This document discusses discrepancies between pronunciation textbooks in their presentation of American English sounds. It analyzes differences in how textbooks represent vowels, diphthongs, and consonants using the International Phonetic Alphabet. Reasons for inconsistencies include regional pronunciation variations, differing linguistic analyses, and simplification for students. The article examines symbols for specific sounds like /i/, /u/, /a/, /ə/, diphthongs, and consonants like /r/ and /j/. Teachers are encouraged to be aware of discrepancies that could confuse learners using multiple textbooks.
The influence of phraseological material on the motivation for learning forei...SubmissionResearchpa
This article discusses the study of phraseology and the impact of phraseological material on the motivation for learning foreign languages, improving vocabulary of learners, identifying differences and features of cultures of different nations. The study of the influence of phraseological material on motivation is necessary to identify the role of phraseological turns in the process of teaching foreign languages. Therefore, the subject of our research will be the process of mastering phraseological units. Since this is of great importance for the methodological base of the school. In our time, knowledge of one or several foreign languages is necessary and prestigious. There are many methods of accelerated, but not always effective learning of foreign languages. Therefore, it is necessary that the level of teaching foreign languages at school increases, and for this, new teaching methods should be sought. The study of phraseological units maintains interest in the study of foreign languages. It follows that motivation will increase and become stronger if we introduce such elements as phraseological phrases, proverbs and sayings. Moreover, the article explains the main classification of phraseological units in order to use them correctly in speech. by Rano Akhmedova Ashurovna 2020. The influence of phraseological material on the motivation for learning foreign languages. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 9 (Sep. 2020), 169-173. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i9.614. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/614/586 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/614
The influence of phraseological material on the motivation for learning forei...SubmissionResearchpa
This article discusses the study of phraseology and the impact of phraseological material on the motivation for learning foreign languages, improving vocabulary of learners, identifying differences and features of cultures of different nations. The study of the influence of phraseological material on motivation is necessary to identify the role of phraseological turns in the process of teaching foreign languages. Therefore, the subject of our research will be the process of mastering phraseological units. Since this is of great importance for the methodological base of the school. In our time, knowledge of one or several foreign languages is necessary and prestigious. There are many methods of accelerated, but not always effective learning of foreign languages. Therefore, it is necessary that the level of teaching foreign languages at school increases, and for this, new teaching methods should be sought. The study of phraseological units maintains interest in the study of foreign languages. It follows that motivation will increase and become stronger if we introduce such elements as phraseological phrases, proverbs and sayings. Moreover, the article explains the main classification of phraseological units in order to use them correctly in speech. by Rano Akhmedova Ashurovna 2020. The influence of phraseological material on the motivation for learning foreign languages. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 9 (Sep. 2020), 169-173. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i9.614. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/614/586 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/614
This presentation shows the common errors and makes suggestions of what to work on next in the classroom. with a L2 speaker It provides a language comparison between English and Spanish.
On Communicative Competence and Students' Performance in English Languagetheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in...Premier Publishers
The mispronunciation of English words with silent sounds is a common problem in ESL classrooms in Ibadan South-east Local Government Area. Although there have been several efforts within and outside the classroom to improve the quality of ESL learners’ pronunciation of silent sounds in English language, the problem still persists. Age, maturation, language environment, poor quality of instruction, exposure and other causative factors have been identified to be responsible for the problem of mispronunciation in ESL classroom. Therefore, this study determines the relationship between ESL students’ phonological variations, language exposureand their achievement in selected silent sounds. Three null hypotheses were generated, and the study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type with a population of 207 students in intact classes from four randomly selected schools. Two research instruments were used and the data were analyzed using regression statistics. Results show that phonological variations had no significant relationship with achievement in silent sounds, language exposure had no significant relation with students’ achievement in silent sounds and the two independent variables had no composite contribution to achievement in silent sounds. It was recommended that teachers should ensure that students are adequately exposed to native-like pronunciation in the target language.
This presentation shows the common errors and makes suggestions of what to work on next in the classroom. with a L2 speaker It provides a language comparison between English and Spanish.
On Communicative Competence and Students' Performance in English Languagetheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Phonological Variations and Language Exposure as Correlates of Achievement in...Premier Publishers
The mispronunciation of English words with silent sounds is a common problem in ESL classrooms in Ibadan South-east Local Government Area. Although there have been several efforts within and outside the classroom to improve the quality of ESL learners’ pronunciation of silent sounds in English language, the problem still persists. Age, maturation, language environment, poor quality of instruction, exposure and other causative factors have been identified to be responsible for the problem of mispronunciation in ESL classroom. Therefore, this study determines the relationship between ESL students’ phonological variations, language exposureand their achievement in selected silent sounds. Three null hypotheses were generated, and the study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type with a population of 207 students in intact classes from four randomly selected schools. Two research instruments were used and the data were analyzed using regression statistics. Results show that phonological variations had no significant relationship with achievement in silent sounds, language exposure had no significant relation with students’ achievement in silent sounds and the two independent variables had no composite contribution to achievement in silent sounds. It was recommended that teachers should ensure that students are adequately exposed to native-like pronunciation in the target language.
A study on urdu speakers’ use of english stress patterns phonological variationMehranMouzam
The aim of this research paper is to study Urdu Speakers’ use of English Stress Patterns and their phonological variation from native speakers of Pakistani EFL learners. The stress patterns of English language are affected by the influence of L1Urdu speakers’ perception in Pakistan which ultimately influences English pronunciation and sometimes its meanings as well. It also results difficulties faced by learners in our class rooms. Based on phonological differences between two languages, the researchers assume that there is a wide discrepancy in stress patterns among those spoken and used by native speakers and read and perceived by Pakistani students in our classrooms using English as second language. It carries a tangible impact of Urdu stress pattern with almost equal stress on all the syllables which is quite problematic both for teachers and learners of English whether it is as Second Language Learning or as Foreign Language Learning. To find out concrete results quantitative analysis of stress patterns was made on the selected sample taking from public sector university students. Findings of the research provide a useful pedagogical insight into the perspective of English language teaching with particular emphasis on spoken proficiency of English among students whose L1 is Urdu. The findings of the research suggest invariably the wrong placement of lexical stress in English words in Pakistan by Urdu speakers who have Urdu as L1 because they either place the stress on the syllable preceding the actual syllable or following it. Finally, it is suggested to follow the native speakers tone as a final remedy.
International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science (IRJES)irjes
The core of the vision IRJES is to disseminate new knowledge and technology for the benefit of all, ranging from academic research and professional communities to industry professionals in a range of topics in computer science and engineering. It also provides a place for high-caliber researchers, practitioners and PhD students to present ongoing research and development in these areas.
Teaching English Consonants to Spanish Speakers Universidad de Guayaquilinventionjournals
Like many other languages, English also has a wide variation in pronunciation, which not only
marks its differences from other languages but also indicates the deviations observed among English speakers
of dissimilar backgrounds. The uses of stress, pitch as well as syllables apparently vary among native as well as
non-native English speakers. The variances observed in the use and the pronunciation of each syllable in
English becomes more apparent when depending on the use of the phonemes as well as the dialect. In English
speaking, the pronunciation of vowels also differs from the pronunciation of the consonants depending on their
uses. Change in the pronunciation, when speaking English, is observed to be a major characteristic of the
language. On a wider note, English pronunciation is not always predictable depending on the spellings, which
also vary from one region and culture to the other, as in the case of British English and American English.
Depending on the use of rhythm and syllables differently, the pronunciation changes, making it difficult for the
learners to grasp each word separately. However, the uses of the vowels are quite different from the use of the
consonants. Pronunciation of consonants usually changes with the change in its positioning. Spanish speakers
have been observed to be quiet similar to the English speakers. However, the Spanish languages have been
observed to be a bit different from the English speakers in respect to the use of the vowels and consonants. It is
owing to these variations that the meaning of each word changes with the change in its pronunciation.
Accordingly, the research paper elaborates the use of the consonants and place along with their manner of
articulation. Detailed description of the use of consonants has also been provided in the discussion henceforth,
comparing the changes involved with their uses
Teaching English Consonants to Spanish Speakers Universidad de Guayaquilinventionjournals
Like many other languages, English also has a wide variation in pronunciation, which not only marks its differences from other languages but also indicates the deviations observed among English speakers of dissimilar backgrounds. The uses of stress, pitch as well as syllables apparently vary among native as well as non-native English speakers. The variances observed in the use and the pronunciation of each syllable in English becomes more apparent when depending on the use of the phonemes as well as the dialect. In English speaking, the pronunciation of vowels also differs from the pronunciation of the consonants depending on their uses. Change in the pronunciation, when speaking English, is observed to be a major characteristic of the language. On a wider note, English pronunciation is not always predictable depending on the spellings, which also vary from one region and culture to the other, as in the case of British English and American English. Depending on the use of rhythm and syllables differently, the pronunciation changes, making it difficult for the learners to grasp each word separately. However, the uses of the vowels are quite different from the use of the consonants. Pronunciation of consonants usually changes with the change in its positioning. Spanish speakers have been observed to be quiet similar to the English speakers. However, the Spanish languages have been observed to be a bit different from the English speakers in respect to the use of the vowels and consonants. It is owing to these variations that the meaning of each word changes with the change in its pronunciation. Accordingly, the research paper elaborates the use of the consonants and place along with their manner of articulation. Detailed description of the use of consonants has also been provided in the discussion henceforth, comparing the changes involved with their uses.
A contrastive linguistic analysis of inflectional bound morphemes of English,...Bahram Kazemian
In order to contrast and compare inflectional bound morphemes of English, Azeri and Persian languages and to identify their similarities and dissimilarities, inventories of English, Azeri and Farsi inflections, i.e. their set of affixes, were gathered, studied, and elaborated with some examples, and with English meanings. Eventually, after comparison, the researchers ended up with a series of statements about similarities and differences between these languages. The design of the present study is comparative-analytic which concentrates on the comparison and contrasting inflections of English, Azeri and Persian languages. The data is analyzed and illustrated through the contrastive method.
Different intonation pattern is one of the factors affecting the learning of L2 pronunciation. The contrastive analysis of English-Persian intonation patterns has shown that both languages are similar in sentence-final intonation while they are different in incomplete sentences. To this end, this paper describes English-Persian intonation patterns to look at the differences and similarities of the two languages to improve the effectiveness of L2 learning.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
Building better applications for business users with SAP Fiori.
• What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
• How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
• How to get started with SAP Fiori today
• How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
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The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
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Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
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Why You Should Replace Windows 11 with Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 for enhanced perfor...SOFTTECHHUB
The choice of an operating system plays a pivotal role in shaping our computing experience. For decades, Microsoft's Windows has dominated the market, offering a familiar and widely adopted platform for personal and professional use. However, as technological advancements continue to push the boundaries of innovation, alternative operating systems have emerged, challenging the status quo and offering users a fresh perspective on computing.
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GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
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Rapid and secure feature delivery is a goal across every application team and every branch of the DoD. The Navy’s DevSecOps platform, Party Barge, has achieved:
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zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex Proofs
Pronunciation Textbook Discrepancies
1. E l i s a b e t h G a re i s
U S
NITED TATES
Pronunciation
Textbook
Discrepancies
A AMERICAN ENGLISH
WIDE VARIETY OF PRONUNCIATION TEXTBOOKS ON ARE ON
the market today, allowing teachers to select the most suitable materials for their
ESOL students. This abundance of texts would be ideal, were it not for some
inconsistencies in the presentation of pronunciation features. Thus, textbooks
often differ in the use of pronunciation symbols, the description of individual
vowels and consonants, the number of sounds characterized as diphthongs, and
the delineation of pitch and stress patterns. Given the fact that many ESOL stu-
dents move through several texts in the course of their studies, these discrepan-
cies are confusing and can create insecurity among students as well as teachers.
This article provides discussion of the most common discrepancies, exempli-
fied in five popular pronunciation texts: Accurate English, Pronunciation Pairs,
Phrase by Phrase, Sound Advantage, Speechcraft, and the Manual of American Eng-
lish Pronunciation. The texts were selected for their range from beginning to
V 43 N 2 2005 E T F
18 OLUME UMBER NGLISH EACHING ORUM
2. advanced level and for their diversity in nota- States may have reduced the perceived need
for an all-enveloping sound description sys-
tion and content. (Note: No criticism of the
tem, like the IPA.
selected texts is intended. All of the listed
books are internally consistent and represent
Pronunciation textbooks
excellent guides for pronunciation instruc-
If discrepancies were limited to monolingual
tion.) Before discussion of the pronunciation
versus bilingual language materials, the relevance
texts, we’ll take a brief look at related discrep-
of this issue for ESOL students—especially at
ancies in monolingual dictionaries.
the beginning and intermediate level, where stu-
While this article focuses on U.S. English,
dents seldom use monolingual dictionaries—
similar discrepancies exist in publications on
would be minor. Unfortunately, discrepancies
other varieties of English. Teachers are encour-
can also be found within the realm of foreign
aged to compare the findings in this article with
and second language materials. Since deviations
their teaching materials and to explore incon-
are probably more confusing with respect to
sistencies in their own linguistic environment.
pronunciation texts than bilingual dictionar-
Monolingual dictionaries ies—with students going through several text-
books as their proficiency increases—the fol-
The idiosyncratic use of pronunciation sym-
lowing discussion uses pronunciation texts as
bols in monolingual American English dictio-
examples. Discrepancies with respect to vowel
naries has been a long-standing source of frus-
sounds will be discussed first, followed by con-
tration for language students and teachers
sonants and prosodics.
alike. Sound transcriptions differ from dictio-
nary to dictionary and bear little or no resem- Vowels
blance to the international pronunciation In general, ESOL pronunciation textbooks
alphabet (IPA), which is standard in most bilin- adhere to IPA standards to a great extent.
gual dictionaries and pronunciation textbooks. Among the vowels, for instance, the following
The vowel sound in the word tap, for example, sound symbols enjoy widespread agreement and
is consistently transcribed as /Q/ in bilingual are used consistently, without much variation:
/I/, /E/, /Q/, /´/, /ç/, and /U/. There are a few
dictionaries and pronunciation texts. In mono-
sounds and intonation features, however, that
lingual U.S. dictionaries, however, transcrip-
seem to incite such strong passions as to war-
tions usually involve a variation of the letter a
rant idiosyncratic notations. When these devia-
as the preferred symbol. The American Heritage
tions occur, they often represent not only devi-
Dictionary, for instance, uses /a(/ and Merriam-
ations from IPA notation but also diversity in
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (Webster’s) uses
opinion over the specific nature of the sounds
/a/—a symbol which in many bilingual dictio-
and features.
naries and pronunciation textbooks stands for
Table 1 (next page) shows a selection of vowel
the vowel sound in top, rather than tap. Similar
sounds as they are treated in various pronunci-
confusion reigns for /i/ which in most bilingual
ation texts. Also included are two monolingual
dictionaries and pronunciation texts stands for
dictionaries to illustrate the additional dichoto-
the vowel in teen but in Webster’s is used for the
my between the ESOL and monolingual realm.
vowel in tin. Likewise, /j/ stands for the begin-
Naturally, textbook authors have reasons
ning of the word year in many foreign language
for their choices. Sometimes the various choices
education materials but is used in Webster’s for
and their reasons are provided in the text; other
the beginning of the word jeer. These are just
times they are not. It is when no explanation is
a few examples. Discrepancies also exist with
given that students may become confused. The
respect to other sounds.
following is an attempt to explain the discrep-
Students often ask why monolingual Amer-
ancies in the vowel section of Table 1.
ican dictionaries don’t use the IPA. The answer
probably lies in the same U.S. insularity that /i/ and /u/
The sound /i/ is transcribed /iy/ or /iy/ in some
has resulted in so many other deviations from
international standards (including standards pronunciation texts to indicate that, especially
of measurement, weight, and temperature). In in the Eastern United States, there is a tongue
addition, the relatively minor importance of movement at the end of the sound, rendering
foreign language education in the United it a glide rather than a pure vowel. For the
E T F V 43 N 2 2005 19
NGLISH EACHING ORUM OLUME UMBER
3. SOUND TYPES COMPARISON OF PRONUNCIATION SYMBOLS
AND SAMPLE WORDS SELECTED PRONUNCIATION TEXTS AND MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARIES
IN
AE MP PP PBP SA SC VD AH W
Vowels
iy
i iy iy iy iy i e# e#
bee
a a
A a A A a A A/Å
palm
´ ´ √ √ ´ √ √ u( ´
custom
´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´
custom
—
uw
u uw uw uw uw u oo ü
boot
Diphthongs
aI ay ay Ai ay ay aI quot;‹ quot;‹
pie
aw aw aU/AU ou
aU aw aw Au o#
out
.
oi
çI çy çy çi oy oy çI oi
boy
ey
eI ey ey ey ey e a# a#
pay
ow
oU ow ow ow ow o/oU o# o#
boat
Consonants
y y y y y y j y y
year
’ ’ ’
´’ ´r Œr ´’ ´r Œr Œ’ u^r ´r
curler
’ ’ ’
´’ ´r Œr ´’ ´r ´r ´’ ´r ´r
curler
Pronunciation Texts
AE = Accurate English • MP = Manual of American English Pronunciation • PP =
Pronunciation Pairs • PbP = Phrase by Phrase • SA = Sound Advantage • SC =
Speechcraft • VD = Voice and Diction
Monolingual Dictionaries
AH = The American Heritage Dictionary • W = Webster’s
Table 1
Pronunciation textbook
discrepancies
same reason, /u/ is sometimes transcribed /uw/ of these symbols are often used interchange-
or /uw/ (Ladefoged 1982). ably in language texts.
One reason for pronunciation textbook au- The difference between /a/, /A/, and /Å/ is
thors (or editors) to eschew the glide notation that the sounds constitute a progression from
and use /i/ and /u/ instead is that they may be front to back vowel. Specifically, /a/, which is
from a part of the United States other than the farthest in the front, is used at the beginning
East and therefore prefer the pure vowel tran- of diphthongs; the low, tense /A/ is the sound
scription. In addition, there is the argument most Americans use for the vowel in balm; and
that /iy/ and /uw/ are based on phonemic (not the low, lax /Å/, which is farthest back and more
phonetic) analysis and that glide transcriptions rounded, is accompanied with a slight round-
mix vowel and consonant (or semi-vowel) sym- ing of the lips and found mostly in New Eng-
bols, therefore making them undesirable. land and British speakers, as in bomb (Eison-
The reason for the transcription discrepan- son 1992; Ladefoged 1982).
cies is therefore a combination of regional pre- In the case of the three a-sounds, the rea-
disposition, linguistic philosophy, and ulti- son for the discrepancies seems to be one of
mately personal choice. desired simplification. The symbol /a/ or /A/ is
often used as a stand-in for all variations, so
/ɑ/
ɑ
that students are spared from, perhaps unnec-
Moving down the vowel chart from /i/, the
essary, confusion.
next controversial sound is the /A/, as in palm.
The IPA differentiates between three low, albeit /ə/
ə
similar vowels and recommends three different The issue of the schwa may be the most
symbols: /a/, /A/, and /Å/. At least the first two vexing of all discrepancies. ESOL students are
VOLUME 43 NUMBER 2 2005 E T F
20 NGLISH EACHING ORUM
4. often told that the schwa (or /´/) is the most scription of /o/ more logical) and a wider range
common sound in English, used for the major- in other regions of the United States (giving
ity of unstressed vowel sounds. However, some more support for the use of the symbol /oU/)
textbooks differentiate between the unstressed (Ladefoged 1992). Other times, it is not clear
schwa and the stressed, slightly lower and more whether variations indicate personal convic-
back sound /√/, while others use the symbol /´/ tions of the authors or whether choices are
for both. In other words, some textbooks main- made to simplify sound descriptions and limit
tain that the vowel sounds in the words above text-internal symbol variety for the sake of
and custom are different (i.e., that the stressed low- or intermediate-proficiency students.
syllable is pronounced /√/ and the unstressed Consonants
one /´/), while other textbooks recommend Pronunciation textbooks exhibit fewer dis-
pronouncing them identically as schwas for all crepancies with respect to consonants than vow-
syllables. Proponents of the latter pronuncia- els. If there are problem areas, they seem to be
tion argue that it is mostly British speakers who of relatively minor relevance as well.
use the /√/. While the difference between /√/
The r-sound
and /´/ may be small, one reason to retain the
ESOL students who are familiar with the
distinction is that it forces students to focus on
markedly different r-sounds in other languages
the important features of stress and vowel re-
might find the use of the symbol /r/ for the
duction in American English (Edwards 1992).
American r-sound slightly confusing. In IPA
In a related matter, a more minor deviation
notation, the symbol /r/ actually indicates a
can also be found concerning final -ed and -es
trill, as in Spanish perro (dog), for example. The
(as in rented and houses). Some texts recom-
American r-sound (variably described as a glide,
mend a pronunciation of /Id/ and /Iz/, others of
liquid, semi-vowel, or approximant) would be
/´d/ and /´z/. Yet others give a choice between
more accurately transcribed as /®/ (Edwards
the two versions, stressing that both /´/ and /I/
1992; Ladefoged 1982). Simplification seems
are common as reduced vowels. No specific
to be the reason for the substitution.
reasons for the discrepancy is apparent; the
/j/
matter seems to be one of personal choice.
Maybe the most confusing IPA deviation can
Diphthongs
be noticed in the frequent use of /y/ for the
The last vowel discrepancy is the question
first sound in year. According to the IPA, /y/ is
of how many diphthongs exist in American
the rounded vowel sound found in the French
English. Some textbooks count five main
une or German über. For the beginning sound
diphthongs (/aI/, /aU/, /çI/, /eI/, /oU/); others
in year—which is variably described as a con-
count only three (/aI/, /aU/, /çI/) and consider
sonantal or nonconsonantal sound (Edwards
/ey/ and /ow/ glides, similar to /iy/ and /uw/.
1992)—the symbol /j/ should be used. Pre-
In other words, /eI/ and /oU/ are considered
sumably, the reason for using /y/ instead is the
full diphthongs by some, while others maintain
similarity of this symbol with the letter y, as in
that the second vowel sound is not fully devel-
year. This connection is supposed to allow stu-
oped and the whole sound is therefore more of
dents a more intuitive approach to the pro-
a glide. The book Voice and Diction goes even
nunciation of this sound.
farther and transcribes the two sounds as /e/
The er-sound
and /o/—with the rationale that they are non-
Pronunciation texts vary in their transcrip-
phonemic diphthongs; i.e., there are no mini-
tion of the r-colored (or rhoticized) vowels
mal pairs differentiating diphthong and pure
found in words such as curler. In different texts
vowel sound.
/Œr/, /´r/, /Œ’’/, and /´’’/ are used to transcribe
Disagreement also abounds on the starting
the sound. The first issue here concerns the
and ending vowel of these sounds. For the be-
number of symbols in the transcription. Pro-
ginning of /aI/, for example, symbols vary from
ponents of a single symbol for the sound com-
/a/ to /A/; for the end of /aI/, the transcriptions
bination (/Œ’’/ and /´’’/)—which is also recom-
/I/, /i/, and /y/ are used. Sometimes, the choice
mended by the IPA—maintain that the sound
is influenced by regional differences. The
is a phonetic reality and should therefore be
diphthong /oU/, for example, has a relatively
limited range in the Midwest (making a tran- represented as such (Edwards 1992).
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NGLISH EACHING ORUM OLUME UMBER
5. The second discrepancy concerns the issue Terminology
Discrepancies in the realm of prosodics
of stress. Some texts differentiate between
start with confusing terminology. The nomen-
stressed (/Œr/ or /Œ’’/) and unstressed er-sounds
clature used for the stress on a syllable (e.g.,
(/´r/ or /´’’/). The symbols /Œr/ and /Œ’’/ there-
the third syllable in the word informátion), for
by indicate a higher tongue position and are
example, includes the terms syllable stress and
used for stressed sounds, whereas /´r/ and /´’’/
word stress; whereas terms used for the main
have a lower tongue position and are used for
stress in a thought group or sentence range from
unstressed sounds. The word curler would
sentence stress, to phrase stress, information focus,
thus be transcribed / kŒrl´r/ or / kŒ’’l´’’/.
and—again—word stress (e.g., Eisonson 1992).
Other texts don’t differentiate between
The term word stress can therefore indicate
stressed and unstressed er and use one of the
either type of stress, depending on the pronun-
four alternatives as a stand-in for all occurrences.
ciation text, which is indeed very confusing.
Since the difference between stressed and un-
Apparently, no prescription exists. One
stressed er is minor, this widespread simplifi-
hopes that, in the course of time, a single com-
cation is perhaps understandable.
mon usage would manifest itself and become
/w/
the standard.
The allophonic difference between /w/ for
Stress and intonation features
the first sound in weather and /hw/ or /„/ for
Differences in diacritics for primary and sec-
the first sound in whether is minor as well. It is
ondary stress are also common (e.g., «infor'ma-
therefore only occasionally noted in pronunci-
tion, ínformàtion). In addition, textbooks differ
ation texts. The rationale is that the differenti-
in whether they indicate secondary stress or limit
ation seems to be disappearing in most forms
themselves to primary stress notations only.
of English, especially in frequently used
Similarly, the number of pitch levels in
words, such as what and when (Eisonson
American English is either not mentioned at
1992; Ladefoged 1982).
all or differs between texts. Ranges from three
Final stops
to four or more levels are common.
Of slightly more relevance are discrepancies
There are also two different descriptions of
in the description of final stops: /t/, /p/, /k/.
the rising sentence intonation used for yes/no
While some texts recommend releasing final
questions, such as Do you want coffee? In some
stops, others describe them as unreleased. Yet
texts, the pitch is described as level until it rises
others give the speaker an option of releasing or on the last syllable (see Illustration 1 below
not releasing them. At play are issues of formal- left); in others, it is depicted as level followed
ity and careful articulation, as well as sound by a fall-rise; i.e., a dip to a lower pitch level
environment. Most people, for example, don’t prior to the rise (see Illustration 2 below right).
release final stops when the next word begins The latter was previously considered British
with a nasal, as in cat nap or with another stop, but is now often used in American English as
as in the cat pushed (Ladefoged 1982). well. Interestingly, while some pronunciation
Prosodics texts describe the yes/no question intonation as
Apart from discrepancies among vowel and a simple rise (as in Illustration 1), taped speech
consonant transcriptions, differences also exist samples accompanying the books may feature
in the treatment of prosodic features, such as fall-rise patterns and thus contradict the
stress and intonation. Many of the issues are textual description (e.g., Hagen and Grogran
outside the purview of the IPA and therefore 1992). It’s possible that such internal discrep-
lack a standardizing force. ancies are simply based on a difference between
(left) Illustration 1
Rise
(right) Illustration 2
Fall-rise
Do you want coffee?
Do you want coffee?
VOLUME 43 NUMBER 2 2005 E T F
22 NGLISH EACHING ORUM
6. author and taped speaker; or they may be a ceive the vowel sounds in the word custom to
sign of changes in language use overtaking be different even though they are transcribed as
established transcription habits. In either case, the same sound in their textbook). Alternative-
teachers and students should be aware of the ly, instructors may preempt questions by teach-
two alternatives. ing a whole unit on the more controversial
issues. Such a unit could be as basic or com-
Conclusion plex as the students’ proficiency level allows.
Many more sound and prosodic discrepan- Since regional differences and personal pref-
cies exist than have been discussed in this arti- erences (e.g., desired level of detail, formality,
cle. The reasons for discrepancies vary. What and speed) seem to be major influences in the
follows are the most common explanations phenomenon of discrepancies, it may be help-
and one example for each. ful for teachers to diagnose their own speech
patterns and choose the transcriptions that
• Regional differences. For example, many
best match their pronunciation. If an instruc-
speakers in the Eastern United States dif-
tor pronounces the controversial vowel in teen
ferentiate between the vowels in Don and
without a glide, for example, /i/ would be the
Dawn; not so in the Western United States.
symbol of choice instead of the other alterna-
• Level of simplicity or detail desired in a
tives /iy/ or /iy/. Such a personalized transcrip-
publication. For example, the number of
tion system can provide consistency in the face
content word categories—which are im-
of textbook variations and even a level of sup-
portant for the stress-timed rhythm of
port for the instructor.
English—range from the basic list of
Instructors often teach two or more differ-
nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and full verbs
ent levels of students, with different textbooks,
to expanded, more comprehensive inven-
in the same term. Rather than having to re-
tories that include demonstratives, pos-
member how each book deals with the contro-
sessive and reflexive pronouns, negatives,
versial features and risk losing track of which of
questions words, and adverbial particles,
the controversial symbols to use in which class,
such as off in take off.
the teacher can thus adhere to his or her own
• Levels of careful articulation, often com-
system. Not only does this method relieve the
bined with British versus American ten-
instructor of having to recollect the countless
dencies. For example, the medial t pre-
variant combinations in the assigned textbooks,
ceding an unstressed syllable, as in city,
it also ensures that the teacher’s transcription
can be pronounced vigorously as a /t/ or
symbols match his or her specific speech pat-
as the quick, less vigorous intervocalic
terns, making lessons on the controversial fea-
tongue flap or tap /R/.
tures more authentic and coherent.
• Speed of articulation. For example, /t/ Thus, a personalized transcription system
after /n/, as in twenty, may be articulated will allow instructors to navigate between text-
in slow but not articulated in fast speech. books more easily and ensure cohesion be-
tween their modeling and transcriptions. In
Many of these discrepancies are minor in rel-
addition, the teacher’s use of his or her own
evance or may constitute levels of detail rather
choices can become a catalyst for addressing
than true differences. Others are more confus-
the question of variation. When teachers intro-
ing but are explained sufficiently for the read-
duce the issue of textbook discrepancies to their
er to make educated choices.
students, explain the points of contention, and
It is when controversial features are unex-
model their own and the alternative speech pat-
plained in the textbook and are not discussed in
terns, they make students familiar with impor-
the classroom that an already difficult subject
tant and interesting issues in pronunciation
can become unnecessarily taxing. Instructors
theory and practice, as well as raise awareness
should therefore be aware of the major discrep-
about the range of acceptable patterns (Levis
ancies found in pronunciation texts and dictio-
1999). A teacher may use a fall-rise pitch pat-
naries and be prepared to address them in class.
tern, for example, when discussing yes/no
This can be done in a variety of ways. Teachers
question intonation but point out that the text-
may opt for a case-by-case explanation when
students question a discrepancy (e.g., they per- book features the alternative level-rise pattern.
➪ 31
E T F V 43 N 2 2005 23
NGLISH EACHING ORUM OLUME UMBER
7. Students may then experiment with both pat- Eisonson, J. 1992. Voice and diction: A program for
improvement (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
terns and decide which one suits them better.
Hagen, S. A and P.E. Grogran. 1992. Sound advan-
Such experimentation can heighten a stu-
tage: A pronunciation book. Englewood Cliffs,
dent’s sense of linguistic self-awareness and pro-
NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
mote a spirit of adventure in the classroom. It
Hahn, L. D and W. B. Dickerson. 1999. Speech-
also helps empower the students to become re- craft: Discourse pronunciation for advanced learn-
sponsible for their own learning. In the end, ers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
this level of insight and the realization that Ladefoged, P. 1982. A course in phonetics (2nd ed.).
there are choices may well capture at least some New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
students’ imagination and lead them on a path Levis, J. M. 1999. Variations in pronunciation and
ESL teacher training. TESOL Matters, 9 (3):16.
of continued fascination with language and
Merriam-Webster. 1998. Merriam-Webster’s collegiate
language learning.
dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
Prator, C. H. Jr. and B. W. Robinett. 1985. Manu-
References
al of American English pronunciation (4th ed.).
Baker, A. and S. Goldstein. 1990. Pronunciation
Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
pairs: An introductory course for students of Eng-
The American heritage dictionary of the English lan-
lish. New York: Cambridge University Press.
guage (4th ed.). 2000. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Chan, M. 1987. Phrase by phrase: Pronunciation
and listening in American English. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. ELISABETH GAREIS is an associate professor
Dauer, R. M. 1993. Accurate English: A complete
at Baruch College (City University of New
course in pronunciation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
York), where she coordinates ESOL services
Prentice Hall Regents.
for international graduate students and fac-
Edwards, H. T. 1992. Applied phonetics: The sounds
of American English. San Diego: Singular. ulty members.
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