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness because of their fear of being victims of the disapproval of their teachers and classmates. This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the learning process to a considerable degree. This is oftentimes the result of bad training.uli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies.
- 28. 5.Explain any twotheories of learning. The two theories of learning discussed are Behaviorism and Constructivism. Skinner andWatson, the two major developers of the behaviorist school of thought sought to prove thatbehavior could be predicted and controlled (Skinner, 1974). They studied how learning isaffected by changes in the environment. The constructivists viewed learning as a search formeaning. Piaget and Vygotsky described elements that helped predict what children understandat different stages (Rummel, 2008). Details of both theories illuminate the differences andconnections between the behavioral and constructivist theories in relationship to how childrenlearn and how their behavior is affected. How curriculum and instruction work with thesetheories to promote learning and how educators view learning with respect to both theories are also reviewed. Psychology became an accepted science in the latter part of the nineteenth century andwas defined as the science of consciousness. “Behaviorism was, and is, a moment primarily inAmerican psychology that rejected consciousness as psychology’s subject matter and replaced itwith behavior” (Leahey, 2000, p. 686). Behaviorism was rooted in the 1880s and continues toevolve in the twentieth-first century and beyond. Although behaviorism has been intenselystudied, behaviorists continue to have difficulty agreeing on a definition for behaviorism andidentifying who were the true behaviorists (Mills, 1998). The learning theory of Constructivism evolved from the extensive study of cognitivedevelopment (i.e., how thinking and knowledge develop with age) by Swiss psychologist JeanPiaget and the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Their study of cognitive developmentprovided the foundation for the psychological theory of constructivism. Constructivists believethat children develop knowledge through active participation in their learning. However, Piagetbelieved that cognitive development was a product of the mind “achieved through observationand experimentation whereas Vygotsky viewed it as a social process, achieved throughinteraction with more knowledgeable members of the culture” (Rummel, 2008, p. 80). Piagetreferred to his work as “cognitive” constructivism (Chambliss, 1996). Piaget’s theory wascomprised of two major elements “ages” and “stages.” According to Piaget, “these elements helpto predict what children can and cannot understand at different ages.” (Rummel, 2008, p. 80). Itis the theory of development that is the major foundation for cognitive constructivist approaches to teaching and learning.
- 29. 6.Define learning.Describe theeducational implications of learning by conditioning in nursing education. Learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience (Chunk, 2012). Learning can also be looked at as a relative permanent change of behaviour as a result of experience. Learning theories are theories whose main concern is to link research with education. In other words learning theories explain how learning and teaching processes should be and/or should take place. As teachers deal with teaching and of equal importance learning of students, the contribution of various learning theories to teacher development is with some detail given hereunder. Although theories differ in many ways, including their general assumptions and guiding principles, many rest on a common foundation. These theories differ in how they predict that learning occurs—in the processes of learning—and in what aspects of learning they stress. Thus, some theories are oriented more toward basic learning and others toward applied learning and, within that, in different content areas; some stress the role of development, others are strongly linked with instruction; and some emphasize motivation. As environment properly arranged help learning to occur, teachers should prepare the environment that will help learners to learn such as arranging activities that suit environment. Teachers also need to help learners make practice of what they have learned. This is important as learning is subject to the rate of occurrence of behaviour. The practicing is important for strengthening the responses. Learning should be reinforced. Students should therefore be given rewards. Teachers are to reward any desired behaviour in learning. However to weaken the undesired behaviour learned, teachers should apply punishment. In developing the profession of teaching, teachers have to note that developing professionally has some benefits such as being able to help learners learn. Increasing the knowledge base, being rewarded economically and developing/improving their personal lives. This is to say teachers plan to develop professionally due to these observable benefits as well.
- 30. ShortEssay: 1.Explain the natureand types of learning Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare the simple, crude waysin which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought,sentiments and the like- we will know what difference learning has made to the individual. Classical Conditioning :Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. Operant Conditioning :Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response. Observational Learning:Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo-doll experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll after viewing adults hitting the doll. 2.Explainthevariousfactorsaffectinglearning. 1. Intellectual factor: The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual disabilities. 2. Learning factors: Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress. 3. Physical factors: Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and physical growth.
- 31. 4.Explain the lawsof learning. (i) Law of Use: When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and a response, that connection’s strength is other things being equal, increased’. (ii) Law of Disuse: When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and a response over a length of time, that connection’s strength, other things being equal, decrease. In brief, we may say that repetition and drill helps learning, and its absence causes forgetfulness. We also believe in the common proverb, practice makes a man perfect’. Drill is based on the principle that repetition fixes the facts to be learnt. That is the reason why the pupils have to repeat arithmetical tables, formulae, spelling lists and definitions in order to establish these. Law of Effect: “When a modifiable connection between a situation and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs that connection’s strength is increased, but when made and accompanied by an annoying state of affairs its strength is decreased”. 5.Briefly explain insightful theory of learning. Insight, in learning theory, immediate and clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing. Insight occurs in human learning when people recognize relationships (or make novel associations between objects or actions) that can help them solve new problems. Much of the scientific knowledge concerning insight derives from work on animal behaviour that was conducted by 20th-century German Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler. In one experiment Köhler placed a banana outside the cage of a hungry chimpanzee, Sultan, and gave the animal two sticks, each too short for pulling in the food but joinable to make a single stick of sufficient length. Sultan tried unsuccessfully to use each stick, and he even used one stick to push the other along to touch the banana. Later, apparently after having given up, Sultan accidentally joined the sticks, observed the result, and immediately ran with the longer tool to retrieve the banana. When the experiment was repeated, Sultan joined the two sticks and solved the problem immediately. This result, however, is ambiguous, because it appeared that Sultan solved the problem by accident—not through insight.
- 32. 6.Brieflyexplainclassicalconditioningoflearning. Classical conditioning isa type of learning that happens unconsciously. When you learn through classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus. This creates a behavior. The best-known example of this is from what some believe to be the father of classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov. In an experiment on canine digestion, he found that over time dogs were salivating not only when their food was presented to them, but when the people who fed them arrived. To test his theory that the dogs were salivating because they were associating the people with being fed, he began ringing a bell and then presenting the food so they’d associate the sound with food. These dogs learned to associate the bell ringing with food, causing their mouths to salivate whenever the bell rang — not just when they encountered the food. Conditioning is beneficial in an evolutionary sense because it’s helped us create expectations to prepare for future events. For instance, getting ill from a certain food helps us associate that food with sickness. In turn, that helps prevent us from getting sick in the future. 7.Briefly explain operantconditioning of learning. Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning. Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by external stimuli. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli". Operant behavior is said to be "voluntary". The responses are under the control of the organism and are operants. For example, the child may face a choice between opening the box and petting a puppy. In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically significant events. The responses are under the control of some stimulus because they are reflexes, automatically elicited by the appropriate stimuli. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences, and they are not voluntarily "chosen".
- 33. 8.Differentiate between classicaland operant conditioning theory of learning. 9.Discuss Thorndike’s laws of learning and write their significance. Thorndike Theory One of the phenomenal work is his book under title “Animal intelligence, Anexperimental study of association process in Animal”. This book is based on his research to behavior of animals like cats, dogs, and bird. According to him, thebehavior of those animal is giving a description of learning process; that is basicof learning is association, a stimulus will result generate a certain respond. Thorndike theory explains learning is change of behavior that can be observed,measured, and assessed concretely. The change of stimulus will generate respond based on mechanistic law. Based on Thorndike, learning is phenomenon that grows associationsbetween one events to another events which is called as stimulus (S) with respond (R). Stimulus is a changing of external environment that become sign to activate organism to react and act. And, respond is behavior that is raised by stimulus. From experiment of hunger cat which is putted in cage is known that in order to reach relation between stimulus and respond need an ability to choose preciousrespond through trials and errors. Here, some experts call Thorndike asInstrumental Conditioning
- 34. 10.Explain trial anderror learning. Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem- solving. It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the practicer stops trying. According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under Morgan's Canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behavior seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial-and-error learning. An example is a skillful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behavior. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it. Edward Lee Thorndike was the initiator of the theory of trial and error learning based on the findings he showed how to manage a trial-and-error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted to learn curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning. Trial and error is also a method of problem solving, repair, tuning, or obtaining knowledge. In the field of computer science, the method is called generate and test (Brute force). In elementary algebra, when solving equations, it is guess and check.This approach can be seen as one of the two basic approaches to problem-solving, contrasted with an approach using insight and theory. However, there are intermediate methods which for example, use theory to guide the method, an approach known as guided empiricism. 11.Describe the transfer of learning. The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present acquisition. In the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and amount of things we have learned previously. In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or carryover of knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”. Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training or learning. Such transfer occurs when learning of one set of material influences the learning of another set of material later. For example, a person who knows to drive a moped can easily learn to drive a s During transfer learning, knowledge is leveraged from a source task to improve learning in a new task. If the transfer method ends up decreasing performance of the new task, it is called a negative transfer. A major challenge when developing transfer methods is ensuring positive transfer between related tasks while still avoiding negative transfer between less related tasks. When applying knowledge from one task to another, the original task's characteristics are usually mapped onto those of the other to specify correspondences. A human typically provides this mapping, but methods are evolving that perform the mapping automatically.cooter.
- 35. 12.What are studyhabits?How to improve study habits? A good study habit is very important for good academic performance, and such every parent and teacher would desire their children to be avid and excited readers. Therefore, it is essential to create captivating, inviting and comfortable place for the students in order to help them cultivate good study habits. Library, more than any other place, provides ideal environment and vital information resources for students to develop and sustain good study habits necessary for excellent performance in academic works. • Find a good studying spot. This is important • Stay Away From Your Phone • No Willpower • Take a break and take care of yourself • Organize lectures notes • Join or create a study group • Aromatherapy, plants and music • Leave time for the last-minute review LongEssay: 1.Define memory.Explain the process and types of memory. Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it at a later time. In psychology, memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Types of Memory: Sensory Memory: Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. One of the most common examples of sensory memory is fast-moving lights in darkness: if you’ve ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of July or watched traffic rush by at night, the light appears to leave a trail.
- 36. Short-Term Memory: Short-term memoryis also known as working memory. It holds only a few items (research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However, items can be moved from short-term memory to long- term memory via processes like rehearsal. An example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until you can write it down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-term memory. Long-Term Memory Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds; long-term memory encompasses everything from what we learned in first grade to our old addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly vast storage capacity, and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die. There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or declarative memory requires conscious recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or retrieved. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory (facts taken out of context, such as “Paris is the capital of France”) and episodic memory (personal experiences, such as “When I was in Paris, I saw the Mona Lisa“). In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a system for procedural/implicit memory. These memories are not based on consciously storing and retrieving information, but on implicit learning. Often this type of memory is employed in learning new motor skills. An example of implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you do not need to consciously remember how to ride a bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory. 2.Explain the classification and factors affecting memory. a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past experiences. b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person with poor health. c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged. d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material. e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention. f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull person,
- 37. g. Interest: If aperson has more interest, he will learn and retain better. h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better memory. i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention, j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our memory for longer period than for nonsense material, k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear memory. 3.Explain the classification of memory and methods of memorizing. Sensory Memory Sensory memory is our shortest form of memory. It's very fleeting - no more than a flash. Sensory memory acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the five senses. These images are accurately retained, but only for a brief moment in time, typically less than half a second. Short-Term Memory Short-term memories are slightly less passing than sensory memories, but they still get dismissed after a few minutes. The label is quite apt, given their function. Short-term memory is the part of our brains that holds onto information until we need to recall it. If we make mental lists before we run to Target, it's our short-term memory that will help us recall the fabric softener or the folding chair. Long-Term Memory Long-term memory is the brain's system for storing, managing, and recalling information. It is very complex with different functionality. As sensory memories only flicker for less than a second and short-term memories last only a minute or two, long-term memories include anything from an event that occurred five minutes ago to something from 20 years ago. There are many different forms of long-term memories. Sometimes they're conscious, requiring us to actively think in order to recall a piece of information. Other times they're unconscious, simply appearing without an active attempt at recollection, like remembering the route from home to work without actively thinking about it.
- 38. 4.What is forgetting?Explainthe theories of forgetting. Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults.[1] Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.[2] Forgetting curves (amount remembered as a function of time since an event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent evidence suggests that a power function provides the closest mathematical fit to the forgetting function.[3] Displacement Theory of Forgetting The displacement theory describes how forgetting works in short-term memory. Short-term memory has a limited capacity and can only hold a small amount of information—up to about seven items— at one time. Once the memory is full, new information will replace the old one. Free recall method In studies based on the free-recall method, participants are asked to listen to a list of words and then try to remember them. The free recall method, unlike the serial recall one, allows remembering words in no particular order. These studies show that the first and the last items on the list are the easiest ones to remember. Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting The trace decay theory was formed by American psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus. The theory states that if we don’t access memories, they will fade over time.
- 39. ShortEssay: 1.Describe the classificationof memory with examples. Explicit Memory When we assess memory by asking a person to consciously remember things, we are measuring explicit memory. Explicit memory refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. As you can see in Figure 9.2, “Types of Memory,” there are two types of explicit memory: episodic and semantic. Implicit Memory While explicit memory consists of the things that we can consciously report that we know, implicit memory refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously access. However, implicit memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to us because it has a direct effect on our behaviour. Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behaviour, even if the individual is not aware of those influences. As you can see in Figure 9.2, “Types of Memory,” there are three general types of implicit memory: procedural memory, classical conditioning effects. 2.Explain the factors influencing memory. a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past experiences. b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person with poor health. c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged. d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material. e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
- 40. 3.Explain the theoriesof forgetting. Displacement Theory of Forgetting The displacement theory describes how forgetting works in short-term memory. Short- term memory has a limited capacity and can only hold a small amount of information—up to about seven items—at one time. Once the memory is full, new information will replace the old one. Free recall method In studies based on the free-recall method, participants are asked to listen to a list of words and then try to remember them. The free recall method, unlike the serial recall one, allows remembering words in no particular order. These studies show that the first and the last items on the list are the easiest ones to remember. Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting The trace decay theory was formed by American psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus. The theory states that if we don’t access memories, they will fade over time. 4.Explain the biological causes of forgetting. Biological or organic causes are the basis for a lot of forgetting. This Usually refers to damage to the brain brought about by: Disease Injury Stroke Malnutrition Seizure Chemical Damage – due to drugs ( including alcohol). Memory loss due to any of these causes is referred to as organic amnesia. This is usually partial & selective. Total amnesia ( no memory of anything at all ) is extremely rare. Anterograde amnesia When the memory loss is only of events that occur after brain damage. Retrograde amnesia When the memory loss is only of events that occur before brain damage. Anterograde & Retrograde effects on the Forgetting Curve: - Anterograde amnesia prevents the formation of new memories, but what existed in memory prior to the onset of amnesia remains much the same. -For material already in memory, forgetting would occur as predicted by the curve. -Any memories that are being consolidated at the time of the brain trauma would be lost. See articles (handouts) -With retrograde amnesia, new learning is possible but recall of previously learned information is impaired. -It is expected that memory for the new material would be forgotten in a similar way to that suggested by the forgetting curve. -Memory of information stored prior to the amnesiac event would be affected, and the effect would depend on the type & severity of the brain damage.
- 41. 5.Explain the methodsof memorizing. Method # 1. Repeated Recitation: Repetition or re-reading a lesson fixes it durably. But recitation fixes it more durably. Recitation means reciting to oneself. Let the reader read his lesson twice or thrice, and then recite it to himself, prompting himself when he fails. Method # 2. Spaced and Un-Spaced Learning: Should we repeat a lesson till we have mastered it at one sitting? Or, should we learn it once or twice a day till we have mastered it? Spaced repetitions are more effective than un-spaced learning. The greater is the interval between one repetition and another at one sitting the less is the time required to memorize the matter. Method # 3. Intention to Remember: Learning a matter effectively requires the intention to remember. Unintentional learning is ineffective. The will to learn is necessary if any learning is to be accomplished. The testimony of eye-witnesses is very unreliable except for facts that were definitely noted by them at the time of the occurrence of an event. 6.Explain different ways to improve memory. 1. Do brain training There are many brain training activities online that may help improve a person’s memory. In a similar way to muscles, the brain needs regular use to stay healthy. Mental workouts are just as essential to gray matter as other factors, and challenging the mind can help it grow and expand, which may improve memory. A large trial from the journal PLoS OneTrusted Source found that people who did just 15 minutes of brain training activities at least 5 days a week had improvements in brain function. 2. Exercise Physical exercise has a direct impact on brain health. As the author of research in the Journal of Exercise RehabilitationTrusted Source notes, regular exercise reduces the risk of cognitive decline with age and protects the brain against degeneration. The results of a 2017 studyTrusted Source suggest that aerobic exercise can improve memory function in people with early Alzheimer’s disease. The control group did nonaerobic stretching and toning.
- 42. LongEssay: 1.Define thinking.Explain favourableelements in thinking. Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem- solving may be considered to be some of the chief characteristics which distinguish human beings from other species including the higher animals. The challenges and problems faced by the individual or by society, in general are solved through series of efforts involving thinking and reasoning. The powers of thinking and reasoning may thus be considered to be the essential tools for the welfare and meaningful existence of the individual as well as society. Types of Thinking Perceptual or Concrete Thinking Perceptual thinking is the simplest form of thinking that primarily utilities our perception – interpretation of the information absorbed by our senses – to create thoughts. It is also alternatively known as concrete thinking because our thoughts reflect our perception of concrete objects, exact interpretations or the literal meaning of language rather than applying other concepts or ideas to decipher the same information. Creative Thinking Creative Thinking is an integral element in the professional world, especially in the fields of art and science. The ability to think creatively is displayed in all aspects of life, specifically in situations where one needs to think unconventionally in order to solve a problem. Critical Thinking Critical thinking is one of the most complex thinking processes that requires higher cognitive skills and abilities such as reflection and reconstruction of thoughts and experiences so that we may interpret, analyse, evaluate and make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory manner that is unbiased. Critical thinkers need to separate themselves from their inherent prejudices and belief systems in order to arrive at the truth of a problem. Reflective Thinking Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying to solve complex problems. In order to do so, our brain reorganises all of our experiences pertinent to a specific situation in an attempt to relate experiences and ideas to find viable solutions to the challenges we face. Reflective thinking may therefore be understood as an introspective cognitive process.
- 43. ShortEssay: 1.Describethestagesofdevelopmentofthinking. Concrete Operational Stage Atthis time, elementary-age and preadolescent children -- ages 7 to 11 -- show logical, concrete reasoning.Children's thinking becomes less focused on themselves. They're increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that their own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality.But during this stage, most children still can't think abstractly or hypothetically. Formal Operational Stage Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development -- usually at age 11-plus -- are able to use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about things in systematic ways, come up with theories, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice. 2.Explain the levels of thinking. 1. Gathering knowledge consists of acquiring basic pieces of information. Asking children to identify and describe objects encourages thinking on this level. 2. Comprehending and confirming involves looking at the meaning of the knowledge that has been gathered and drawing conclusions from it. A good question to encourage this level of thinking might be, for example, "The yellow sponge floats. What about the other sponges?" 3. Applying entails using what has been learned in new situations. Asking children to consider a newly learned fact as they build or make something can foster this level of thinking. 4. Analyzing involves thinking about a whole in terms of its various parts. You can encourage this level of thinking by asking children what materials could be used for a particular classroom project. 5. Synthesizing consists of putting parts together to form a whole. Asking children how to use an array of materials to create something, for example, invites thinking on this level. 6. Evaluating entails making comparisons and judgments. You can encourage this level of thinking by asking children which of the materials they used worked the best.To read more about these six levels of thinking, see Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin S. Bloom (Longman).
- 44. 3.Explain the typesof thinking. Creative Thinking Creative Thinking is an integral element in the professional world, especially in the fields of art and science. The ability to think creatively is displayed in all aspects of life, specifically in situations where one needs to think unconventionally in order to solve a problem. Critical Thinking Critical thinking is one of the most complex thinking processes that requires higher cognitive skills and abilities such as reflection and reconstruction of thoughts and experiences so that we may interpret, analyse, evaluate and make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory manner that is unbiased. Critical thinkers need to separate themselves from their inherent prejudices and belief systems in order to arrive at the truth of a problem. Reflective Thinking Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying to solve complex problems. In order to do so, our brain reorganises all of our experiences pertinent to a specific situation in an attempt to relate experiences and ideas to find viable solutions to the challenges we face. Reflective thinking may therefore be understood as an introspective cognitive process. 4. Briefly describe the tools of thinking. These tools are: a. Images: Image is a mental picture formed in the mind in the absence of stimulus. This takes place when we try to remember the experience of stimulus. We are able to think on the basis of these images. b. Concepts: Thinking always takes place by using the concepts in the mind. Without concepts there cannot be thinking, because everything around us is recorded in the brain in the form of concepts. c. Language: In thinking we not only use concepts, but also language. Generally we think in our mother tongue or the language which is very familiar to us. Our thinking will flow like stream because of language. d. Symbols: Symbols like national flag, national animal, logo of a game or organisation, etc, are symbols of certain things. We use these symbols while thinking. e. Brain: Finally it is the brain which is the seat of all mental processes. Since thinking is also a higher mental process, the role of brain is crucial. All our experiences are stored in the brain as engrams. Our thinking takes place on the basis of these engrams. Hence, it is quite obvious that brain is an essential tool of thinking.
- 45. LongEssay: 1.Define intelligence.Explain anytwo theories of intelligence. Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively. Theories of Intelligence Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence. Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years. General Intelligence British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed. Theory of Multiple Intelligences One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:5 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle objects skillfully Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of others Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other objects in nature Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly
- 46. 2.Explain factor theoriesof intelligence. Charles Edward Spearman proposed his two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904. He was the first who introduced the concept of general intelligence called the ”g” factor. To develop his theory, he analyzed different mental aptitude and cognitive tests given by the participants. He noticed that the scores of the same participants were almost similar in every test. Those who had a good score in one aptitude test had also scored well in other aptitude tests, and those who performed badly in one test also performed similarly in other tests, which represents that there exists a factor that is common to all the intellectual and cognitive abilities of the person. Using the factor analysis technique, a technique through which various correlated variables are reduced to the lower number of factors, he examined the cognitive tests and concluded that factors related to intelligence can be measured and expressed numerically, its mathematical explanation is discussed further in this article. Spearman stated that various mental traits are not independent of each other, and there exists a common factor in all the cognitive abilities of the person, he called this common factor a general factor or ”g” factor. He proposed that intelligence consists of two factors, i.e., the ”g” factor (general ability) and the ”s” factor (specific ability), where the ”g” factor is involved in every general mental ability task of the person, and the ”s” factor is responsible for only the specific intellectual abilities of the person. It is to be noted that although the name of this theory is two- factor, there are more than just two factors as the s factor has various sub-factors, depending upon the number of specific abilities in each test. It means that there are two different ‘kinds of factors,’ i.e., a general factor and specific factors. The specific abilities of a person may be drawing interference, coding abilities, mathematical abilities, and so on. 3.Explain the classification of intelligence tests. (1) Individual Verbal Tests: In this type of intelligence tests one person appears the test at a time for whom it is meant. The teste is required to use language while attending the test items. Here the subject’s response may be given to oral form or written form. (ii) Individual Non-verbal Tests: This test is administered to one person at a time for whom it is meant. It is designed for thatperson who is unable to read and write the language of the test and it is meant for youngchildren also. It includes different activities like completing pictures, arranging pictures correctly, setting blocks, cubes etc. (iii) Group Verbal Tests: The group-verbal tests on intelligence are administered to a large number of subjects at a time who can read and write the language of the test. The subjects are warned to make their pencils and pens ready before administration of the test. Here time limit of the test is almost all equal to every student.
- 47. 4.Explain the measurementof intelligence. It seems that the human understanding of intelligence is somewhat limited when we focus on traditional or academic- type intelligence. How then, can intelligence be measured? And when we measure intelligence, how do we ensure that we capture what we’re really trying to measure (in other words, that IQ tests function as valid measures of intelligence)? In the following paragraphs, we will explore the how intelligence tests were developed and the history of their use. The IQ test has been synonymous with intelligence for over a century. In the late 1800s, Sir Francis Galton developed the first broad test of intelligence (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2004). Although he was not a psychologist, his contributions to the concepts of intelligence testing are still felt today (Gordon, 1995). Reliable intelligence testing (you may recall from earlier chapters that reliability refers to a test’s ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early 1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet ([link]). Binet was asked by the French government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks. American researchers soon realized the value of such testing. Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work by standardizing the administration of the test and tested thousands of different-aged children to establish an average score for each age. As a result, the test was normed and standardized, which means that the test was administered consistently to a large enough representative sample of the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve (bell curves will be discussed later). Standardization means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent. Norming involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future scores. Norms are not expectations of what a given group should know but a demonstration of what that group does know. Norming and standardizing the test ensures that new scores are reliable. This new version of the test was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916). Remarkably, an updated version of this test is still widely used today. ShortEssay: 1.Briefly explain the different types of intelligence. Naturalistic intelligence Have you noticed how some people can make anything grow? It’s as if they have a ‘green thumb’. Others connect with animals easily and some are completely at home in nature. Naturalistic intelligence describes people who are sensitive to the natural world. They enjoy being outside, nurturing and exploring the environment. People with high naturalistic intelligence are sensitive to subtle changes in nature and the environment around them. Musical intelligence Not everyone has green thumbs and a love for the great outdoors. Instead, some people are naturally drawn towards music. People with musical intelligence are generally more sensitive to sound and often pick up on noises that others would not normally be aware of. They have an excellent sense of rhythm and the ability to recognise tone and pitch. More often than not they play an instrument or are involved in music as a profession. Logical–mathematical intelligence Of all the types of intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence is the most similar to what we typically associate with general intelligence. People with this type of intelligence are excellent at maths and working with numbers. They can recognise patterns easily and work out processes in a logical manner. They have excellent reasoning skills and can often talk themselves out of trouble. People with high logical–mathematical intelligence are often drawn to games involving strategy and the solving of puzzles.
- 48. 2.Explain nature andfunctions of intelligence. Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labour. It is a gift from nature. Intelligence is not memory. Anintelligent person may have poor memory. Intelligence is not a skill which a worker acquires after plannedpractice. Intelligence is not a guarantee of a good behaviour of the individual.To understand the nature of intelligence we need to know the classification intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndikeand Garret: Concrete Intelligence – It is the ability of an individual to comprehend actual situations and to react to themadequately. Abstract Intelligence – It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and symbols. Abstract intelligence isrequired in the ordinary academic subjects in the school. This is acquired after an intensive study of books andliterature. The main features of Intelligence are the following: 1. Intelligence is an innate natural endowment of the child. 2. It helps the child in maximum learning in minimum period of time. 3. The child is able to foresee the future and plan accordingly. 3.Explain uses of intelligence tests. Uses of Intelligence Tests: (i) The classification of the students on the basis of intelligence test scores. (ii) Measurement of the learning readiness of students at different age levels. (iii) Selection of subjects, courses and careers. (iv) Diagnosis of reading inability and educational backwardness. (v) Prediction of future progress of a student. (vi) Selection of candidates for officers training in defense services. (vii) Ascertaining the magnitude of individual difference. (viii) Prediction for vocational success of student in occupational life. (ix) For the preparation of case study report. (x) The comparative study of the students may also be made. (xi) Providing educational, vocational and personal guidance to the students.
- 49. 5.Briefly explain individualintelligenc tests Intelligence test, series of tasks designed to measure the capacity to make abstractions, to learn, and to deal with novel situations. The most widely used intelligence tests include the Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler scales. The Stanford- Binet is the American adaptation of the original French Binet- Simon intelligence test; it was first introduced in 1916 by Lewis Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University. The individually administered test—revised in 1937, 1960, 1973, 1986, and 2003—evaluates persons two years of age and older and is designed for use primarily with children. It consists of an age- graded series of problems whose solution involves arithmetical, memory, and vocabulary skills. The test is scored in terms of intelligence quotient, or IQ, a concept first suggested by German psychologist William Stern and adopted by Lewis Terman in the Stanford-Binet Scale. The IQ was originally computed as the ratio of a person’s mental age to his chronological (physical) age, multiplied by 100. Thus, if a child of 10 had a mental age of 12 (that is, performed on the test at the level of an average 12-year-old), then the child was assigned an IQ of (12/10) X 100, or 120. A score of 100, for which the mental age equaled the chronological age, was average; scores above 100 were above average, scores below 100 were below average. The concept of mental age has fallen into disrepute, however, and few tests now involve the computation of mental ages. Yet many tests still yield an IQ; this figure is now computed on the basis of the statistical percentage of people who are expected to have a certain IQ. Intelligence test scores follow an approximately “normal” distribution, with most people scoring near the middle of the distribution curve and scores dropping off fairly rapidly in frequency away from the curve’s centre. For example, on the IQ scale about 2 out of 3 scores fall between 85 and 115 and about 19 out of 20 scores fall between 70 and 130. A score of about 130 or above is considered gifted, while a score below about 70 is considered mentally deficient or intellectually disabled. 6.Briefly explain group intelligence tests. These are more helpful as these deal with large masses of subjects such as in schools, industry, army and public. Under favourable administering conditions these are reliable and have high predictive validity, and can be compared favourably with individual tests. The Army Alpha and Beta were the most prominent tests in the beginning, Spearman constructed group tests in which questions were read out to the candidates. Cyril, Burt prepared group test comprising of large number of sections each section being a large number of problems of one particular kind. In general, group tests have the following characteristics: (i) Most of the group-tests have been standardised, and these are commonly used in educational institutions in the western countries. The directions and manuals for examiners have been worked out, so that even a layman can administer these. (ii) Most of the test items in group verbal tests are linguistic in character. Some of the test items include problems requiring reasoning about numbers, or geometrical forms. (iii) Some group verbal tests have been used in measuring scholastic aptitude also. (iv) These are convenient in administration and scoring.
- 50. 7.What is IQ?Howto classifyi ndividual on the basis of IQ? IQ classification is the practice by IQ test publishers of labeling IQ score ranges with category names such as "superior" or "average". The current scoring method for all IQ tests is the "deviation IQ". In this method, an IQ score of 100 means that the test-taker's performance on the test is at the median level of performance in the sample of test-takers of about the same age used to norm the test. An IQ score of 115 means performance one standard deviation above the median, a score of 85 performance, one standard deviation below the median, and so on. Deviation IQs are now used for standard scoring of all IQ tests in large part because they allow a consistent definition of IQ for both children and adults. By the current "deviation IQ" definition of IQ test standard scores, about two-thirds of all test-takers obtain scores from 85 to 115, and about 5 percent of the population scores above 125. ShortEssay: 1.Explain the types of aptitudes. Inductive reasoning aptitude This aptitude refers to a person’s ability to come to conclusions by connecting various pieces of information. Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking and is especially useful in investigative and research professions. Auditory aptitude Someone with an auditory aptitude can easily distinguish aural pitches and tones. Auditory talents allow individuals to excel in musical and audio engineering careers. Linguistic aptitude Someone with an aptitude for linguistics can easily learn new languages and memorize phrases and words with ease. A linguistic aptitude is necessary for careers in languages, translation, and diplomacy. Physical aptitude This aptitude refers to a person’s inherent physical ability, such as physical strength, hand-eye coordination, and agility. Numerical aptitude Numerical aptitudes refer to an individual’s natural ability to analyze and interpret numerical data and find relationships between the data. Careers in finance, statistics, analysis, and economics require numerical aptitude.
- 51. 2.Briefly explain theuses of aptitude tests. Aptitude tests have the following uses: • These tests are useful to assist high school students in the proper choice of courses such as Science, Arts and Commerce. • They are extensively used in helping students to make choice relating to their future occupation such as; army, air force, military etc. • They are sometimes used for selection of students for admission in colleges and technical institutes. • They are very useful to make prediction about an individual’s probable success in courses and careers. 3.Describe the various tests used to measure the aptitude. Abstract Reasoning Test Tests that measure abstract reasoning assess a candidate’s ability to think laterally and from a unique perspective. Abstract reasoning tests also assess an individual’s ability to make logical connections between the available sets of information. A high level of abstract reasoning is related to creativity and helps solve novel problems. Therefore, learning new skills is easy for people with strong abstract reasoning abilities as they can process ambiguous information effectively. Spatial Reasoning Test Spatial reasoning defines a candidate’s ability to understand and visualize two-dimensional and three-dimensional patterns and shapes. Spatial reasoning tests help identify people who can easily understand an object’s spatial distribution and movement.
- 52. 4.Describe the importanceof aptitude. Aptitude is a very important aspect of a person’s life. By aptitude, we usually refer to Quantitative aptitude – that basically judges our analytical and problem solving skills. It refers to your unique abilities as a human being – and how well you are able to apply them to specific questions. That’s why it’s one of the most important parts of competitive exams and job interviews. You will find aptitude-linked questions in almost every exam paper. Why? The idea is to judge your problem- solving and decision-making skills – which are vital to your academic/professional performance at large. In short, Aptitude is what characterizes the analytical and applicational ability of an individual, because it is very much essential for human to think in complex situations. This is more evident nowadays than ever, when you can see aptitude as being primary to every recruitment team’s assessment of you. This is because aptitude is what predicts how you will perform in your actual job.
- 53. Unit–IV:MotivationandEmotionalProcesses LongEssay: 1.Explain the theoriesof motivation. Incentive theory The incentive motivational theory suggests people feel motivated by reinforcement, recognition, incentives and rewards. The incentive theory also proposes that people may display certain behaviors in order to achieve a specific result, incite a particular action or receive a reward. Here are a few examples of incentives in the workplace 2. McClelland's need theory McClelland's need theory proposes there are three different needs. Each type of need corresponds to a specific type of person who feels motivated to address that need. Understanding McClelland's need theory can help managers identify employee needs, which may give them the ability to place their employees in situations where they can thrive and reach their goals. Use these three needs to determine which incentive may work best for each employee: 3. Competence theory Competence theory proposes that people often want to engage in specific activities to display their skills, intelligence and abilities. If an employee successfully demonstrates their intelligence in front of their peers, it can motivate them to feel competent in a particular area. Feeling competent may increase how confidently they perform tasks, which can improve productivity and efficiency. Confident employees may also feel encouraged to learn more in-depth information in order to share it with their peers and receive recognition. 4. Expectancy theory The expectancy theory suggests that people may perform certain behaviors if they think those actions may lead to desirable outcomes. You can apply the expectancy theory in the workplace if you're interested in improving your team's productivity, effort or efficiency. For example, you might offer your staff a temporary raise in their hourly wages to motivate them to work extra hours to complete a project.
- 54. 2.Define motivation. Explainthe Maslow’s theory of motivation. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. One of the most popular needs theories is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow proposed that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. According to Maslow, these needs can create internal pressures that can influence a person's behavior. Physiological needs are those needs required for human survival such as air, food, water, shelter, clothing and sleep. As a manager, you can account for the physiological needs of your employees by providing comfortable working conditions, reasonable work hours and the necessary breaks to use the bathroom and eat and/or drink. Safety needs include those needs that provide a person with a sense of security and well-being. Personal security, financial security, good health and protection from accidents, harm and their adverse effects are all included in safety needs. As a manager, you can account for the safety needs of your employees by providing safe working conditions, secure compensation (such as a salary) and job security, which is especially important in a bad economy. Social needs, also called love and belonging, refer to the need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. Social needs are important to humans so that they do not feel alone, isolated and depressed. Friendships, family and intimacy all work to fulfill social needs. As a manager, you can account for the social needs of your employees by making sure each of your employees know one another, encouraging cooperative teamwork, being an accessible and kind supervisor and promoting a good work-life balance. Esteem needs refer to the need for self- esteem and respect, with self-respect being slightly more important than gaining respect and admiration from others. As a manager, you can account for the esteem needs of your employees by offering praise and recognition when the employee does well, and offering promotions and additional responsibility to reflect your belief that they are a valued employee. Self-actualization needs describe a person's need to reach his or her full potential. The need to become what one is capable of is something that is highly personal. While I might have the need to be a good parent, you might have the need to hold an executive-level position within your organization. Because this need is individualized, as a manager, you can account for this need by providing challenging work, inviting employees to participate in decision-making and giving them flexibility and autonomy in their jobs.
- 55. 3.Explain the conceptsand theories of motivation. Motivation is the basic psychological process. None would deny that it is the most important processin the more micro approach to organizational behavior. Many people equate thecauses of behavior with motivation. Causes of behavior are much broader and more complexthan can be explained by motivation alone. Hence motivation should never be under-rated. Along with Perception, Personality and Learning, Motivation is a very important process inunderstanding a behavior. It must be remembered that, motivation should not be taken for grantedas the only explanation of behavior. It acts and interacts in conjunction with other mediatingprocess and the environment. It must also be remembered that like any other mediating processes orenvironment, motivation cannot be seen. Motivation is invisible. What all can be seen is the behavior. Motivation is the hypothetical construct that is used to help explain behavior. Hence itshould never be equated with the behavior. Incentive theory The incentive motivational theory suggests people feel motivated by reinforcement, recognition, incentives and rewards. The incentive theory also proposes that people may display certain behaviors in order to achieve a specific result, incite a particular action or receive a reward. Here are a few examples of incentives in the workplace 2. McClelland's need theory McClelland's need theory proposes there are three different needs. Each type of need corresponds to a specific type of person who feels motivated to address that need. Understanding McClelland's need theory can help managers identify employee needs, which may give them the ability to place their employees in situations where they can thrive and reach their goals. Use these three needs to determine which incentive may work best for each employee 3. Competence theory Competence theory proposes that people often want to engage in specific activities to display their skills, intelligence and abilities. If an employee successfully demonstrates their intelligence in front of their peers, it can motivate them to feel competent in a particular area. Feeling competent may increase how confidently they perform tasks, which can improve productivity and efficiency. Confident employees may also feel encouraged to learn more in-depth information in order to share it with their peers and receive recognition. 4. Expectancy theory The expectancy theory suggests that people may perform certain behaviors if they think those actions may lead to desirable outcomes. You can apply the expectancy theory in the workplace if you're interested in improving your team's productivity, effort or efficiency. For example, you might offer your staff a temporary raise in their hourly wages to motivate them to work extra hours to complete a project.
- 56. 4.Define motivation.Explain thesocial motives. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Social motives are the psychological processes that drive people's thinking, feeling and behavior in interactions with other people. Because social situations confront people with the preferences and needs of others, and not just their own, they require a broader perspective in which the interests of others are incorporated. Social motives reflect the way people value these interests in relation to their own. How they do so has a crucial impact on their understanding of the interaction and on the decisions they make within its context. For this reason, understanding social motivation is crucial for understanding social interactions. This entry explains how social motivation may be shaped by the features of the people who compose the interaction and the features of the interaction situation. It addresses how social motives may affect social behavior and, finally, explains social orientations or (fairly) stable tendencies toward particular social motives. Understanding Social Motivation In social life, people are continuously confronted with situations in which their individual preferences or interests are different from, or even opposed to, the interests of others. Consider, for example, interactions in close relationships, at the workplace, or on the larger societal level. In many of these situations, actions that correspond with individual preferences are incompatible with those of others. For example, one's partner may not share one's preference for symphonic heavy-metal music. One's friends may not share one's preference for showing up late at appointments. And a society's environmental policy may not correspond with one's preference for long showers. In each of these cases, the actions that are dictated by one individual's motives are incompatible with, or even harmful to, the interests of others.
- 57. 5.Define motives.Explain differenttypes of motives. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Biological Motivation and Homeostasis: Biological motives are called as physiological motives. These motives are essential for the survival of the organism. Such motives are triggered when there is imbalancement in the body. The body always tends to maintain a state of equilibrium called “Homeostasis”- in many of its internal physiological processes. Social Motives: Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well as human beings, but the social motives are specific only to human beings. These are called social motives, because they are learnt in social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society. That is why their strength differs from one individual to another. Many social motives are recognised by psychologists. Personal Motives: In addition to the above said physiological and social motives, there are some other motives which are allied with both of the above said motives. These are highly personalized and very much individualized motives. Unconscious motivation: Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist has explained elaborately about unconscious motivation. According to him, there are certain motives of which we are unaware, because they operate from our unconscious. These motives or desires which are repressed by our conscious remain in our unconscious and will be influencing our behaviour. Our irrational behaviour, the slip of tongue, slip of pen, amnesia, multiple personality, somnambulism, etc., are some examples of such behaviours for which we do not have answers apparently. These motives can be delineated only by psychoanalysis. Many times psychosomatic disorders like paralysis, headaches, gastric ulcers, etc., also may be due to unconscious motivation.
- 58. 6. Describe indetail about physiologicalmotives. I) Physiological Motives: a. Hunger motive: We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances are absorbed. The biochemical processes get their energy from the food in order to sustain life. When these substances are exhausted, some imbalancement exists. We develop hunger motive in order to maintain homeostasis. This is indicated by contraction of stomach muscles causing some pain or discomfort called hunger pangs. Psychologists have demonstrated this phenomenon by experiments. b. Thirst motive: In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other beverages. These fluids are essential for our body tissues for normal functioning. When the water level in the body decreases we develop motive to drink water. Usually thirst motive is indicated by dryness of mouth. Experiments by psychologists have shown that just dried mouth getting wetted is not enough. We need to drink sufficient quantity of water to satiate our thirst.
- 59. 7.Define conflict.Discuss typesand resolution of conflict A conflict is a struggle and a clash of interest, opinion, or even principles. Conflict will always be found in society; as the basis of conflict may vary to be personal, racial, class, caste, political and international. Conflict may also be emotional, intellectual, and theoretical, in which case academic recognition may, or may not be, a significant motive. Intellectual conflict is a subclass of cultural conflict,[1] a conflict that tends to grow over time due to different cultural values and beliefs. Conflict in a group often follows a specific course. Routine group interaction is first disrupted by an initial conflict within the group, often caused by internal differences of opinion, disagreements between its members, or scarcity of resources available to the group. At this point, the group is no longer united, and may split into coalitions. This period of conflict escalation in some cases gives way to a conflict resolution stage, after which the group can eventually return to routine group interaction or split. 1. Avoiding Someone who uses a strategy of "avoiding" mostly tries to ignore or sidestep the conflict, hoping it will resolve itself or dissipate. 2. Accommodating Using the strategy of "accommodating" to resolve conflict essentially involves taking steps to satisfy the other party's concerns or demands at the expense of your own needs or desires. 3. Compromising The strategy of "compromising" involves finding an acceptable resolution that will partly, but not entirely, satisfy the concerns of all parties involved. 4. Competing Someone who uses the conflict resolution strategy of "competing" tries to satisfy their own desires at the expense of the other parties involved. 5. Collaborating Using "collaborating" involves finding a solution that entirely satisfies the concerns of all involved parties. The Thomas-Kilmann model identifies two dimensions people fall into when choosing a conflict resolution strategy: assertiveness and cooperativeness. Assertiveness involves taking action to satisfy your own needs, while cooperativeness involves taking action to satisfy the other's needs. Each of the conflict resolution strategies above involves different degrees of assertiveness and cooperativeness. For example, while accommodating includes a high degree of cooperativeness and a low degree of assertiveness, competing consists of a low degree of cooperativeness and a high degree of assertiveness.
- 60. 8.How does frustrationand conflict cause stress?Briefly discuss the types of conflict Frustration is a common reaction to a recurring, unresolved stressor. Frustration is often accompanied by aggression, hostility, impulsivity, and defensiveness—and these emotions can generate their own stress if you don't deal with them in a healthy manner. Some people go to great lengths to avoid conflict. They suppress their own opinions, hide information from others or avoid contact. Whilst this strategy may work at the workplace where you can manage to fly under the radar, it’s very difficult to achieve in a close relationship. By constantly evading conflict, one slowly starts to develop feelings of resentment and bitterness, which slowly starts escalating. Over time, unresolved conflict, especially in a close relationship, inevitably leads to a significantly increased level of stress. On the other side of the scale, there are individuals who easily engage in conflict at the drop of a hat. This is because they are not intimidated by others and are used to function in a volatile or hostile environment. In the process they benefit by blowing off steam. This helps them to vent their anger and get rid of frustration. However, in the process they often damage interpersonal relationships, especially with individuals more inclined to avoid conflict. Whilst initially being totally unaware of this happening, the long term consequences eventually become obvious when partnerships and relations turn pear shaped, causing stress. Unless you are a recluse who lives in isolation, accept that conflict is a part of everyday life. In principle, conflict is simply a process of negotiation by means of communication. For a moment, let’s compare it to a game. 1. Character vs. Self This is an internal conflict, meaning that the opposition the character faces is coming from within. This may entail a struggle to discern what the moral or “right” choice is, or it may also encompass mental health struggles. All other types of conflict are external—meaning that a character comes up against an outside force that creates the conflict. 2. Character vs. Character This is a common type of conflict in which one character’s needs or wants are at odds with another’s. A character conflict can be depicted as a straightforward fist fight, or as intricate and nuanced as the ongoing struggle for power in the HBO series Game of Thrones. 3. Character vs. Nature In a nature conflict, a character is set in opposition to nature. This can mean the weather, the wilderness, or a natural disaster. 4. Character vs. Supernatural Pitting characters against phenomena like ghosts, gods, or monsters raises the stakes of a conflict by creating an unequal playing field. Supernatural conflict also covers characters, like Harry Potter or Odysseus, who have a fate or destiny and struggle to accept the sacrifices that come along with it. Learn more about character vs. supernatural conflict in our complete guide here. 5. Character vs. Technology In this case, a character is in conflict with some kind of technology. Think of the tale of John Henry, the African American folk hero. In American folklore, Henry was a former slave who worked as a steel- driver on the rail line. To prove his superiority over new technology, he raced a steam-powered rock drilling machine and won. However, he suffered a heart attack after winning the race. 6. Character vs. Society A character vs. society conflict is an external conflict that occurs in literature when the protagonist is placed in opposition with society, the government, or a cultural tradition or societal norm of some kind. Characters may be motivated to take action against their society by a need to survive, a moral sense of right and wrong, or a desire for happiness, freedom, justice, or love.
- 61. 9.Define frustration.Explain thecauses of frustration. In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment. Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. There are two types of frustration: internal and external. Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals, desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs.If the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self-confidence, annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to follow.Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. Internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or challenges were unexpected, or if the individual expected the goal to be easy to accomplish. Frustration is usually less when an individual expected, or knew beforehand, that the goal would be "challenging." Some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament (frustration) in adolescence, and neuroticism in adulthood. Temperamental frustration is associated with perceptual alterations including changes in perceived relationship affection. Frustration can be classed as a mental health problem–response behavior and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or physical harm. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies. Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by J.A.C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired".
- 62. 10.Explain the theoriesof emotions in detail. Evolutionary Theories More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they had adaptive value. For example, fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways that enhanced their chances of survival. Darwin believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate (hard-wired). He pointed out that facial expressions allow people to quickly judge someone’s hostility or friendliness and to communicate intentions to others. Recent evolutionary theories of emotion also consider emotions to be innate responses to stimuli. Evolutionary theorists tend to downplay the influence of thought and learning on emotion, although they acknowledge that both can have an effect. Evolutionary theorists believe that all human cultures share several primary emotions, including happiness, contempt, surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result from blends and different intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more intense form of the primary emotion of fear. The James-Lange Theory In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange Theory, is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events. According to this theory, people don’t cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and, likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion. The Cannon-Bard Theory The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main arguments against it Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard Theory states that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal. Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment.
- 63. 11.What is anemotion?Explain the theories of emotion. Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological and behavioral changes. Emotion involves feeling, thinking, activation of the nervous system, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as facial expressions. The James-Lange Theory In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange Theory, is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events. According to this theory, people don’t cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and, likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion. The Cannon-Bard Theory The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main arguments against it Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard Theory states that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal. Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment.
- 64. Short Essay: 1.Briefly explainmotivation cycle. Motivation cycle is a transition of states within an organism that propels the organism toward the satisfaction of a particular need, where motivation itself is considered a hypothesized state. Psychologists use the concept of need to describe the motivational properties of behavior. The state of motivation is further comprised of four different states, which takes place in an organism to drive him towards each action. Each action is first initiated because of a particular need. The need drives the person into taking actions. Positive results, caused due to the actions, further acts as an incentive motivating a person towards the goal. But the individual can never stop after achieving a certain goal, and this phenomenon continues on and on. This phenomenon has been termed as Motivational Cycle
- 65. 2.Explain the primaryand secondary motives. Primary Motives: Primary motives are essential for survival. They must be satisfied first before we can take up any other activity. Primary motives come to action when the physiological balance of the body is upset. This balance is called homeostasis. Secondary Motives: Human life has not only just biological aspect but also social aspect. Hence human behaviour is activated by the following social motives. 1. Achievement motives 2. Affiliation motives 3. Aggression motives 4. Power motives 5. Curiosity motives. These are called social motives since they develop as a result of relationships with people. 3.Briefly explain Maslow’stheory of Motivation. The Maslow motivation theory is typically represented by 5 steps: Physiological needs – such as hunger, thirst and sleep Safety needs – such as security, protection from danger and freedom from pain. Social needs – sometimes also referred to as love needs such as friendship, giving and receiving love, engaging in social activities and group membership. Esteem needs – these include both self-respect and the esteem of others. For example, the desire for self- confidence and achievement, and recognition and appreciation. Self-actualization – This is about the desire to develop and realize your full potential. To become everything you can be.
- 66. 4.Explain two theoriesof emotions. Theories of Emotion The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories It suggest that responses within the body are responsible for emotions. Neurological theories It propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Cognitive theories It argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in forming emotions. 5.Define emotion.Briefly explain characteristics of emotions. Emotions are psychological states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotions are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, or creativity. There is a feeling, a set of sensations we experience, that we are consciously aware of. However, our ability to feel any emotion doesn’t necessarily mean we are aware of which emotion is being felt). An emotional episode can be brief, sometimes lasting only a few seconds, but they can also last much longer at times. It’s important to remember that if it lasts for hours, then it is a mood and not an emotion. It is about something that matters to you personally.
- 67. 6.Briefly explain physiologicaland psychological changes during emotions 1. External changes: • The voice changes according to the type of emotion. Experiments have proved that emotions can be identified on the basis of voice. • Facial expressions change. We can identify emotion experienced by a person by looking at his face. • There will be changes in the body language like stiffness of muscles, twisting of fingers, movements of hands and legs. 2. Internal changes: Many internal changes take place during emotions. These internal changes are the result of stimulation of The ANS has 2 subdivisions. Sympathetic division prepares the body for facing emergency either by fight or by flight, i.e. fights if possible, otherwise escapes from the situation. It stimulates the adrenal glands and causes the excess release of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline. Adrenaline gets circulated all over the body and stimulates vital organs leading to following internal changes. • Increase in heart rate thereby increase in BP • Increase in rate of respiration • Increase in blood sugar level 7.Briefly explain emotions in health and sickness. People who have good emotional health are aware of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. They have learned healthy ways to cope with the stress and problems that are a normal part of life. They feel good about themselves and have healthy relationships. However, many things that happen in your life can disrupt your emotional health. These can lead to strong feelings of sadness, stress, or anxiety. Even good or wanted changes can be as stressful as unwanted changes. These things include: Being laid off from your job. Having a child leave or return home. Dealing with the death of a loved one. Getting divorced or married. Suffering an illness or an injury. Getting a job promotion. Experiencing money problems. Moving to a new home. Having or adopting a baby.
- 68. 8.Classify need,drive andmotives. A need is something that is necessary for organisms to live a healthy life. Needs aredistinguished from wants because a deficiency would cause a clear negative outcome,such as dysfunction or death. Needs can be objective and physical, such as food andwater, or they can be subjective and psychological, such as the need for self-esteem. Drive is the force that goads the organism to satisfy the needs. A drive has a directionand a valence. The Drive is not always that clear or simple. It sustains motivation.Motivation is the reason we do something that we do. Motive is an impulse thatacts as an incitement to action. In this unit, we will discuss the definition, characteristics,theories and role of needs, drives, and motives. Needs are something you fulfillbecause you have to. They are basic and quite often instinctive. Drive is somethingthat makes you keep going. It is more individual in the sense that some people aremore driven than others. Motives however are indicative of why you do what youdo. Motives are factors within a human being or animal that arouses and direct goaloriented behaviour. Motivation has long been a central subject of study in psychology.Early researchers, influenced by Charles Darwin, ascribed much of animal andhuman behaviour to instinct. Sigmund Freud believed that much of human behaviourwas also based on irrational instinctive urges or unconscious motives. Walter B.Cannon proposed that basic human drives served homeostatic functions by directingenergies toward the reduction of physiological tensions. Behavioural psychologists, incontrast, stress the importance of external goals in prompting action, while humanisticpsychologists examine the role of felt needs. Cognitive psychologists have found thata motive sensitizes a person to information relating to that motive, as for instance, ahungry subject, will perceive food stimuli as larger than other stimuli. 9.Describe the causes of frustration. Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs.[8] If the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression, loss of self- confidence,[9] annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to follow.[10] Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. Internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or challenges were unexpected, or if the individual expected the goal to be easy to accomplish. Frustration is usually less when an individual expected, or knew beforehand, that the goal would be "challenging." Some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament (frustration) in adolescence, and neuroticism in adulthood.[5] Temperamental frustration is associated with perceptual alterations including changes in perceived relationship affection. Frustration can be classed as a mental health problem–response behavior and can have a number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or physical harm. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies). Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by J.A.C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non- adaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired".
- 69. 10.What is frustrationand conflicts?Explain the sources of frustration. Frustration can be understood as a feeling of dissatisfaction that stems from an individual’s inability to achieve a goal. For example, imagine you work hard to pass an exam. Even though you have worked as hard as possible, you end up failing the exam. In such an instance, you feel frustrated. This can be viewed as a normal emotional response, just like any other emotion that you feel in the face of defeat. The individual experiences mixed emotions such as anger, hurt, and powerlessness. If the achievement of the goal were extremely vital for the individual, this would result in a higher degree of frustration. A conflict can be defined as a condition where the individual faces difficulty in arriving at a decision due to two or more different interests. For example, imagine a student who has doubts regarding his future. He does not know whether to enter the University and pursue his higher education or else start working as he has financial difficulties. Such a situation creates a conflict within the individual. This can also be viewed as an emotional state where a person is in a dilemma. There are three important sources of frustration: • Environmental forces: Environmental obstacles can frustrate the satisfaction of motives by making it difficult or impossible for a person to attain a goal • Personal inadequacies • Conflict produced frustration 11.Describe sources and types of conflict. 1. LACK OF ROLE CLARIFICATION Conflict can emerge when it is unclear who is responsible for what task or what part of a project. Clear job descriptions and expectations can reduce this contributor to conflict. 2. POOR PROCESSES Often poorly constructed processes and procedures can create conflict. To avoid this pitfall, it is helpful to regularly review your procedures and policies to ensure they support teamwork and collaboration. 3. COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS This is a common contributor to conflict and can occur among all levels of staff. Keeping communication channels open and having a culture where questions are welcomed will go a long way in mitigating this contributor to conflict. • Intrapersonal • Interpersonal • Intragroup • Intergroup
- 70. 13.Describe conflict resolution. Conflictresolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs) and by engaging in collective negotiation. Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view the conflict, with beliefs, perspectives, understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is reflective of how the disputants act, their behavior. Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration, diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding. The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. The concept of conflict resolution can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution. 14.Explain biological and social motives with the examples for each. Biological motives are called as physiological motives. These motives are essential for the survival of the organism. Such motives are triggered when there is imbalancement in the body. The body always tends to maintain a state of equilibrium called “Homeostasis”- in many of its internal physiological processes. This balance is very essential for the normal life. Homeostasis helps to maintain internal physiological processes at optimal levels. The nutritional level, fluid level, temperature level, etc., are maintained at certain optimal level or homeostasis levels. When there is some variation in these levels the individual is motivated for restoring the sta Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well as human beings, but the social motives are specific only to human beings. These are called social motives, because they are learnt in social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society. That is why their strength differs from one individual to another. Many social motives are recognised by psychologists. te of equilibrium.
- 71. 15.Briefly explain GeneralAdaptation Syndrome. GAS is the three-stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. Hans SelyeTrusted Source, a medical doctor and researcher, came up with the theory of GAS. During an experiment with lab rats at McGill University in Montreal, he observed a series of physiological changes in the rats after they were exposed to stressful events. With additional research, Selye concluded that these changes were not an isolated case, but rather the typical response to stress. Selye identified these stages as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Understanding these different responses and how they relate to each other may help you cope with stress. The three stages of GAS are: • alarm reaction • resistance • exhaustion 16.Define coping.Describe the methods of coping with stress. Coping is defined as the thoughts and behaviors mobilized to manage internal and external stressful situations. It is a term used distinctively for conscious and voluntary mobilization of acts, different from 'defense mechanisms' that are subconscious or unconscious adaptive responses, both of which aim to reduce or tolerate stress. • Re-balance Work and Home. • Build in Regular Exercise. • Eat Well and Limit Alcohol and Stimulants. • Connect with Supportive People. • Carve out Hobby Time. • Practice Meditation, Stress Reduction or Yoga. • Sleep Enough. • Bond with Your Pet.
- 72. 17.What are stressors?Brieflyexplain how to overcome from stress. A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism.Psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that individuals might consider demanding, challenging, and/or threatening individual safety. • Eat and drink to optimize your health. • Exercise regularly. • Stop using tobacco and nicotine products. • Study and practice relaxation techniques. • Reduce triggers of stress. • Examine your values and live by them. • Assert yourself. • Set realistic goals and expectations. 18.Define stress.Explain the causes of stress for different age groups. Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. Children/Teenagers - Starting with children, reasons of stress can appear very simple to us but are actually causing problems to little kids and their brain. Most of the time, children undergo stresses because of academics, poor marks, and not meeting their parents' expectations. Adults - We further classify adults into two: (a) College Going - Young adults or college-going students experience an all new phase of life. From getting a higher education to planning their first job. Will all the excitement, these adults instantly become victim of stress. Their excitement soon turns into stress for getting admission in the best university, when bullying or ragging becomes part of your college-life, heart-break in a romantic relationship or disappointment in career. (b) Working Class - For working-class people, their reasons of every day's stress is different. Loss in business, time- management issues, work load and duration, low-salary, partiality and discrimination, lack of recognition or appreciation from seniors. situation is even worse. 3. Senior Citizens - We often do realize the reasons of stress among adults but we tend to forget them when it comes to old- age people. Stress is a common problem with senior citizens as well for number of reasons. These reasons can be change of lifestyle and financial status after retirement, looking after grandchildren, being lonely after the death of spouse, death of other relatives or even close friends, deterioration of physical abilities, worries for not being able to live independently or being send to old age homes.
- 73. 19.Briefly describe attitudinalchange. Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as by the individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over behavior. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change. 20.Briefly explain how to cope with stress. 1.Exercise Working out regularly is one of the best ways to relax your body and mind. Plus, exercise will improve your mood. But you have to do it often for it to pay off. 2.Relax Your Muscles When you’re stressed, your muscles get tense. You can help loosen them up on your own and refresh your body by • Stretching • Enjoying a massage • Taking a hot bath or shower • Getting a good night’s sleep 3.Eat Well Eating a regular, well-balanced diet will help you feel better in general. It may also help control your moods. Your meals should be full of vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and lean protein for energy. And don’t skip any. It’s not good for you and can put you in a bad mood, which can actually increase your stress.
- 74. Unit-V:Personality ShortEssays: 1.Discuss Freud’s theoryof psycho sexual development. Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating. 2.Discuss Erikson’s theory of psycho social development. Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.
- 75. 3.Explain the psychometricassessment of personality. An employee’s personality plays a significant role in their ability to work with different members of teams and to perform in their respective roles. Employers use psychometric personality tests to determine if a candidate is the right fit when it comes to job-specific personality traits. The use of psychometric personality tests can be dated back to Chinese emperors who used them to select civil servants with the right knowledge and high moral integrity. A more modern version of these tests were used in military recruitment during World War I. Post World War II industries started using them to screen job applicants with desirable personality traits. Today, state-of-the-art psychometric personality tests are used as part of the pre-employment assessment by corporate employers. Psychometric test for employment focus on an applicant’s: Willingness to experience new things Openness to non-conventional ideas Awareness of inner thoughts and feelings Conscientiousness and assertiveness when it comes to work Need for doing quality work and completing a task on time Stressful or calm behavioural tendencies in work or social settings Anxiety or risk-taking tendencies Co-operation and compassion in the workplace 4.What are projective tests?Explain the role in personality assessment. This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic school of thought, which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. Projective tests are intended to uncover feelings, desires, and conflicts that are hidden from conscious awareness. Personality Assessment is a proficiency in professional psychology that involves the administration, scoring, and interpretation of empirically supported measures of personality traits and styles in order to: Refine clinical diagnoses; Structure and inform psychological interventions; and Increase the accuracy of behavioral prediction in a variety of contexts and settings (e.g., clinical, forensic, organizational, educational).
- 76. 5.Briefly describe theorganization of personality. Organization Personality epitomizes how an institution perceives, interprets, evaluates, and responds to real and potential risks, problems, and opportunities with employees, patrons, and partners. An organization’s personality is the melding of dominant employee traits, cognition, and emotional patterns with external and internal influencers that encourage and empower workplace behavior. There are many types of organization personalities that run the gauntlet from good, bad, and ugly! Management needs to continually be cognizant of the impact that their dominant traits (positive to negative) have on workplace effectiveness and value creation. An essential capability, in the current high-velocity digital era, is the ability to recognize problematic values and behaviors and change quickly. 6.Explain the importance of personality in nursing. Personality is a unique trait that distinguishes one individual from the next. However, there are attributes of personality that are shared and on the basis of these factors an individual will behave in a particular way. The Humanmetrics Jung Tyopology Test assesses four parameters of human personality that include extravert, sensing, thinking and judging. The first criterion, Extraversion – Introversion, signifies the source and direction of a person’s energy expression. An extravert’s source and direction of energy expression is mainly in the external world, while an introvert has a source of energy mainly in their own internal world. The second criterion, Sensing – Intuition, represents the method by which someone perceives…show more content… After completing the Jung Typology Test, my personality type was ESTJ. This means that the direction I take is from an external influence and I believe information that I attain directly from the external world. In addition, I make my decisions logically and I stick to the plans I make. The paper will illustrate attributes of this personality and the influence they have on nursing
- 77. 7.Explain the variousalterations in personality. To understand the changes that can happen within personality, one must first understand personality. Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.[1] Every person has their own "individual differences in particular personality characteristics"[2] that separate them from others. The overall study of personality "focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics... The other is understanding how the various parts of a person come together as a whole."[3] An easier way to understand or describe personality is simply to say: one's personality is made up of events, circumstances, and genetics, that come together to influence the development of defining characteristics and traits. If someone asked one of your friends to describe your personality, what do you think they would say? Those traits and characteristics that define someone are what the general public like to describe as personality. With each person having their own personality, there are bound to be many differences and changes that confuse people. Personality psychologists have taken much time to search for answers and solutions to the changes that can come to someone's personality. Although there is little research overall, there has been compelling initial evidence for personality change. The development of personality is often dependent on the stage of life a person is in, and the extent to which one's levels of characteristics, relative to their age cohort, is stable across long periods of time.[4] Cultural and environmental influence are large factors in personality trait differences.[4] Personality change is usually seen over longer periods of time and is analogical to height, as most development occurs in the earlier stages of life and becomes more stable as one grows into adulthood. 8.Describe psychoanalytical theory of personality. The Psychoanalytic Theory is the personality theory, which is based on the notion that an individual gets motivated more by unseen forces that are controlled by the conscious and the rational thought. Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in English. The latter is the older term, and at first, simply meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche. But with the emergence of psychoanalysis as a distinct clinical practice, both terms came to describe that. Although both are still used, today, the normal adjective is psychoanalytic.[3] A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such as dream interpretation and free association. Also: a system of psychological theory is associated with this method.[4] Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as having sexual and aggressive drives. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not believe in free will.[5]
- 78. 9.Describe the projectivetechniques of personality assessment. Projective tests are methods of personality assessment in which some degree of ambiguity in the test stimuli or instructions creates opportunities for subjects to structure their responses in terms of their individual personality characteristics, and thereby provide information about the nature of these characteristics. Although projective methods are accordingly more ambiguous and less structured than so-called objective methods, the differences between these methods are relative rather than absolute. All projective tests contain objective as well as subjective features and elicit responses that are representative as well as symbolic of behavior, and they differ from each other in the extent to which they are ambiguous. Because of their relatively unstructured nature, projective tests measure personality functioning in subtle and indirect ways and tap underlying psychological characteristics at a less conscious level than relatively structured measures. Projective test data consequently provide valuable information about how people are likely to think, feel, and act that is difficult to obtain from objective assessment procedures, and they are also less susceptible than objective test data to the influence of test-taking attitudes. Use of a particular projective test in children and adolescents depends on the purpose of the projective test, therapist's expertise on the particular projective technique, time available as well as availability of the tool. The projective tests can explore a range of psychopathologies with variable specificity. Selection of a particular projective test for a particular individual depends on the clinical discretion of the therapist. 10.Define personality.Explain anyone theory of personality. Personality is the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with the environment one is surrounded by. Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell, define personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable. Type theory places personalities into clearly identifiable categories. Classification into type is the beginning of most sciences- types of rocks, types of clouds, kinds of plants and so on. Kretschmer and Sheldon are credited with this classification. In type, theories relationship was sought to be established between features of face or body and personality. Thus, a short plumb person was said to be sociable, relaxed, and even-tempered; a tall, thin person was characterized as reserved, self-conscious, and fond of isolation, a heavy Set muscular individual was described as noisy, callous, and fond of physical activity. The second basis to type personalities is psychological factors.
- 79. 11.Describe the factorsaffecting development of personality. Factor # 1. Biological Factors: By and large, the influences of biological factors on personality structure are limited and indirect. The biological factors include genetic, hereditary factors, physical appearance and physique and rate of maturation. Factor # 2. Cultural Determinants of Personality: From the point of view of personality development the most significant aspect of the individual’s world is his social environment. All human beings live in a society, an interacting group of people and each society has a distinctive culture, a body of stored knowledge, characteristic way of thinking, feeling attitudes, goals, ideals and value system. Factor # 3. Family Influences on Personality Development: The ultimate aim of personality development is the development of social behaviour in children. Socialization is the process by which the individual infant acquires the behavioural potentialities and, eventually, those behaviour patterns that are customary and acceptable according to the standards of his family and the social group. He starts acquiring those patterns of social behaviour from the immediate environment and gradually from the wide range of extended environments. 12.Briefly describe classification of personality.
- 80. 13.Briefly explain Hippocratesand CarlJung’s classification of personality ShortAnswers: 1.Define Id. The one of the three divisions of the psyche in psychoanalytic theory that is completely unconscious and is the source of psychic energy derived from instinctual needs and drives 2.DefineEgo. The one of the three divisions of the psyche in psychoanalytic theory that serves as the organized conscious mediator between the person and reality especially by functioning both in the perception of and adaptation to reality 3.DefineTrait. In psychology, trait theory (also called dispositional theory) is an approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion.[1] According to this perspective, traits are aspects of personality that are relatively stable over time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are not), are relatively consistent over situations, and influence behaviour. Traits are in contrast to states, which are more transitory dispositions.
- 81. 4.Define personality. Personality refersto individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The other is understanding how the various parts of a person come together as a whole. 5.What do you mean by introverts? When someone asks you to describe an introvert, your thoughts might go to the most reserved and thoughtful person you know. Maybe you think of the friend who mostly avoids special attention and social engagements, or the sibling who prefers to occupy a quiet corner with a book or the family dog. 6.What are the characteristics of extroverts? • You enjoy social settings • You don't like or need a lot of alone time • You thrive around people • You're friends with many people 7.What are types and traits? Whatareprojectivetests? Traits are durable characteristics of a person that produce an effect on behavior. Types are collections of traits that occur together in some individuals. Types tend to be the product of a particular culture. When reading descriptions of personality types from Adler, reflecting Germany of the 1930s, the traits (extraversion, etc.) sound familiar, but the types seem strikingly out-of- date or just unfamiliar, like something from another time and place projective test, in psychology, examination that commonly employs ambiguous stimuli, notably inkblots (Rorschach Test) and enigmatic pictures (Thematic Apperception Test), to evoke responses that may reveal facets of the subject’s personality by projection of internal attitudes, traits, and behaviour patterns upon the external stimuli. 9.Givetwoexamplesforprojectivetestsofpersonality . • The Rorschach Inkblot Test. • The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- 82. 10.Define superego. The oneof the three divisions of the psyche in psychoanalytic theory that is only partly conscious, represents internalization of parental conscience and the rules of society, and functions to reward and punish through a system of moral attitudes, conscience, and a sense of guilt. 11.Name any four personality disorders. They include antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder. 12.List down the common behavioural changes in illness. • Conduct disorder • Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) • Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) • Behavioral addiction 13.What is Rorschach Inkblot Test? The Rorschach test is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning.
- 83. UnitVI:DevelopmentalPsychology ShortEssays: 1.Discuss the psychologicalneeds of women. It is assumed that pregnancy and parenthood after a period of infertility are unproblematic and gratifying. However, a review of the literature highlights the complexity of the psychological and social consequences of pregnancy, childbirth and parenting after successful treatment with assisted reproductive technology. These experiences, including those following the creation of new forms of non-genetic and/or social parenthood, require investigation in order to understand how women and their partners integrate their journey from infertility to pregnancy and parenthood after successful assisted reproductive treatment. This paper presents results derived from qualitative interviews with 30 pregnant women and 21 couples after assisted reproductive treatment (repeated rounds of individual interviews with the study participants) conducted from July 2010 to April 2014 as part of a larger ethnographic study exploring the psychosocial needs of women and partners following assisted reproductive treatment in Barcelona’s. The transcribed text was coded into categories of either predetermined or emergent topics. Prior studies have found that couples who achieve pregnancy after infertility may experience higher levels of anxiety in relation to pregnancy. This anxiety can be linked with a higher risk of complications during pregnancy after assisted reproductive treatment compared with spontaneous conception. However, the evidence concerning adjustment to pregnancy and parenthood is inconclusive. This study highlights the necessity for participants to give meaning to these treatments, given the variability that exists in perceptions of infertility and pregnancy after successful assisted reproductive treatment. 2.Discuss the role of the nurse in meeting psychological needs of risk people. Until several decades ago, nursing practice was closely aligned to a medical model of illness. However, nurses today are expected to have the knowledge, skills and competencies to meet the evolving holistic health needs of the patients they care for. Engel’s (1977) biopsychosocial model of health incorporated psychosocial factors and went on to heavily influence current nursing constructs and practice. As Borrell-Carrió et al (2004) said, Engel’s model is both a philosophy of care and a practical clinical guide. Philosophically, it enables us to understand how suffering, disease and illness are affected by multiple biopsychosocial variables while, at a practical level, it helps us to understand the subjective experience of the patient as an essential contributor to health outcomes and humane care. Despite the adoption of the biopsychosocial model into nursing practice, the literature suggests that nurses are not meeting their patients’ holistic needs, resulting in unnecessary suffering, poor access to relevant services and, in some cases, death (Eldridge et al 2011; Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2010; Royal College of Psychiatrists and Royal College of General Practitioners, 2009). As the largest workforce in healthcare provision, nurses are in a pivotal position to positively influence and contribute to effective holistic care. This article explores the issues relating to the psychological needs of patients presenting with physical health problems in acute and primary care settings, with a specific emphasis on the two most common disorders, depression and anxiety.
- 84. 3.How does agroup influence individual behaviour?Explain. The power of the situation can lead people to conform, or go along with the group, even in the face of inaccurate information. Conformity to group norms is driven by two motivations, the desire to fit in and be liked and the desire to be accurate and gain information from the group. Authority figures also have influence over our behaviors, and many people become obedient and follow orders even if the orders are contrary to their personal values. Conformity to group pressures can also result in groupthink, or the faulty decision-making process that results from cohesive group members trying to maintain group harmony. Group situations can improve human behavior through facilitating performance on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on difficult tasks. The presence of others can also lead to social loafing when individual efforts cannot be evaluated. In this section, you’ll learn about each of these concepts as well as the influences that lead to helpful, prosocial behavior. 4.Briefly explain the stages of development.
- 85. 5.Explain the psychologicaldevelopment during adolescence. Psychosocial changes. Linked to the hormonal and neurodevelopmental changes that are taking place are psychosocial and emotional changes and increasing cognitive and intellectual capacities. Over the course of the second decade, adolescents develop stronger reasoning skills, logical and moral thinking, and become more capable of abstract thinking and making rational judgements. Also, they are more able to take other people’s perspectives into consideration and often want to do something about the social issues that they encounter in their lives. At the same time, adolescents are developing and consolidating their sense of self. With this increasing self-identity, including their development of sexual identity, comes growing concern about other people’s opinions, particularly those of their peers. A photomontage Also, adolescents want greater independence and responsibility. They increasingly want to assert more autonomy over their decisions, emotions and actions and to disengage from parental control.26 27 Their social and cultural environment importantly affects how adolescents express this desire for autonomy . 6.Discuss the psychological needs and role nurse in late adulthood. Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair As a person grows older and enters into the retirement years, the pace of life and productivity tend to slow down, granting a person time for reflection upon their life. They may ask the existential question, “It is okay to have been me?” If someone sees themselves as having lived a successful life, they may see it as one filled with productivity, or according to Erik Erikson, integrity. Here integrity is said to consist of the ability to look back on one’s life with a feeling of satisfaction, peace and gratitude for all that has been given and received. Erikson (1959/1980) notes in this regard Thus, persons derive a sense of meaning (i.e., integrity) through careful review of how their lives have been lived (Krause, 2012). Ideally, however, integrity does not stop here, but rather continues to evolve into the virtue of wisdom. According to Erikson, this is the goal during this stage of life. If a person see’s their life as unproductive, or feel that they did not accomplish their life goals, they may become dissatisfied with life and develop what Erikson calls despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
- 86. 7.Discuss the psychologicalneeds and role of nurse in infancy. Preterm birth constitutes a potential risk factor for infant development. There is evidence that parental sensitivity and responsivity can compensate for biological risk. Since the birth of a preterm infant often constitutes a crisis for parents, they may be impaired in their ability to relate appropriately to their infants. The nursing staff can play a vital role in enhancing the interaction between parents (in particular mothers) and their preterm infants, thereby indirectly promoting optimal infant development. This paper describes the psychological tasks faced by mothers of preterm infants, parents' experiences of preterm birth and suggestions as to what the nursing staff can do to facilitate healthy relationships between parents and their preterm infants, thereby preventing possible pathological development. 8.Discuss the role of nurse in the stages of earlychild. Throughout your nursing training and career, you will care for patients and family members of all ages. It is important to have an understanding of where they are from both a developmental and a cognitive perspective. This will enhance your interactions and decrease frustration on both sides. Many believe that they are just memorizing this for a NCLEX- RN test, but I assure you that this is knowledge that you will use every shift. Think about the following examples for a moment: Administering an immunization to a 1 month old versus a 10 year old Preparing a 4 year old for an appendectomy versus an 18 year old Discussing life goals with a 5 year old versus a 20 year old versus a 70 year old Using the same approach with each patient would not successful, you must stop and think about where the individual is at and meet them on that same level. Review the Charts below for examples of where you would expect the individual to be. 9.Define grief and explain the stages of grief. Grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, grief also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical dimensions. While the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss, while grief is the reaction to that loss.
- 87. 10.Discuss how anindividual is influenced by group. The power of the situation can lead people to conform, or go along with the group, even in the face of inaccurate information. Conformity to group norms is driven by two motivations, the desire to fit in and be liked and the desire to be accurate and gain information from the group. Authority figures also have influence over our behaviors, and many people become obedient and follow orders even if the orders are contrary to their personal values. Conformity to group pressures can also result in groupthink, or the faulty decision-making process that results from cohesive group members trying to maintain group harmony. Group situations can improve human behavior through facilitating performance on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on difficult tasks. The presence of others can also lead to social loafing when individual efforts cannot be evaluated. In this section, you’ll learn about each of these concepts as well as the influences that lead to helpful, prosocial behavior. ShortAnswers: 1.Define grief. Grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died, to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss, grief also has physical, cognitive, behavioral, social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical dimensions. While the terms are often used interchangeably, bereavement refers to the state of loss, while grief is the reaction to that loss. 2.List down the stages of grief. • denial. • anger. • bargaining. • depression. • acceptance.
- 88. 3.Enumerate the psychologicalreaction to terminal illness. This qualitative study describes the psychological responses of Korean participants with terminal cancer (stages III-IV) from time of diagnosis to death. Eighteen participants, ages 48 to 73, were interviewed at various phases of dying. Using analytic induction, three categories (nonacceptance, resignation, submission), characteristic patterns of responses over the course of illness and typical responses within categories were generated. 4.Classify groups. • Primary and Secondary Groups • Membership and Reference Groups • Small and Large Groups • Organized and Unorganized Groups 5.Define grouptherapy. Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working with several people at the same time. This type of therapy is widely available at a variety of locations including private therapeutic practices, hospitals, mental health clinics, and community centers. 6.List down the psychological need of women Some of the most basic psychological needs of a woman that can be of great help in wooing her are as follows: 1. Instinctually, a woman has a psychological defense towards men and is naturally cautious towards them. 7.List down the psychological needs of children. In this article, four basic psychological needs, derived from psychological basic research, are presented. These are the needs for orientation and control, pleasure gain/distress avoidance, self esteem protection, and attachment. 8.List down the psychological needs in oldage Personal Connections. The elderly have a basic need to remain connected to family members, friends, and like- minded seniors. This is psychologically beneficial because such connections can minimize issues with depression and loneliness and boost emotional stability. 9.List down the psychological needs during infancy. Since then, developmental scientists have learned a lot about what gets babies off to a good psychological beginning. And it's deceptively simple: It's about breath and heart; rhythm and timing; paying attention
- 89. 10.Define denial. Denial. Denialis one of the most common defense mechanisms. It occurs when you refuse to accept reality or facts. You block external events or circumstances from your mind so that you don't have to deal with the emotional impact. In other words, you avoid the painful feelings or events. 11.Define assertiveness. Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive. In the field of psychology and psychotherapy, it is a skill that can be learned and a mode of communication. 13.Define mourning. Mourning is a feeling and period of sadness after a loss. When your husband dies and you feel very sad and you spend a few weeks crying and feeling depressed over the loss, this is an example of a time when you are in mourning. noun. The actions or expressions of one who has suffered a bereavement. 14.What are vulnerable groups? The term "vulnerable groups" is usually synonymous with "groups at risk". A group is generally considered vulnerable because there is good reason to suspect that the individuals in the group may have special difficulty giving free and informed consent to being the subjects of research.
- 90. UnitVII:MentalHygieneandMentalHealth ShortEssays: 1.Describe the characteristicof mentally health person. • A mentally healthy person has an ability to make adjustments. • A mentally healthy person has a sense of personal worth, feels worthwhile and important. • A mentally healthy person solves his problems largely by his own efforts and makes his own decisions. • He has a sense of personal security and feels secure in a group, shows understanding of other people’s problems and motives. • A mentally healthy person has a sense of responsibility • He can give and accept love. 2.Discuss the concept of mental health and mental hygiene. Health is often used to refer to a state of physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing of the individual. Thus, mental health is one of the components of the broadconcept of health. It is concerned with an optimum level of emotional and behaviouraladjustment of the individual. It is a state of maintaining harmony or balance betweenthe needs, desires, aspirations and attitudes of the individual with respect to the prevailing conditions in the external environment. The term mental hygiene is closely related to mental health. We use the term hygieneto refer to keeping oneself and one’s living and working areas neat and clean inorder to prevent illness and disease. When we extend this concept to the domain ofmind it stands for the art of developing, maintaining, and promoting necessarybehavioural, emotional, and social skills to sustain good, effective and efficient mentalhealth. One can achieve this by following some basic strategies at mental and behavioural levels in one’s daily life.
- 91. 3.Explain the warningsigns of poor mental health with respect to various age groups. • Sadness or crankiness that lasts longer than usual • Withdrawal from friends and family • Loss of interest in things you used to enjoy • High and low extremes of emotion • Big changes in sleeping or eating habits • Worries or fears that seem out of proportion • Ignoring personal grooming and hygiene • Changes in your sex drive • Disorganized or confused thoughts • Excessive anger • Drug or alcohol abuse • Many unexplained physical illnesses • Ideas that don’t line up with reality • Seeing or hearing things that others can’t • Thinking or talking about suicide 4.Discuss the role of nurse in primary prevention of mental disorders Preventative health care has become an increasingly popular area of the health care sector. Using a variety of methods to educate populations and avoid illnesses, this type of health care works to improve the overall wellness of Americans. Preventative health care informs populations, promotes healthy lifestyles and provides early treatment for illnesses. In the industry, the emergence of health care reform and an increased number of individuals suffering from chronic conditions has led to an amplified role for nurses in disease prevention. Nurses in preventative health care are tasked with improving the health of patients through evidence- based recommendations while encouraging individuals to receive preventative services such as screenings, counseling and precautionary medications. Through public health education, nurses can inspire a larger group of people to engage in healthy lifestyles and ultimately live longer lives.
- 92. 5.Discuss the roleof nurse in secondary prevention of mental disorders Violence against women is a complex phenomenon that is related to the present in all cultures gender inequality and has on instrumental character. It’s a public health problem in which nurses can perform a important role of secondary prevention. Methodology: In order to learn about the phenomenon of the gender violence and the procedures for detection and early intervention from primary care nursing, we conducer a literature review through primary and secondary sources. Results: Secondary prevention of gender- based violence is an essential task from the primary care teams. Indicators of suspicion in the literature are diverse, and its detection depends on the possibility of intervention. The identification of cases is based on the relationship of trust and in techniques such as the use of questionnaires of interview. Before his confirmation procedures are regulated by different legal and deontological rules. Conclusions: Gender-based violence is a serious problem which affects, significantly, to the health of women suffers it. Primary care nursing plays an essential role, since it possesses great accessibility and direct contact with the women throughout the life cycle, being able to detect early gender-based violence. To promote secondary prevention, is necessary to improve the training among heath professionals. 6.Discuss the role of nurse in tertiary prevention of mental disorders. Tertiary prevention aims to soften the impact of an ongoing illness or injury that has lasting effects. This is done by helping people manage long-term, often- complex health problems and injuries (e.g. chronic diseases, permanent impairments) in order to improve as much as possible their ability to function, their quality of life and their life expectancy. Examples include: • cardiac or stroke rehabilitation programs, chronic disease management programs (e.g. for diabetes, arthritis, depression, etc.) • support groups that allow members to share strategies for living well • vocational rehabilitation programs to retrain workers for new jobs when they have recovered as much as possible. • Going “upstream”
- 93. 7.Discuss the strategiesof promotion of mental health and prevention of mental illness. Public mental health incorporates a number of strategies from mental well-being promotion to primary prevention and other forms of prevention. There is considerable evidence in the literature to suggest that early interventions and public education can work well for reducing psychiatric morbidity and resulting burden of disease. Educational strategies need to focus on individual, societal and environmental aspects. Targeted interventions at individuals will also need to focus on the whole population. A nested approach with the individual at the heart of it surrounded by family surrounded by society at large is the most suitable way to approach this. This Guidance should be read along with the European Psychiatric Association (EPA) Guidance on Prevention. Those at risk of developing psychiatric disorders also require adequate interventions as well as those who may have already developed illness. However, on the model of triage, mental health and well-being promotion need to be prioritized to ensure that, with the limited resources available, these activities do not get forgotten. One possibility is to have separate programmes for addressing concerns of a particular population group, another that is relevant for the broader general population. Mental health promotion as a concept is important and this will allow prevention of some psychiatric disorders and, by improving coping strategies, is likely to reduce the burden and stress induced by mental illness. 8.Define defence mechanism and explain any three with examples. Defense mechanisms are behaviors people use to separate themselves from unpleasant events, actions, or thoughts. These psychological strategies may help people put distance between themselves and threats or unwanted feelings, such as guilt or shame. 1. Denial Denial is one of the most common defense mechanisms. It occurs when you refuse to accept reality or facts. You block external events or circumstances from your mind so that you don’t have to deal with the emotional impact. In other words, you avoid the painful feelings or events. 2. Repression Unsavory thoughts, painful memories, or irrational beliefs can upset you. Instead of facing them, you may unconsciously choose to hide them in hopes of forgetting about them entirely. 3. Projection Some thoughts or feelings you have about another person may make you uncomfortable. If you project those feelings, you’re misattributing them to the other person.
- 94. 9.Briefly explain defencemechanisms. Inpsychoanalytic theory, a defence mechanism (American English: defense mechanism), is an unconscious psychological operation that functions to protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings related to internal conflicts and outer stressors.[1][2][3] Defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used.[4] Defence mechanisms (German: Abwehrmechanismen) are psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind[5] to manipulate, deny, or distort reality in order to defend against feelings of anxiety and unacceptable impulses and to maintain one's self-schema or other schemas.[6] These processes that manipulate, deny, or distort reality may include the following: repression, or the burying of a painful feeling or thought from one's awareness even though it may resurface in a symbolic form;[4] identification, incorporating an object or thought into oneself;[7] and rationalization, the justification of one's behaviour and motivations by substituting "good" acceptable reasons for the actual motivations.[4][8] In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered the basis for other defence mechanisms.[4] Healthy people normally use different defence mechanisms throughout life. A defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety or social sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope. 10.Define counselling and discuss the stages of counselling. Counselling is the psychotherapeutic relationship in which an individual receives direct help from an adviser or finds an opportunity to release negative feelings and thus clear the way for positive growth in personality. While counseling varies in both form and purpose, most counseling theories embody some form of the following three stages (Krishnan, n.d.): relationship building, problem assessment, and goal setting. Counselors and clients must both be aware that the counseling process requires patience. There is rarely a quick fix, and things may need to get worse before they get better. In addition, the counseling process is collaborative. The counselor does not fix the client; the work requires interaction and commitment from both parties (Krishnan, n.d.). The counseling process is a planned and structured dialogue between client and counselor. The counselor is a trained and qualified professional who helps the client identify the source of their concerns or difficulties; then, together, they find counseling approaches to help deal with the problems faced (Krishnan, n.d.).
- 95. 11.Explain the techniquescounselling. 1. Listening skills—you should always listen carefully and not question the patient too frequently. Allow him to ventilate through your listening. 2. Attending skill—your proper attention should be given to the patient to show interest and concern- verbal and non-verbal. 3. Feedback—expressing the meaning of patient’s feelings and summarizing his problems. 4. Probing—focusing in depth on particular aspects of the situation. 5. Confronting—help the patient to realize his problems or help him to become aware of what he is suffering from, by making proper statements. 12.Describe the importance of guidance and counselling in nursing education. The purposes of Guidance and Counselling can be related to 1 ) Individual, and 2)Society. 1) Individual Related Purposes i) Students to recognize and develop their potentialities to achieve theireducational. aims and objectives and grow and develop academically. ii) Students to know about vocational opportunities available nationally and internationally and make choices considering their aptitude, interest,scope, requirements for future growth. iii) Help students for all round personal arid social development on the basis of their abilities, interest and resources. iv) Students to recognize their capacities, develop self confidence and adjust to academic and schooling problems etc. 2) Society Related Purposes i) To develop good citizenship in students. ii) To develop positive attitude towards family life and community living. iii) Proper utilization of resources.
- 96. 13.Define guidance andcounselling.Briefly explain the purposes of counselling Guidance refers to an advice or a relevant piece of information provided by a superior, to resolve a problem or overcome from difficulty. Counseling refers to a professional advice given by a counselor to an individual to help him in overcoming from personal or psychological problems. Counseling refers to a professional advice given by a counselor to an individual to help him in overcoming from personal or psychological problems.hrough counselling, individuals are encouraged to think about their problems and thus come to a greater understanding of the causes. As a result of this understanding people will, it is hoped, commit themselves to taking action that will solve the problems. The kind of action taken will be a person's own decision, although it may be guided, if necessary by the counsellor. Counselling means choice, not force, not advice. A health worker may think that his or her advice seems reasonable, but it may not be appropriate to the particular circumstances of the person receiving the advice. With counselling, it is the person concerned who takes the decisions so that the solutions adopted are more likely to be appropriate. An appropriate solution will be one that the person can follow with successful results. ShortAnswers: 1.Define mental health. Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make healthy choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood. 2.Define mental hygiene. Mental hygiene, Science of maintaining mental health and preventing disorders to help people function at their full mental potential. It includes all measures taken to promote and preserve mental health: rehabilitation of the mentally disturbed, prevention of mental illness, and aid in coping in a stressful world. 3.What are ego defence mechanisms?Give two examples. Ego defense mechanisms (or factors), defined by Freud as unconscious resources used by the ego to reduce conflict between the id and superego, are a reflection of how an individual deals with conflict and stress. Examples: • Projection. • Displacement.
- 97. 4.List down anyfour characteristics of mentally healthy person. • They feel good about themselves. • They do not become overwhelmed by emotions, such as fear, anger, love, jealousy, guilt, or anxiety. • They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships. • They feel comfortable with other people. 5.List down any four characteristics of mental illness. • Life Satisfaction • Resilience • Support • Flexibility 6.Define halfway homes. A halfway house is a home for people such as former prisoners, psychiatric patients, or drug addicts who can stay there for a limited period of time to get used to life outside prison or hospital. 7.Define repression. Repression, in psychoanalytic theory, the exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings from the conscious mind. Often involving sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories, these unwanted mental contents are pushed into the unconscious mind. 8.Define displacement. In psychology, displacement is an unconscious defence mechanism whereby the mind substitutes either a new aim or a new object for goals felt in their original form to be dangerous or unacceptable. 9.Define reaction formation. In psychology, reaction formation is a defense mechanism in which a person unconsciously replaces an unwanted or anxiety-provoking impulse with its opposite, often expressed in an exaggerated or showy way.
- 98. 10.Define rationalization. Rationalization isa defense mechanism (ego defense) in which apparent logical reasons are given to justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses.It is an attempt to find reasons for behaviors, especially ones own. Rationalizations are used to defend against feelings of guilt, maintain self-respect, and protect oneself from criticism. 11.Define sublimation. In psychology, sublimation is a mature type of defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse. 12.Define projection. Psychological projection is the process of misinterpreting what is "inside" as coming from "outside".[1] It forms the basis of empathy by the projection of personal experiences to understand someone else's subjective world.[1] In its malignant forms, it is a defense mechanism in which the ego defends itself against disowned and highly negative parts of the self by denying their existence in themselves and attributing them to others, breeding misunderstanding and causing untold interpersonal damage. 13.What is actingout? In the psychology of defense mechanisms and self- control, acting out is the performance of an action considered bad or anti-social. In general usage, the action performed is destructive to self or to others. 14.What is compensation? In psychology, compensation is a strategy whereby one covers up, consciously or unconsciously, weaknesses, frustrations, desires, or feelings of inadequacy or incompetence in one life area through the gratification or (drive towards) excellence in another area. Compensation can cover up either real or imagined deficiencies and personal or physical inferiority. Positive compensations may help one to overcome one's difficulties. On the other hand, negative compensations do not, which results in a reinforced feeling of inferiority. 15.What is assertiveness? Assertiveness is the quality of being self-assured and confident without being aggressive. In the field of psychology and psychotherapy, it is a skill that can be learned and a mode of communication.
- 99. 16.Define intellectualization. In psychology,intellectualization is a defense mechanism by which reasoning is used to block confrontation with an unconscious conflict and its associated emotional stress – where thinking is used to avoid feeling. It involves removing one's self, emotionally, from a stressful event. 17.List down the areas of adjustment. In psychology, adjustment is that condition of a person who is able to adapt to changes in their physical, occupational, and social environment. In other words, adjustment refers to the behavioural process of balancing conflicting needs, or needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals regularly adjust to their environment. For example, when they are stimulated by their physiological state to seek food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to the hunger stimulus. Adjustment disorder occurs when there is an inability to make a normal adjustment to some need or stress in the environment. 18.Define guidance. Guidance is process of helping individual through their own efforts to develop and discover their potentialities for personal happiness and social usefulness. 19.Define counselling. Guidance is process of helping individual through their own efforts to develop and discover their potentialities for personal happiness and social usefulness.Counseling psychology is a psychological specialty that encompasses research and applied work in several broad domains: counseling process and outcome; supervision and training; career development and counseling; and prevention and health. 20.List down the areas of guidance. • Appraisal and Interpretation of Personal Characteristics • Adjustment to School, to Teachers and Pupils • Orientation to Educational, Vocational , Vocational Opportunity and Requirements • Development of Personal Potentialities
- 100. UnitVIII:PsychologicalAssessmentandT ests ShortAnswers: 1.Classify psychological tests. PersonalityTests Achievement Tests Attitude Tests Aptitude Tests 2.List down the steps in development of psychological tests. • Planning • Writing items for the test • Preliminary administration of the test • Checking the reliability of the final test • Checking the validity of the final test • Preparation of the test manual and reproduction of the test 3.What is achievement test? An achievement test is designed to measure a person's level of skill, accomplishment, or knowledge in a specific area. 4.What is aptitude test An aptitude test is an exam used to determine an individual's skill or propensity to succeed in a given activity. Aptitude tests assume that individuals have inherent strengths and weaknesses, and have a natural inclination toward success or failure in specific areas based on their innate characteristics. 5.What is individual and grouptest? Individual Tests: A test can be said individual test in the sense that they can be administered to only one person at a time. Many of the tests in these scales require oral responses from the examinee or necessitate the manipulation of the materials. Group Test: Group test was developed to meet a pressing practical need. Group test can be administered to a group of persons at a time. Group tests were designed as mass testing instruments; they not only permit the simultaneous examination of large groups but they also use simplified instruction and administration procedures.
- 101. 6.Write any fiveuses of psychologicaltests. A psychological test is used to measure an individual's different abilities, such as their aptitude in a particular field, cognitive functions like memory and spatial recognition, or even traits like introvertedness. These tests are based on scientifically tested psychological theories. 7.List down the limitation of psychologicaltests. • Test Construction. Some psychological tests are constructed in ways that make them unreliable and unscientific • Cultural Bias. Many psychological tests, particularly intelligence tests, can carry cultural biases • Accuracy • Interpretation 8.Define reliability. The term reliability in psychological research refers to the consistency of a research study or measuring test. For example, if a person weighs themselves during the course of a day they would expect to see a similar reading. Scales which measured weight differently each time would be of little use. 9.Define validity. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. 1 It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Psychological assessment is an important part of both experimental research and clinical treatment. 10.What are ratingscales? The rating scale is one of the oldest and most versatile of assessment techniques. Rating scales present users with an item and ask them to select from a number of choices. The rating scale is similar in some respects to a multiple choice. 11.List down the characteristics of psychologicaltests. Five main characteristics of a good psychological test are as follows: • Objectivity • Reliability • Validity • Norms • Practicability