1) Approximately 51% of households in Cusuco National Park in Honduras are multidimensionally poor, deprived in nearly 45% of basic indicators like electricity, safe water, and assets. Poverty in the park is comparable to rural Honduras.
2) Perceptions of ecosystem services differ between communities in the park, likely due to differences in enforcement of rules and activities. Water provision and climate regulation are highly valued. Agriculture is also important for livelihoods.
3) Community-based management could help address poverty by targeting deprivations, linking conservation to development goals, and providing alternatives to unsustainable land uses and resources like firewood. However, restrictions may reinforce poverty if sustainable alternatives are not
This document discusses biodiversity conservation projects and sustainable development in Ecuador's Yasuní Biosphere Reserve region. It notes that while Ecuador promotes conservation through protected areas, extractive industries like oil development have led to rapid land use changes impacting local communities and ecosystems. The research aims to analyze land cover dynamics, community participation in planning, and potential environmental conflicts through a case study in the Yasuní Reserve. It utilizes field data collection, interviews, and GIS analysis to understand relationships between human activities, ecosystems, and protected areas in the region.
The document discusses the history of forest management and fire suppression in western forests. It notes that frequent, small surface fires were historically important for maintaining healthy ponderosa pine forests, but over a century of fire suppression has depleted these natural biological processes. Some forest management professionals now endorse controlled burning and thinning to restore more natural fire regimes. The document also discusses challenges around the wildland-urban interface, where increasing development meets forested areas, posing fire risks. It reviews debates around post-fire logging and its potential impacts on forest restoration.
Forest and tree ecosystem services for adaptation: six storiesCIFOR-ICRAF
Ecosystems such as forests produce services that could have a significant role in reducing human vulnerability to climate variability and change. Using case studies from around the world, this presentation explores six different ways that forests and trees serve in helping humans to adapt.
This presentation was given on 7 September 2012 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Jeju, South Korea, during a session titled 'Building resilience to climate change through ecosystem-based adaptation'. It was also presented on 15 June 2012 at ‘Ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation: from concept to action’, an event held during Rio+20.
Accounting for watershed management services in the forest reserves of osun s...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that evaluated the contributions of forest reserves in Osun State, Nigeria to watershed management. The study examined the relationship between declines in forest area and water supply, assessed the perceived value of forest watershed services using contingent valuation methods, and estimated a total economic value of watershed services provided by forests. Key findings were that there was a strong relationship between forest area and water supply, the mean willingness to pay for watershed services was estimated to be ₦3,623.29 per person, and the total estimated value of forest watershed services in Osun State was ₦12.40 billion. The research concluded that accounting for the value of watershed services can enhance sustainability decisions
Overpopulation of White-tail Deer _Odocoileus virginianus_ in Natural Areas- ...Gavin McClelland
This document summarizes a paper about the overpopulation of white-tailed deer at Binghamton University and its negative impacts on the local forest ecosystem. It discusses how deer populations rebounded after European settlement due to habitat increases and decreased hunting. Though Binghamton University promotes sustainability, its administration has failed to adequately address over-browsing by deer in the local nature preserve. The paper will use the deer issue as a case study to argue the university's sustainability efforts are hindered by apathetic leadership that ignores environmental problems on campus lands.
Ecosystem Services for Biodiversity Conservation: Study of Corbett India Water Portal
Traditionally, the only market economic values Protected Areas recognised are tourism revenues and income from extractive activities.The difficulty in quantifying many of the economic, social, environmental and cultural values of protected areas lead to their undervaluation in land and resource use decisions
It is often perceived to be more profitable to convert a natural ecosystem than to leave it intact. A study of Corbett National Park shows indirect benefits like carbon storage and direct benefits like tourism.
Social changes in coastal community affected by the conversion of environment...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on social changes in a coastal community affected by the conversion of environmental resources from mangrove forests to aquaculture. The study used qualitative methods to examine how development led to changes in work patterns and social relationships. Key findings included:
1) Development led to changing work patterns from fishing and woodcutting to jobs in aquaculture.
2) Social differentiation and commercialization of the economy weakened ties between community members.
3) Relationships became based more on personal interests than the local community.
4) Belief in supernatural aspects declined as rationality increased in ways of thinking.
This document discusses biodiversity conservation projects and sustainable development in Ecuador's Yasuní Biosphere Reserve region. It notes that while Ecuador promotes conservation through protected areas, extractive industries like oil development have led to rapid land use changes impacting local communities and ecosystems. The research aims to analyze land cover dynamics, community participation in planning, and potential environmental conflicts through a case study in the Yasuní Reserve. It utilizes field data collection, interviews, and GIS analysis to understand relationships between human activities, ecosystems, and protected areas in the region.
The document discusses the history of forest management and fire suppression in western forests. It notes that frequent, small surface fires were historically important for maintaining healthy ponderosa pine forests, but over a century of fire suppression has depleted these natural biological processes. Some forest management professionals now endorse controlled burning and thinning to restore more natural fire regimes. The document also discusses challenges around the wildland-urban interface, where increasing development meets forested areas, posing fire risks. It reviews debates around post-fire logging and its potential impacts on forest restoration.
Forest and tree ecosystem services for adaptation: six storiesCIFOR-ICRAF
Ecosystems such as forests produce services that could have a significant role in reducing human vulnerability to climate variability and change. Using case studies from around the world, this presentation explores six different ways that forests and trees serve in helping humans to adapt.
This presentation was given on 7 September 2012 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Jeju, South Korea, during a session titled 'Building resilience to climate change through ecosystem-based adaptation'. It was also presented on 15 June 2012 at ‘Ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation: from concept to action’, an event held during Rio+20.
Accounting for watershed management services in the forest reserves of osun s...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that evaluated the contributions of forest reserves in Osun State, Nigeria to watershed management. The study examined the relationship between declines in forest area and water supply, assessed the perceived value of forest watershed services using contingent valuation methods, and estimated a total economic value of watershed services provided by forests. Key findings were that there was a strong relationship between forest area and water supply, the mean willingness to pay for watershed services was estimated to be ₦3,623.29 per person, and the total estimated value of forest watershed services in Osun State was ₦12.40 billion. The research concluded that accounting for the value of watershed services can enhance sustainability decisions
Overpopulation of White-tail Deer _Odocoileus virginianus_ in Natural Areas- ...Gavin McClelland
This document summarizes a paper about the overpopulation of white-tailed deer at Binghamton University and its negative impacts on the local forest ecosystem. It discusses how deer populations rebounded after European settlement due to habitat increases and decreased hunting. Though Binghamton University promotes sustainability, its administration has failed to adequately address over-browsing by deer in the local nature preserve. The paper will use the deer issue as a case study to argue the university's sustainability efforts are hindered by apathetic leadership that ignores environmental problems on campus lands.
Ecosystem Services for Biodiversity Conservation: Study of Corbett India Water Portal
Traditionally, the only market economic values Protected Areas recognised are tourism revenues and income from extractive activities.The difficulty in quantifying many of the economic, social, environmental and cultural values of protected areas lead to their undervaluation in land and resource use decisions
It is often perceived to be more profitable to convert a natural ecosystem than to leave it intact. A study of Corbett National Park shows indirect benefits like carbon storage and direct benefits like tourism.
Social changes in coastal community affected by the conversion of environment...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on social changes in a coastal community affected by the conversion of environmental resources from mangrove forests to aquaculture. The study used qualitative methods to examine how development led to changes in work patterns and social relationships. Key findings included:
1) Development led to changing work patterns from fishing and woodcutting to jobs in aquaculture.
2) Social differentiation and commercialization of the economy weakened ties between community members.
3) Relationships became based more on personal interests than the local community.
4) Belief in supernatural aspects declined as rationality increased in ways of thinking.
The document discusses natural resources with a focus on forests and water. It provides classifications of natural resources as either inexhaustible or exhaustible, renewable or non-renewable. Forests are described as a principal natural resource that provide productive, protective and regulatory functions. However, deforestation due to agriculture, grazing and commercial use is causing degradation of forests. Conservation efforts include afforestation and sustainable forest management. Water resources are also outlined, noting their uneven global distribution and increasing demand that exceeds replenishment in many areas. Conservation of water involves reducing agricultural, industrial and domestic waste.
Ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation and sustainable agricultureExternalEvents
The presentation by Dr. Abigael Otinga (University of Eldoret) outlines the concept of “ecosystem services” and particularly their relevance not only for biodiversity conservation but also for ensuring sustainable production of healthy and abundant crops. The presentation was given at a national training workshops for stakeholders involved in the revision of the Kenya NBSAP that was held at ICRAF in Nairobi, 25-26 May 2016. More information on the event are available at: www.fao.org/africa/news/detail-news/en/c/417489/ .
The role of Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) in sustainab...Siang Yang
The document discusses the role of Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) in sustainable environmental management. It summarizes that past environmental measures failed because they did not link wildlife protection to local welfare. ICDPs aimed to integrate environmental protection and development, but outcomes have been largely ineffective. Case studies from Ghana and China are presented to illustrate weaknesses in the ICDP approach, such as unrealistic goals, lack of local participation and needs assessment, and failure to improve livelihoods or provide compensation for losses. The conclusion is that ICDPs have presented an illusion of "win-win" outcomes by not adequately addressing the critical linkage between conservation and rural development in local contexts.
Community perceived attitude on forest related environmental issues using mas...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on community attitudes toward forestry-related environmental issues (FREI) in Osun State, Nigeria. The study aimed to assess these attitudes to strengthen the use of mass media in raising awareness. Data was collected through surveys in 3 local government areas. The results showed that 75% of respondents agreed it is important to consider FREI for environmental balance, while 60% saw FREI as a mere threat that cannot impact the environment. This suggests community awareness of forestry issues is low. The study concludes mass media could help disseminate environmental information but currently does little beyond incidental reporting. Improved coordination between media and government agencies is needed to support sustainable livelihoods through increased community
Biodiversity, ecosystem services, social sustainability and tipping points in...ILRI
The document discusses biodiversity, ecosystem services, social sustainability, and tipping points in African drylands. It aims to develop a conceptual framework linking policy, land use, and livelihoods through pastoralist decision-making. The objectives are to construct and validate models of pastoralist decision-making, evaluate policy scenarios, and disseminate findings to policymakers and communities. The methods include statistical analysis, modeling household decisions, experiments, and agent-based simulations to explore scenarios around payments for ecosystem services and climate change.
This document provides an overview of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). CBNRM combines conservation objectives with generating economic benefits for rural communities through collective management of natural resources. It aims to involve local communities in sustainable resource use and management. The document discusses key CBNRM principles, benefits and challenges, and provides examples of CBNRM case studies in South Africa. It also outlines some opportunities for applying CBNRM approaches in Mongolia.
The document provides an introduction to environmental studies, covering various topics such as natural resources, ecosystems, biodiversity conservation, and environmental pollution.
It begins with defining key terms like environment and explaining the importance of environmental studies. It then discusses different types of natural resources such as forests, water, minerals, land, and energy. Forest resources are elaborated on, including the different forest types in India and causes of deforestation. Dams and mining are outlined as activities that negatively impact forests.
The document also briefly introduces concepts of ecosystems, biodiversity, and environmental pollution issues like air, water and soil pollution. It concludes with an overview of the course syllabus and field work activities.
The document analyzes the effects of landscape characteristics on avian biodiversity in two small urban parks in Austin, Texas. Through bird surveys conducted in April 2014, the author found that Shipe Park, which contains a riparian corridor, supported a greater number of species (9 total species) and individuals (94 total) than Bailey Park (6 species, 73 individuals), which lacks a riparian corridor. Both parks contained generalist species that thrive in urban areas, but Shipe Park also contained several specialist species, indicating that the riparian corridor provides additional habitat and resources beneficial for urban biodiversity. The author concludes the study provides insight into how landscape features in urban greenspaces influence the functionality of urban ecosystems.
Wetlands are one of the most multifunctional ecosystems of the world that provide a range of economical, biological, ecological, social, and cultural functions and services to human beings. In Ethiopia all types of wetlands except coastal and marine-related wetlands and extensive swamp-forest complexes are found and they are estimated to cover more than 2% of its total surface area coverage. Wetlands deliver a wide range of ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being such as food
and feed, construction materials,
The document summarizes community outreach efforts in Lavavolo, Madagascar to promote conservation of the critically endangered radiated tortoise. Local education programs taught sustainable practices like using fuel-efficient stoves and biofuel briquettes to reduce habitat destruction. Reforestation and water transportation projects engaged communities in conservation. A festival educated over 600 people on the tortoise's plight through children's performances and games to foster local protection of this iconic species.
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems. They include provisioning services like food and water, regulating services like climate regulation and water purification, supporting services like nutrient cycling and habitat provision, and cultural services like recreational and spiritual benefits. Estuarine and coastal ecosystems provide important ecosystem services, with estuaries being the area where rivers meet the sea consisting of brackish water influenced by tides, and coastal ecosystems being where ocean waters meet land.
The environment provides humans with everything we need to survive. This presentation looks at the services ecosystems deliver humanity and the importance of conserving plant biomass and diversity in order to maintain those services
The role of indigenous knowledge in land management for carbon sequestration ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the role of indigenous knowledge in land management practices among the Wolayta people in southern Ethiopia. The study found that the Wolayta have developed diverse indigenous land management practices over generations, as exhibited through their terminology and land classification systems. Some key practices identified include agroforestry and various soil and water conservation techniques. The study concludes that indigenous agroforestry has strong potential for carbon sequestration and sustaining ecosystem services. It recommends further research to quantify these benefits and better integrate appropriate indigenous practices into development efforts.
This PhD project examines the spatial expansion of the oil industry in Ecuador and resulting environmental conflicts. The student will analyze the case study of Yasuni National Park in Ecuador using a framework that views territories as complex systems of material and immaterial relationships between societies and the environment. A literature review covers topics like biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, and integrating environmental sustainability into models of local development.
The document discusses ecosystem services and their importance in river basin management. It defines ecosystem services as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning services like food and freshwater, regulating services like climate regulation and flood regulation, and cultural services like aesthetic, spiritual, and recreational benefits. The document advocates for mainstreaming ecosystem services, which means integrating conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into various production sectors. This requires understanding how a healthy environment supports economic sectors and implementing coordination mechanisms. The ecosystem approach aims to balance conservation, sustainable use, and equitable benefit-sharing, according to principles like decentralized management and long-term planning. Tools are presented for assessing drivers of biodiversity loss and recording the status of ecosystem services.
Environmental studies and natural resourcesParul Tyagi
Introduction to environmental studies, multidisciplinary nature of environment, its scope and importance. Concept of sustainability and renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Spatiotemporal analyses of land use and land cover changes in suleja local go...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes land use and land cover changes in Suleja Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria between 1987 and 2012 using satellite images. The study found increases in built up land, farmland, and bare soil, and declines in vegetation over this period. Specifically, built up land increased from 7.0 km2 in 1987 to 17.9 km2 in 2012, farmland increased from 50.1 km2 to 63.0 km2, and vegetation declined from 68.7 km2 to 43.1 km2. The increases are attributed to urbanization from population growth and migration near the capital city of Abuja. The changes can lead to environmental degradation if not managed sustainably.
While forests provide essential resources and renewable energy, deforestation is a major global problem that increases the risks of climate change. Demand for wood products is rising, contributing to over 4% of global trade. Deforestation destroys animal habitats and reduces atmospheric oxygen. The main driver of deforestation is clearing land for agriculture and development, as cities and populations grow. Efforts to end deforestation could generate economic benefits up to $80 million by restoring forests, while preserving resources, habitats, and a stable climate.
1. The document analyzes land cover change in the Trifinio region, a protected area spanning Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador using satellite imagery from 2000-2015.
2. Preliminary results found land cover changes from forest to bare soil from 2005-2010 which coincided with a severe drought, and forests recovered by 2015.
3. Future research could create new land cover classifications to better detect forest variation over time and assess the effectiveness of each country's conservation policies in the transnational region.
The document discusses natural resources with a focus on forests and water. It provides classifications of natural resources as either inexhaustible or exhaustible, renewable or non-renewable. Forests are described as a principal natural resource that provide productive, protective and regulatory functions. However, deforestation due to agriculture, grazing and commercial use is causing degradation of forests. Conservation efforts include afforestation and sustainable forest management. Water resources are also outlined, noting their uneven global distribution and increasing demand that exceeds replenishment in many areas. Conservation of water involves reducing agricultural, industrial and domestic waste.
Ecosystem services for biodiversity conservation and sustainable agricultureExternalEvents
The presentation by Dr. Abigael Otinga (University of Eldoret) outlines the concept of “ecosystem services” and particularly their relevance not only for biodiversity conservation but also for ensuring sustainable production of healthy and abundant crops. The presentation was given at a national training workshops for stakeholders involved in the revision of the Kenya NBSAP that was held at ICRAF in Nairobi, 25-26 May 2016. More information on the event are available at: www.fao.org/africa/news/detail-news/en/c/417489/ .
The role of Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) in sustainab...Siang Yang
The document discusses the role of Integrated Conservation-Development Projects (ICDPs) in sustainable environmental management. It summarizes that past environmental measures failed because they did not link wildlife protection to local welfare. ICDPs aimed to integrate environmental protection and development, but outcomes have been largely ineffective. Case studies from Ghana and China are presented to illustrate weaknesses in the ICDP approach, such as unrealistic goals, lack of local participation and needs assessment, and failure to improve livelihoods or provide compensation for losses. The conclusion is that ICDPs have presented an illusion of "win-win" outcomes by not adequately addressing the critical linkage between conservation and rural development in local contexts.
Community perceived attitude on forest related environmental issues using mas...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on community attitudes toward forestry-related environmental issues (FREI) in Osun State, Nigeria. The study aimed to assess these attitudes to strengthen the use of mass media in raising awareness. Data was collected through surveys in 3 local government areas. The results showed that 75% of respondents agreed it is important to consider FREI for environmental balance, while 60% saw FREI as a mere threat that cannot impact the environment. This suggests community awareness of forestry issues is low. The study concludes mass media could help disseminate environmental information but currently does little beyond incidental reporting. Improved coordination between media and government agencies is needed to support sustainable livelihoods through increased community
Biodiversity, ecosystem services, social sustainability and tipping points in...ILRI
The document discusses biodiversity, ecosystem services, social sustainability, and tipping points in African drylands. It aims to develop a conceptual framework linking policy, land use, and livelihoods through pastoralist decision-making. The objectives are to construct and validate models of pastoralist decision-making, evaluate policy scenarios, and disseminate findings to policymakers and communities. The methods include statistical analysis, modeling household decisions, experiments, and agent-based simulations to explore scenarios around payments for ecosystem services and climate change.
This document provides an overview of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). CBNRM combines conservation objectives with generating economic benefits for rural communities through collective management of natural resources. It aims to involve local communities in sustainable resource use and management. The document discusses key CBNRM principles, benefits and challenges, and provides examples of CBNRM case studies in South Africa. It also outlines some opportunities for applying CBNRM approaches in Mongolia.
The document provides an introduction to environmental studies, covering various topics such as natural resources, ecosystems, biodiversity conservation, and environmental pollution.
It begins with defining key terms like environment and explaining the importance of environmental studies. It then discusses different types of natural resources such as forests, water, minerals, land, and energy. Forest resources are elaborated on, including the different forest types in India and causes of deforestation. Dams and mining are outlined as activities that negatively impact forests.
The document also briefly introduces concepts of ecosystems, biodiversity, and environmental pollution issues like air, water and soil pollution. It concludes with an overview of the course syllabus and field work activities.
The document analyzes the effects of landscape characteristics on avian biodiversity in two small urban parks in Austin, Texas. Through bird surveys conducted in April 2014, the author found that Shipe Park, which contains a riparian corridor, supported a greater number of species (9 total species) and individuals (94 total) than Bailey Park (6 species, 73 individuals), which lacks a riparian corridor. Both parks contained generalist species that thrive in urban areas, but Shipe Park also contained several specialist species, indicating that the riparian corridor provides additional habitat and resources beneficial for urban biodiversity. The author concludes the study provides insight into how landscape features in urban greenspaces influence the functionality of urban ecosystems.
Wetlands are one of the most multifunctional ecosystems of the world that provide a range of economical, biological, ecological, social, and cultural functions and services to human beings. In Ethiopia all types of wetlands except coastal and marine-related wetlands and extensive swamp-forest complexes are found and they are estimated to cover more than 2% of its total surface area coverage. Wetlands deliver a wide range of ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being such as food
and feed, construction materials,
The document summarizes community outreach efforts in Lavavolo, Madagascar to promote conservation of the critically endangered radiated tortoise. Local education programs taught sustainable practices like using fuel-efficient stoves and biofuel briquettes to reduce habitat destruction. Reforestation and water transportation projects engaged communities in conservation. A festival educated over 600 people on the tortoise's plight through children's performances and games to foster local protection of this iconic species.
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems. They include provisioning services like food and water, regulating services like climate regulation and water purification, supporting services like nutrient cycling and habitat provision, and cultural services like recreational and spiritual benefits. Estuarine and coastal ecosystems provide important ecosystem services, with estuaries being the area where rivers meet the sea consisting of brackish water influenced by tides, and coastal ecosystems being where ocean waters meet land.
The environment provides humans with everything we need to survive. This presentation looks at the services ecosystems deliver humanity and the importance of conserving plant biomass and diversity in order to maintain those services
The role of indigenous knowledge in land management for carbon sequestration ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the role of indigenous knowledge in land management practices among the Wolayta people in southern Ethiopia. The study found that the Wolayta have developed diverse indigenous land management practices over generations, as exhibited through their terminology and land classification systems. Some key practices identified include agroforestry and various soil and water conservation techniques. The study concludes that indigenous agroforestry has strong potential for carbon sequestration and sustaining ecosystem services. It recommends further research to quantify these benefits and better integrate appropriate indigenous practices into development efforts.
This PhD project examines the spatial expansion of the oil industry in Ecuador and resulting environmental conflicts. The student will analyze the case study of Yasuni National Park in Ecuador using a framework that views territories as complex systems of material and immaterial relationships between societies and the environment. A literature review covers topics like biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, and integrating environmental sustainability into models of local development.
The document discusses ecosystem services and their importance in river basin management. It defines ecosystem services as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems, including provisioning services like food and freshwater, regulating services like climate regulation and flood regulation, and cultural services like aesthetic, spiritual, and recreational benefits. The document advocates for mainstreaming ecosystem services, which means integrating conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into various production sectors. This requires understanding how a healthy environment supports economic sectors and implementing coordination mechanisms. The ecosystem approach aims to balance conservation, sustainable use, and equitable benefit-sharing, according to principles like decentralized management and long-term planning. Tools are presented for assessing drivers of biodiversity loss and recording the status of ecosystem services.
Environmental studies and natural resourcesParul Tyagi
Introduction to environmental studies, multidisciplinary nature of environment, its scope and importance. Concept of sustainability and renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Spatiotemporal analyses of land use and land cover changes in suleja local go...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes land use and land cover changes in Suleja Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria between 1987 and 2012 using satellite images. The study found increases in built up land, farmland, and bare soil, and declines in vegetation over this period. Specifically, built up land increased from 7.0 km2 in 1987 to 17.9 km2 in 2012, farmland increased from 50.1 km2 to 63.0 km2, and vegetation declined from 68.7 km2 to 43.1 km2. The increases are attributed to urbanization from population growth and migration near the capital city of Abuja. The changes can lead to environmental degradation if not managed sustainably.
While forests provide essential resources and renewable energy, deforestation is a major global problem that increases the risks of climate change. Demand for wood products is rising, contributing to over 4% of global trade. Deforestation destroys animal habitats and reduces atmospheric oxygen. The main driver of deforestation is clearing land for agriculture and development, as cities and populations grow. Efforts to end deforestation could generate economic benefits up to $80 million by restoring forests, while preserving resources, habitats, and a stable climate.
1. The document analyzes land cover change in the Trifinio region, a protected area spanning Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador using satellite imagery from 2000-2015.
2. Preliminary results found land cover changes from forest to bare soil from 2005-2010 which coincided with a severe drought, and forests recovered by 2015.
3. Future research could create new land cover classifications to better detect forest variation over time and assess the effectiveness of each country's conservation policies in the transnational region.
This study examines land cover change and fire patterns within the Bay of Jiquilisco Reserve mangrove forest region of El Salvador between 2001-2015. Satellite imagery analysis shows a decrease in forest cover and an increase in water cover within the Monte Cristo mangrove subset between 2002-2014. Few fires were detected in the region, though some occurred at the forest-agriculture interface, indicating fire may be used for deforestation. Overall fire patterns in El Salvador correlate with agricultural and wooded areas. Community management of the reserve lands may contribute to lower fire frequency within the mangroves compared to surrounding areas.
An Overview Of Theoretical And Empirical Studies On DeforestationAngie Miller
This document provides an overview of theoretical and empirical studies on deforestation. It begins with definitions of forest and deforestation from various institutions like the FAO, UNEP, and UNFCCC. It discusses factors that influence deforestation, categorizing them as proximate/direct causes and underlying/indirect causes. The document then explores several economic theories of deforestation in more depth, including the proximate-underlying causes theory, environmental Kuznets curve theory for deforestation, forest transition theory, and land rent/land use change theory. It concludes by reviewing similarities and differences across these theories and possibilities for future extensions.
This study examines the linkages between ecosystem services and human well-being in the rural community of Sistelo in northern Portugal. The researchers used participatory methods like interviews and exercises to understand local perspectives. They found that while material well-being has increased, some ecosystem services have declined as the region's population decreases. Residents recognize provisioning, cultural, and regulating services, though feel provisioning is most important for well-being. However, well-being is disconnecting from local ecosystem services as people can now substitute services. Land abandonment risks reducing services and raises questions about future well-being and ecosystems.
Approaches To Conservation And Sustainable Use Of Biodiversity- A ReviewBrandi Gonzales
This document reviews different approaches for conserving biodiversity and maintaining its sustainable use. It discusses both in-situ conservation approaches, which focus on conserving species within their natural habitats through protected areas and reserves, as well as ex-situ approaches that involve conserving species outside their natural environments in facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, and field gene banks. The document concludes that while in-situ conservation has advantages in coverage and viability, ex-situ approaches are important backups when in-situ conservation is not sufficient. Of all the approaches discussed, ecosystem-based conservation is highlighted as having the most potential due to its holistic nature in mainstreaming conservation.
Analysis of Ecosystem Services in the Oaxacan Mixtec Region, (Tiltepec WatershedAgriculture Journal IJOEAR
The present work analyzes the sources of supply and regulation of ecosystem services (ES) in the Tiltepec watershed, Oaxaca, Mexico, specifically the production of fuelwood, water for human consumption, forage for domestic livestock, as well as regulation for runoff and sediments estimated with the MUSLE model (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation), Random sampling points were defined according to the soil used and coverage, to determine production of fuelwood and forage. Firewood was evaluated in quadrants of 10 x 10 m for tree strata and 5 x 5 m for shrub strata. Forage production was determined with lines of 20 m and quadrants of 0.25 x 0.25 m to determine biomass and vegetation cover. Water supply was estimated with inflows from springs and the storage capacity of infrastructure works and water demand estimated with the current population and the maximum daily and hourly consumption. The estimated average fuelwood consumption was 1.4 kg person-1 day-1 for a total volume of 3,189.5 m 3. The estimated average forage yield was 856.6 kg ha-1 and a grazing coefficient of 13.9 ha animal unit (AU-1) , with a census of 171.7 AU. The springs produce a daily volume of 150.4 m 3 and the storage water capacity is 184.7 m 3 for human consumption and 718.5 m 3 for irrigation and recreational uses. With the MUSLE model, a reduction in runoff of 33.93% and 62.93% in specific degradation was estimated comparing the current scenario with that of 1984. The presence of ES in the Tiltepec watershed is essential to provide well-being to local people and regulation of erosion process through works, soil and water conservation practices. These will enable better provision of goods and services.
India has made progress stabilizing forest cover but still faces issues of degradation. Degradation impacts livelihoods of millions and is linked to lack of community forest rights. Key drivers are demand-supply gaps of forest products, encroachments, shifting cultivation, fires, and forest diversion. Underlying causes include population growth, poverty, and skewed development that has displaced people from village commons without compensation, putting pressure on forests. India's past forest policies prioritized exploitation over local community needs. Assessing India's readiness for REDD+ requires examining policies, tenure, cross-sector links, institutions, and technical capacity.
2 ijfaf jan-2018-2-participatory mapping as a toolAI Publications
This study was carried out with the aim to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources through the production of participative maps within forest communities in the Nguti subdivision. Specifically this was to illustrate the existing occupation and traditional tenure of forest lands and identify where conflicts of use or rights already exist or could arise both for national government planning and private investors. Data was collected through focus group discussions, household interview and field data collection with the local population through the use of GPS tablets. Results show that 90.7% of the population have no idea on this participative mapping process; however, 35.19% of the population are very interested in this mapping process as it could serve as a tool to enhance land security while 28% of respondents think it could serve as a tool for boundary clarification. Also 18% consider participative mapping an interesting tool to get good knowledge of an area and plan land use. However, forest is principally used here for farming, hunting and gathering with an average household farm size of 0.35ha per year with just 30% of the non-Timber forest products in this area being exploited. The study also revealed that, conflicts of use and right exist due to government affectations, unclear boundaries and the creation of chiefdoms. Participative mapping has proven to be the better tool for decision making as other tools such as satellite images have caused overlaps in state affectations.
Ensuring effective forest services to mankind implications for environmental ...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the implications of environmental education for ensuring effective forest services and protection in Nigeria. It begins by defining key concepts like environment, forests, and deforestation. It describes the benefits forests provide, but also how unsustainable human activities like logging, agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, and population growth are leading to high rates of deforestation in Nigeria. Deforestation depletes biodiversity and causes problems like soil erosion, flooding, desertification, and global warming. The document argues that environmental education can help develop people's awareness, knowledge, skills, and commitment to responsibly manage forests and address deforestation through activities in formal schooling, non-formal programs, and informal learning approaches. Overall, environmental
The adverse impact of ecosystem degradation and poor governance on marginaliz...NAAR Journal
This document summarizes a research article that investigates how ecosystem degradation and poor governance negatively impact marginalized people in Bangladesh. It finds that households have lost on average 0.2636 hectares of cropland and 2.59 local fish species have disappeared from local water bodies. Over three-fourths of respondents also perceive that access to local ecosystem services is decreasing. However, over half of respondents pay bribes of $6.82 on average to access ecosystem services. The combination of ecosystem degradation and corruption negatively influences the income, employment, and spending of marginalized communities, making them even more vulnerable while wealthier groups benefit. The study aims to help identify more sustainable economic development approaches in coastal areas that reduce ecosystem impacts and
Anthropogenic Activities as Primary Drivers of Environmental Pollution and Lo...ijtsrd
Environmental Pollution EP has become a global issue as the impacts are mainly crucial threats to man and biodiversity especially in Africa and other developing countries. In addition to humans and biodiversity, the effects of EP are intense on plants, animals, soil, water and air. As population increases, human needs for food, clothes, mobility and shelter get elevated which in turn require higher use of technology and energy resources vis à vis anthropogenic activities are the primary causes of the rising challenges of EP. This work is aimed at reviewing the roles of anthropogenic activities as key drivers of environmental pollution and loss of biodiversity. In order to achieve this aim and justify the work, the following specific objectives were developed including to i identify and review relevant literature on anthropogenic activities prevalent in Africa. ii examine the impacts of the major anthropogenic activities on the environment including human health, soil, water, air, flora and fauna biodiversity. iii proffer sustainable solutions to curb the menace. Primary findings reveal the significant and adverse effects of anthropogenic activities on environmental risks, health and biodiversity due to increase in waste generation and use of non renewable resources. Urgent need is necessary to create awareness among the various sectors of the society and to sensitize the people on the sustainable ways for waste generation and management. The paper recommends need for the comprehensive development and establishment of appropriate laws and policies to ameliorate EP and its associated menace. Justin Okorondu | Nasir A. Umar | Chukwuemeka O. Ulor | Chinwe G. Onwuagba | Bridget E. Diagi | Susan I. Ajiere | Chukwudi Nwaogu "Anthropogenic Activities as Primary Drivers of Environmental Pollution and Loss of Biodiversity: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50142.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/environmental-science/50142/anthropogenic-activities-as-primary-drivers-of-environmental-pollution-and-loss-of-biodiversity-a-review/justin-okorondu
Isaiah Ochieng Abillah
Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Murang‟a University of
Technology, Kenya
Abstract: Wetlands, all over the world, offer many livelihood support services to riparian communities and beyond
but are currently severely threatened with decimation. In Murang’a County, Kenya, wetlands are a key life
support system for many communities but their survival is currently uncertain due to extensive encroachment,
filling up, pollution and weak legislation. Our study aimed at investigating the impact of riparian community’s
livelihood strategies on wetlands conservation and restoration in Murang’a County, Kenya. Data was collected in
4-sub counties of the County using household’s survey questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group
discussion. A randomly selected sample of 404 respondents were recruited for the study. Data was analyzed using
SPSS software version 26.0. Results showed an encroachment rate into the wetlands by the riparian communities
of 60.4%. A highly significant and positive correlation was obtained between livelihood strategies and impacts on
wetlands ((r=0.184, p value =0.001). Members of the riparian communities were poorly informed about the roles of
wetlands, with 70% unaware of any wetland’s conservation efforts. A whopping 73.7% had not participated in any
wetland conservation effort. Hence, there is need for community sensitization and empowerment on wetlands wise
use as well as sustainable wetland utilization, conservation and management.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Globally, wetlands cover about 6% of the 5.7 million km2 of the Earth‟s surface and they support millions of livelihoods
as they act as „‟water banks‟‟ where water may be drawn and ground water replenished (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, 2005). Wetlands are as old as the Earth itself. By 20th century, the increased use of wetlands attracted the
attention of the world and a global meeting was held in Iran on 2nd February, 1971 to discuss wise use and conservation
of lands that were wet (wetlands), the meeting was named the Ramsar Convention and it has been the foundation of
wetlands conservation (Ramsar, 2017).
Wetlands have been places of interest since civilization as many towns and cities are built along the blue economy. They
have also served as transport corridors, source of wildlife, fish and seeds (Fisher, K. and Morling, P.). However, due to
population pressure, wetlands have been encroached into and converted to different agricultural land use and degraded
Davidson, C. (2014), observes that 87% of the world‟s wetlands have been lost since 1700 AD as a result of human
activities.
In the Kenyan economy, Lakes such as Lake Naivasha contributes 5.3 billion and over 30,000 people draw their
livelihoods from wetlands ecosystem but due to climate change, these lakes are contemporarily facing rising water levels
which in turn affects ...
Lantana camara is a highly invasive alien plant species in Gursum woreda, Ethiopia that is negatively impacting biodiversity and land usage. It is widely distributed across grasslands, agricultural lands, and woodlands. The plant dominates native vegetation and reduces crop productivity, woodlands, and forage for animals. Most local residents recognize the disadvantages of L. camara and support its removal, though some experts note it provides some benefits like erosion control. Physical removal methods are mainly used now but strategic long-term management is needed using thinning, pruning and increased awareness to control the invasive spread of Lantana camara.
A Review on Effects of Deforestation on Landslide: Hill Areasijsrd.com
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation includes conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Since the industrial age, about half of world's original forests have been destroyed and millions of animals and living things have been endangered. Despite the improvements in education, information and general awareness of the importance of forests, deforestation has not reduced much, and there are still many more communities and individuals who still destroy forest lands for personal gains. Deforestation also provides stability to slope through which mass movement of rocks, debris could not occur. As the plant or tree roots provides some reinforcement and also remove groundwater. On hilly areas vegetation can stabilize steep slopes and if the cutting of trees continues it would result in a drastic change in the atmosphere or in the environment. In this paper there is summarization of cause of deforestation, deforestation causes, environment changes i.e. loss of biodiversity and how deforestation is related to landslide.
A Review On Effects Of Deforestation On Landslide Hill AreasTony Lisko
1) The document discusses the effects of deforestation on landslides in hill areas. It notes that deforestation removes vegetation that stabilizes slopes and removes water from the ground, increasing landslide risks.
2) The main causes of deforestation discussed are agriculture, logging, fuel wood removal, and human population pressures. Deforestation for agriculture expansion is a major direct cause.
3) Removing trees increases landslide risks because tree roots reinforce soil and slopes, canopies reduce rainfall impact, and root death after logging leaves soil vulnerable to oversaturation.
This document provides an abstract for a master's thesis that examines policy measures to protect ecosystem services from the traditional vineyards of Doñana, Spain, which are considered outstanding cultural landscapes. The study aims to (1) identify ecosystem services provided by the vineyards and their importance, (2) assess trends in ecosystem services over 20 years and drivers of change, and (3) explore the perceived importance and viability of different policy measures. Methods included interviews, a participatory workshop, and a survey. Key findings were the identification of 17 ecosystem services provided by the vineyards, an overall perceived decline in services in recent decades due to economic and cultural factors, and support for awareness raising and subsidy reforms as policy options.
Human Wildlife Conflicts to communities surrounding Mikumi National Parks in ...IJEAB
Human wildlife interaction is not a new phenomenon, it has existed since the beginning of humankind, it is evidenced by the fact that, many national parks are surrounded by human residents. The interaction between human and wildlife is of different nature depending on the culture of the surrounding human as well as wildlife community. For decade’s human wildlife conflicts has been a great conservation challenge due to increased human population, international trade and change of policies. The challenge is more significant in a sense that it negatively affects both human and wildlife sustainability. Therefore a study was conducted to villages surrounding Mikumi national Park to assess reasons for conflicts between human and wildlife and account how communities prevent wild animals to destructs their agriculture products. Three villages were selected for study (Doma, Maharaka and Mkata, all villages surrounds Mikumi National Park Ecosystems. Different methodology includes: - Field observation, Household survey, Field interview, In-depth interview and Ethnography study were used. However descriptive analysis and non parametric test were performed by using SPSS 16 versions and Kruskal-wallis test respectively to compute mean, standard error, percentages and differences of wildlife consumption. Results suggests that, there is a gradual increase of human-wildlife conflicts which lead to loss of people’s lives, as well as their livelihoods such as farms and farms product. Statistically results depicted that the average size of the farm affected at Doma, Maharaka and Mkata villages were 3.8 ± 0.1, 2.0 ± 0.1 and 2.2 ± 0.1 acres respectively, while at Mkata village 32 goats, 24 sheep and 76 cattle were reported to be killed by wild carnivores. In other way conflicts may result to poaching activities which may threaten the existence of huge herbivores such as Elephants and Rhinoceros. Apart from that, conflicts may lead to poor performances of tourism industry in the country. Research recommends that more efforts should be taken by the government and other stakeholders to prevent conflicts around all national parks so as to create good and conducive environment for human being life and wildlife in order to allow good performance of tourism industry for economic development of the country.
This proposal seeks to assess community participation in environmental conservation and protection in selected communities in Imo State, Nigeria. It notes that natural resources are being overexploited without efforts for conservation, leaving future generations with little. While exploitation improves economic status, it causes environmental degradation. The proposal argues that community participation is important for successful conservation projects as it ensures social acceptance and indigenous knowledge is utilized. However, existing environmental laws and agencies have neglected rural communities. The study aims to examine uncontrolled resource exploitation and lack of participation as causes of environmental degradation in Imo State.
Co managing ecosystem services of forest reserves in ghana-the case of the bo...Alexander Decker
1. The document discusses co-managing the ecosystem services of the Bobiri Forest Reserve (BFR) in Ghana through stakeholder collaboration.
2. The forest communities have traditional rights to collect some non-timber forest products for personal use, but need permits for commercial use. However, overexploitation has led to declines in ecosystem services.
3. Effective co-management requires stakeholders to negotiate management responsibilities to sustainably manage forest resources and ensure long-term provision of ecosystem services through knowledge sharing and coordination between fragmented stakeholders.
Co managing ecosystem services of forest reserves in ghana-the case of the bo...
PROJECT REPORT 12pp
1. PROJECT REPORT
1
POVERTY AND CONSERVATION IN CUCUSO NATIONAL PARK:
OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS TO COMMUNITY-BASED MANAGEMENT
Guillaume Demare, Oxford University, School of Geography and the Environment
BACKGROUND
The Earth’s land surface is now largely dominated by human activity, with more than three quarters of the terrestrial
biosphere modified by anthropogenic influence. Land cover change resulting from agricultural expansion is a major
driver of deforestation in the tropics (Chichilnisky, 1994; Ellis, 2013). Considering that a major proportion of the
global biodiversity is located in tropical regions, mitigating the impact of deforestation has become one of the top
priorities in contemporary conservation (Pimm and Raven, 2000; Bradshaw et al., 2009; Gibson et al., 2011; Laurance
et al., 2012).
The establishment and maintenance of a network of protected areas has been the primary management strategy
for protecting tropical biodiversity and reducing rates of forest clearance (Brooks et al., 2004; Rodrigues et al., 2004).
However, some concerns have been raised regarding the fact that protected areas, and conservation initiatives more
broadly, may have important socioeconomic impacts, including the reinforcement of social injustice and global
poverty. Some authors even argue that failure to reconcile human development with biodiversity conservation can
directly compromise the success of protected areas (reviewed in West et al., 2006). Community-based conservation
has emerged as an alternative that can potentially improve human welfare at a local level, while simultaneously
reducing negative environmental impacts (Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2002; Cernea and Schmidt-Soltau, 2006). While
this approach to conservation can be successful at reducing forest cover loss (e.g. community managed forest in
Tanzania; Lund and Treue, 2008), success may be constrained by a variety of factors (e.g. socioeconomic situation,
capacity and resources) that need to be explored (Oates, 1995; Spinage, 1998; Brockington, 2004; Porter-Bolland et
al., 2012).
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Cusuco National Park is a protected area in Honduras where community-based conservation has been proposed as
an alternative for reducing the impact of agricultural expansion on forest cover. The purpose of the present research
is to examine the conditions that can either facilitate or place barriers to community-based initiatives in Cusuco.
I set the following research objectives:
1. Measure the prevalence of poverty in Cusuco and identify key areas of deprivation;
2. Evaluate the link between livelihood and land-use at a local scale;
3. Assess the perception of ecosystem services by local communities;
4. Assess the way in which local communities perceive the protected area (including the buffer zone);
5. Explore the socio-political attributes of the communities in the buffer zone that may either facilitate or hinder
community-based initiatives.
While this research does not comprise an exhaustive assessment of the factors influencing the success of
community-based forest management (i.e. other important aspects are not covered), it is my hope that the results
will inform future management strategies in Cusuco.
2. PROJECT REPORT
2
CUSUCO NATIONAL PARK
Cusuco National Park (hereafter referred to as Cusuco) is a 23,400 ha protected area located in northwest Honduras
(15.520635°N 88.259449°W). It consists of a core protected area (7,700 ha) surrounded by a buffer zone (15,700)
where local communities have settled and use part of the land for agriculture and cattle ranching (e.g. coffee
plantations; Figure 1). Elevation ranges from just above sea level to approximately 2,425 m (Lenkh, 2005).
The park comprises a variety of habitat types, including semi-arid pine forest, moist pine forest, broadleaf forest and
the globally rare dwarf forest habitat (Green et al., 2012; IUCN and UNEP, 2014). Cusuco is part of the Mesoamerica
biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000). Due to its relatively rich diversity of species, the existence of a number of
endemic species, and the overlapping range of several globally threatened species, the park is regarded as a key
biodiversity area (Eken et al., 2004; Field and Long, 2007). The main threats to Cusuco’s biodiversity include land-
cover change from tropical forest to arable land and grazing areas, overexploitation of large mammals (the Baird’s
tapir in particular), the amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, and climate change (Green et al., 2012).
The park is legally protected under the following legislative elements (Córdova et al., 2003):
1. The Merendón Reserve (decree 46/90), which includes the eastern part of the buffer, and part of the core zone;
2. Cusuco National Park (decrees 87/87, 210/85 and 53) was designated in 1987 and originally covered 1,100 ha
of protected area;
3. The Protected Forest Zone, which extends to the Valley of Cuyamel.
However, deforestation remains a major issue in the Merendón cordillera and is an ongoing threat to the integrity
of Cusuco. Driving factors of land cover change include, but are not limited to: immigration of populations from other
parts of the country and from neighbouring countries (e.g. El Salvador), commercial logging, and agriculture (e.g.
coffee). Today, the buffer zone of Cusuco is inhabited by more than 30,000 people living in 35 communities (Córdova
et al, 2003; Lenkh, 2005). Patterns of forest cover loss and location of local communities are depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Coffee plantation in the buffer zone of Cusuco
(photo: Guillaume Demare).
Figure 2. Map of Cusuco showing forest cover in 2000,
forest loss between 2000 and 2012, park boundaries, and
local settlements. Source: Hansen et al., 2013.
3. PROJECT REPORT
3
SUMMARY OF METHODS
A questionnaire survey was conducted in 83 households of four communities within the buffer zone of Cusuco
between June and August 2014. Two communities were chosen in the eastern part of the buffer zone (collectively
referred to as “eastern communities”), where enforcement happens to a greater extent (Rodolfo Bueso, pers.
comm., August 2014) and where there is relatively less forest cover loss. Two communities were chosen in the
northwest portion of the park (collectively referred to as “northern communities”), where most deforestation has
occurred. The final selection is summarized in Table 1 and the geographical location of communities visited is shown
in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Map showing the location
of the communities (green) where
household questionnaires were
conducted: Santo Tomas (STO),
Nueva Esperanza (NES), Nuevo Eden
(NED) and Guadalupe de Bañaderos
(GUA). Other communities are
shown in black. The map also shows
an elevation gradient, park
boundaries, and tree loss between
2000 and 2012.
Source: Hansen et al., 2013.
Table 1. List of communities where household questionnaires were conducted. The sample size and community
size (i.e. total number of households) are given for each location.
Community Code Sample size Community size Deforestation GPS (N) GPS (W)
Nuevo Eden NED 24 78 - 15.52623 88.19163
Guadalupe GUA 19 70 - 15.51207 88.17374
Santo Tomas STO 20 33 + 15.55080 88.24358
Nueva Esperanza NES 20 64 + 15.55966 88.30148
4. PROJECT REPORT
4
The household questionnaire comprised various elements for assessing specific socioeconomic attributes in the
communities. Poverty was measured based on the multidimensional poverty index (MPI) developed by the Oxford
Poverty and Human Development Initiative (Alkire and Santos, 2010). This index1
reflects deprivation in basic human
functioning and fundamental services: health, education and living standards. The primary advantage of measuring
multidimensional poverty is that it acknowledges the complexity in which poverty exists (Sen, 2000). In the context
of community-based management, initiatives can potentially be more effective through targeting specific areas of
deprivation and linking conservation goals with those of human development. The questionnaire was also used to
estimate the proportion of the population for which livelihood is predominantly dependent on agriculture and cattle
ranching, and inequality was measured based on land ownership (the total amount of land owned by individual
households) and Gini index (Gini, 1912; Litchfield, 1999).
Respondents were asked about their perception of ecosystem
services (ES) (scores: null, low, medium, high), in order to
evaluate the relative importance2
of specific ES in the local area.
A set of services was selected based on presumed relevance to
the study area, and selection was refined through a pilot study.
The final selection comprises ten different ES (see on the right)
that fall under the provisioning and regulating categories of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Some services
(shown in red) have the potential of being exploited
unsustainably by contributing to forest cover loss in the local
area.
One section of the questionnaire was aimed at assessing the perception of the protected area by communities found
in the buffer zone. Respondents indicated the types of benefits (e.g. ecosystem services, economic) and costs (e.g.
permits for wood extraction and land use) associated with the protected area, and who they thought benefited from
the protected area.
Finally, the governance network underlying forest management in Cusuco was explored through a series of
interviews (N=14) with local farmers, community leaders, park rangers and heads of management bodies (ICF,
DIMA). Questions were aimed at investigating the level of coordination between actors, the relationship amongst
actors, and the issues of deforestation and poverty in Cusuco.
1
For a detailed description of the MPI, please refer to Alkire and Santos (2010). The index includes three dimensions
of poverty (health, education, standards of living) and is based on ten indicators of deprivation.
2
Note that level of importance was not disaggregated between level of use and potential contribution to human
well-being. Thus, a service potentially providing high benefits may be perceived as less important when access to
the service is limited.
5. PROJECT REPORT
5
MULTIDIMENSIONAL POVERTY IN CUSUCO
Approximately 51% of households in Cusuco were determined to be multidimensionally poor. On average, those
households were found to be deprived in almost 45% of all weighted poverty indicators. The overall value of the MPI
reached a value of 0.2269 (Table 2), and is therefore higher than the national average (0.159). However,
multidimensional poverty in Cusuco is comparable to that of rural areas in Honduras (0.20-0.25) (OPHI, 2013). This
may indicate that the protected area, at least in its current form, is not having a significant socioeconomic impact
on communities living in the buffer.
Table 2. Multidimensional poverty index for Cusuco National Park (CNP). The MPI is the product of two measures:
the incidence of poverty (H) and the average intensity of poverty across the poor (A).
Location Sample size Incidence (H) Intensity (A) MPI
CNP 83 0.5060 0.4484 0.2269
To reduce poverty effectively, management should aim at targeting those areas of deprivation that contribute the
most towards multidimensional poverty in Cusuco. More than a third of MPI poor households do not have electricity,
and approximately half do not have access to safe drinking water3
or adequate cooking fuel, and do not own basic
assets (e.g. car, refrigerator) (Figure 4A). Overall, living standard is the dimension that contributed the most towards
the intensity of poverty, and nutrition is the indicator that had the most impact (Figure 4B).
Figure 4. A. Percentage of MPI poor households deprived in each dimension. B. Average contribution (%) of indicators
towards the intensity of poverty.
A B
3
The definition follows that of the Millennium Development Goals (see WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, 2014)
16%
5%
17%
30%
49%
8%
46%
35%
19%
48%
0% 20% 40% 60%
Schooling
Child enrolment
Infant mortality
Nutrition
Cooking fuel
Sanitation
Drinking water
Electricity
Flooring
Assets
12% 4%
12%
22%
12%2%
11%
9%
5%
12%
Schooling
Child enrolment
Infant mortality
Nutrition
Cooking fuel
Sanitation
Drinking water
Electricity
Flooring
6. PROJECT REPORT
6
The MPI holds a lot of potential for tracking the impact of forest management on local human development.
However, it is important to note that the design of any particular poverty measure is arbitrary and should be treated
with caution (Nussbaum, 2003; Sen, 2004; Alkire and Santos, 2010). While the present study was limited to three
dimensions, other important dimensions should be considered (e.g. work, empowerment) (Alkire and Santos, 2010).
If a different management regime were to be adopted in the future, it would be important to assess its potential
effect on human welfare (Mascia et al., 2010). Depending on the trajectory that local management takes, poverty
could either be reinforced or reduced. In turn, consequences on forest cover and biodiversity should be examined.
PERCEPTION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
The perception of particular ecosystem services (ES) differed between northern and eastern communities (Figure 5).
The provision of pasture is perceived as less important on the East side, which is expected since cattle ranching is an
activity largely restricted to the north-eastern lowlands of the buffer zone. There were also marginal differences in
the perception of water provision and water quality, which may be due in part to the fact that a higher proportion
of households in northern communities have access to safe drinking water. Eastern communities also considered
the provision of wood (both construction and fuel) as less important, which may reflect the higher level of
enforcement on this side of park. If more enforcement in eastern communities prevents people from using local
resources (e.g. permit requirements for wood extraction), the benefits associated with the provision of ES would not
be perceived because of restricted access. The potential effect of policy on the perception of important ES should
be further investigated, especially if greater enforcement is to be applied in Cusuco.
The relative importance between services was determined based on the frequency at which services were scored as
“high” by respondents. As depicted in Table 3, the highest ranking ES are not directly related to land use or other
activities that are potentially unsustainable. Instead, communities place a high value on services like water provision
and climate regulation. While this does not indicate that other services are not important in the local area, as
absolute importance was not measured, it shows that local people do recognise some of the benefits that arise from
the forest in Cusuco. This finding is meaningful with regards to community-based management because local values
can be aligned with the conservation targets of the protected area (e.g. the protection of watersheds). Willingness
to participate in management is generally an important condition for the successful implementation of community-
based conservation (Bulte et al., 2008), and therefore should not be an issue in the context of Cusuco. However,
participation may remain low if management actions are incompatible with local development. Land-use remains
the principal source of income in the local area so restrictions may reinforce poverty. In order to avoid conflict,
agriculture must become more profitable and sustainable, or alternatives should be put in place.
In fact, the MPI provides a useful analytical lens for linking ecosystem services with human welfare. For example,
providing alternative cooking fuel (e.g. gas, electricity) in the local area would reduce the importance of fire wood,
which is possibly exploited unsustainably, while improving standards of living. Similarly, providing safe drinking water
would increase the positive perception of water provision in the local area, therefore promoting higher community
participation in forest management while reducing poverty in Cusuco. Finally, the provision of agricultural land,
which is arguably the only ES with direct economic benefits in the local area, would contribute to both poverty
alleviation and conservation by becoming more effective and sustainable. It is also important to take into account
the dynamic and multi-layered relationships that exists between ES. For instance, agricultural expansion resulting in
forest cover loss can potentially affect a number of ecological processes (e.g. climate regulation, erosion control and
water provision) (Sampaio et al., 2007; Bennett et al., 2009), which in turn could be linked with human well-being.
7. PROJECT REPORT
7
Figure 5. Frequency at which respondents scored the importance
of ES as “high”. A red star indicates a statistical difference in the
distribution of scores between eastern and northern communities
(confidence level: 0.95).
Table 3. Services were assigned a rank of
importance based on responses. When the
distribution of responses is statistically
identical, services share the same rank
(confidence level: 0.95).
East North
Construction wood 3 2
Fuel wood 2 1
Water provision 1 1
Water quality 2 1
Agriculture 2 3
Pasture 4 3
Climate regulation 1 1
Erosion control 2 2
Fruits and honey 3 4
Medicinal plants 3 4
PERCEPTION OF THE PROTECTED AREA
Local communities do not generally have a negative perception of the protected area: 81% of respondents show
either positive (36%) or neutral (45%) attitudes, and only a small portion of the population (19%) considers the
protected area as merely imposing costs (i.e. permit requirements). Northern communities express more positive
attitudes (46% of respondents), in comparison to eastern communities (28% of respondents), where the majority of
respondents have a neutral perception of the protected area (51%). This is consistent with the fact that a higher
proportion of respondents from the northern side of the park consider the protected area as benefiting their own
community, compared to the eastern side (69% and 40%, respectively). It is unlikely that this overall difference in
attitudes regarding Cusuco is caused by a difference in enforcement level because relatively fewer respondents from
eastern communities (i.e. where enforcement is supposedly higher) listed any sort of costs imposed by the protected
area. One possible reason for a higher level of neutral attitudes is that people feel more disconnected from the
protected area on the eastern side of the park, and therefore do not see the potential benefits that the park provides.
It is also possible, however, that the proportion of negative attitudes was underestimated if respondents were
reluctant to list the costs associated with the protected area (i.e. a bias towards neutral attitudes). That being said,
the present data does not provide enough information to test these possible hypotheses.
In terms of the benefits that people derive from the existence of the protected area, ecosystem services (excluding
agriculture) were cited most often (84%). While this shows that people generally express a positive attitude towards
the protected area for the natural resources it secures (e.g. water), it also shows that Cusuco currently provides few
direct economic benefits to local communities.
In sum, the general lack of negative attitudes is a condition that can facilitate community-based initiatives, but is not
sufficient in itself because of a lack of economic incentives. Moreover, some questions remain unanswered, including
the potential effect that enforcement may have in shifting attitudes.
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Frequency
East North
* * * * *
8. PROJECT REPORT
8
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
A lack of government support and enforcement capacity makes it difficult to impose conservation on local
communities (Brockington, 2004). Although more enforcement could potentially reduce forest cover loss, social
impacts may be considerable and the long-term consequences on the forest are uncertain. Thus, the principal of
local support, which states that protected areas cannot be perpetuated without taking into account local livelihoods
(Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2002), appears to hold in the case of Cusuco. Community-based management may
therefore offer a viable alternative. However, the nature and mechanisms under which community-based initiatives
should operate remain to be explored. The previous sections demonstrate that local perceptions of ecosystem
services and the protected area by communities are two aspects that can facilitate the implementation of
community-based initiatives. This section presents potential barriers and provides a number of management
recommendations based on socioeconomic and institutional attributes characterising Cusuco National Park.
Achieving sustainable land use
Agriculture is virtually the only source of income for most of the households living within the protected area, with
an average of 98% of households deriving the majority of their income from land use. Completely shifting the
economic activity in the local area seems therefore unfeasible, at least in the short term. As a result, achieving
sustainable agricultural practices should be a priority. There is a large body of literature concerned with the best
way to reconcile biodiversity conservation with human development. Agriculture could become sustainable either
through the intensification of production (i.e. land sparing) or through the design of an agroforestry landscape (i.e.
land sharing) (Fischer et al., 2008; Ewers et al., 2009; Phalan et al., 2011). Different approaches are characterized by
different trade-offs (e.g. between forest cover and income; Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2007), so interventions should
be critically evaluated based on clear targets in biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction.
Land is not shared equally in the buffer zone of Cusuco, with an average Gini index4
of 0.639. This pattern was
consistent across communities (Gini > 0.5), which indicates that most of the land is owned by only few people. Thus,
a first step in the transition towards sustainable and efficient agriculture could target those people that own the
most land. While this may not reduce inequality in the park, livelihood would be improved on average. Moreover, a
considerable portion of the average income is derived from work as labour (35%) so improving practices would
potentially bring benefits reaching beyond the actual land owner. Another important aspect of improving agriculture
in the local area is to provide better access to the market and reduce the number of intermediaries between local
producers and traders. Interviewees mentioned this issue, and the creation of one cooperative in Nueva Esperanza
successfully led to more profitable coffee production (Don Majin Sorto, pers. comm., June 2014). Mechanisms for
improving agricultural practices and achieving sustainable land use should be examined further.
However, making local agriculture more profitable would essentially increase opportunity costs of avoided
deforestation and stimulate further encroachment as a result (Angelsen, 2010; Naidoo and Adamowicz, 2006). This
problem has been referred to as a Jevons paradox, whereby more intensification of agriculture results in more
deforestation (Ceddia et al., 2013). In addition, patterns of inequality in Cusuco show that even if agriculture
becomes more profitable, the benefits will not necessarily reach every individual in the population and unsustainable
agriculture could persist as a result. Thus, it is paramount that improved local agriculture is achieved in conjunction
with an adequate level of enforcement. Bruner et al. (2001) found that the effectiveness of protected areas was
generally not improved by increasing actual enforcement capacity, such as training, equipment and salary, with the
4
The Gini index ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).
9. PROJECT REPORT
9
most determinant factor being the overall density of guards. An adequate form of enforcement in Cusuco could
therefore involve residents of the buffer zone with potentially low costs overall.
Financing community-based conservation
Perhaps the greatest barrier to any sort of community-based initiative in Cusuco is the current lack of financial
resources. Based on interviews, this problem is limiting management initiatives not only at the community level, but
also at the level of local governments and state organisations (ICF, DIMA). Between 1999 and 2002, annual financial
resources in Cusuco dropped from $132,000 to $40,000 (Field and Long, 2007; Lenkh, 2005). Today, the park
generates less than $5,000 annually, a revenue that cannot sustain the management required for an area of its size
(Alejandro Vallejo, pers. comm., August 2014). Moving towards better agricultural practice and implementing
adequate enforcement will necessarily require financial back-up.
Market-based instruments have emerged as a promising tool for biodiversity conservation (e.g. payments for
ecosystem services; Morse-Jones et al., 2011; Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation;
Burgess et al., 2011). Payments for ecosystem services (PES) can sometimes successfully contribute to poverty
reduction, while financing conservation. However, the success of implementation in poor areas depends on a variety
of factors, including willingness to participate, capacity, and collective action (Bulte et al., 2008).
As discussed above, participation is unlikely to be a major issue in Cusuco, as management targets can be aligned
with local values. However, interviews revealed that coordination was very limited between actors, between
communities and between governmental institutions. Cusuco overlaps with three different municipalities (Omoa,
San Pedro Sula and Quimistán), which appears to produce a considerably divided institutional environment. This,
together with a lack of resources and government support, could represent a real challenge for building capacity. If
market-based initiatives successfully generate financial resources for supporting community-based management, it
is unclear how funding would reach the level of the community where management would occur. It is also unclear
how benefits would be shared between local communities and state organisations. These issues are often mentioned
when implementing market-based instruments in developing countries (e.g. Bulte et al., 2008; Burgess et al., 2011)
and should be thoroughly examined.
Future directions
Institutions and governance regime are found to be key determinants of success for community-based
conservation (Hayes, 2006). These aspects were only partially explored here and should be further investigated.
Better understanding the socioeconomic and physical drivers of deforestation in Cusuco would allow the
identification of areas in the park that are most vulnerable to land cover change. For example, the high elevation
and remoteness of particular areas may confer some level of protection (Joppa and Pfaff, 2009). Understanding
these patterns would effectively inform conservation planning (e.g. Etter et al., 2006).
The management of Cusuco should take into account the wider landscape. Even in places where protected areas
successfully reduce land cover change, habitat loss occurring beyond the protected boundaries may result in a
degree of isolation that can impact biodiversity overall (Sánchez-Azofeifa et al., 2003).
Generally, management initiatives should be evaluated with clear conservation targets in mind. It would be
important to identify the trade-offs associated with particular practices.
10. PROJECT REPORT
10
CONCLUSION
The apparent lack of enforcement in Cusuco National Park suggests that engaging with local communities might be
necessary for achieving long term conservation targets. The present research study explored some of the conditions
that may either facilitate or hinder community-based conservation in Cusuco.
A multidimensional poverty index is a useful analytical lens for understanding the link between poverty and the
perception of the local ecosystem by communities. It also offers the potential for targeting specific areas of
deprivation while addressing issues in biodiversity conservation, as well as better understanding how the issue of
unsustainable resource-use could be tackled through community-based management.
Local communities in Cusuco place a high value on the provision of particular ecosystem services, such as water
provision and climate regulation. As a result, the communities of Cusuco offer the opportunity of aligning
conservation targets with local values.
The main challenge for conservation in the park is to reduce the impact of agriculture on forest cover. While this
issue could potentially be addressed through community-based initiatives, the quality of the governance regime and
strength of local institutions remain uncertain.
Ultimately, the successful implementation of community-based management will also largely depend on the
production of financial resources. Without effective enforcement in the protected area, potential barriers to
community-based management must be overcome in order to secure the future of Cusuco National Park and the
biodiversity it harbours.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Paul Jepson, Peter Long, Merlijn Jocque, Kathy Slater, Eimear Rooney and Krisztina Szalai for
useful comments in the development of this project. I would especially like to thank Steve Green, who helped in the
creation of this project and provided invaluable support. I am grateful to Don Majin Sorto and the Alvarenga family
for their hospitality, Arturo ZR for the translation of the final household questionnaire, and Mia Schatz for comments.
I would also like to thank ESAC, DIMA and the ICF for their cooperation and support. I am especially thankful to
Marcial Erazo, Rodolpho Bueso and Aleejandro Vallejo.
This research was funded by St Anne’s College (Oxford University) and the Oxford School of Geography and the
Environment.
11. PROJECT REPORT
11
REFERENCES
Alkire, S. and Santos, M.E. (2010). Acute multidimensional poverty:
A new index for developing countries.
Angelsen, A. (2010). Policies for reduced deforestation and their
impact on agricultural production. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
107, 19639–19644.
Bennett, E.M., et al. (2009). Understanding relationships among
multiple ecosystem services. Ecology Letters 12, 1394–1404.
Borrini-Feyerabend, G.T., et al. (2002). Indigenous and Local
Communities and Protected Areas: Rethinking the
relationship. Parks, 12, 5-15.
Bradshaw, C.J.A., et al. (2009). Tropical turmoil—a biodiversity
tragedy in progress. Front. Ecol. Environ 7, 79–87.
Brockington, D. (2004). Community conservation, inequality and
injustice: Myths of power in protected area
management. Conservation and Society 2, 411-432.
Brooks, T.M., et al. (2004). Coverage provided by the global
protected-area system: is it enough? Bioscience 54, 1081–
1091.
Bruner, A.G., et al. (2001). Effectiveness of parks in protecting
tropical biodiversity. Science 291, 125-128.
Bulte, E.H., et al. (2008). Payments for ecosystem services and
poverty reduction: concepts issues and empirical perspectives.
Environment and Development Economics 13 (3), 245–254.
Burgess, N. D., et al. (2010). Getting ready for REDD+ in Tanzania: a
case study of progress and challenges. Oryx, 44(03), 339-351.
Ceddia, M. G., et al. (2013). Sustainable agricultural intensification
or Jevons paradox? The role of public governance in tropical
South America. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 1052-
1063.
Cernea, M.M. and Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2006). Poverty risks and
national parks: Policy issues in conservation and resettlement.
World Development 34: 1808-1830.
Chichilnisky, G. (1994). North-South trade and the global
environment. Am. Econ. Rev. 84, 851–874.
Córdova, F.F., et al. (2003). El Parque Nacional Cusuco, 1992-2002.
Fundación Ecologista Héctor Rodrigo Pastor Fasquelle.
Eken, G., et al. (2004) Key Biodiversity Areas as Site Conservation
Targets. BioScience 54(12):1110-1118.
Ellis, E. C. (2013). Sustaining biodiversity and people in the world's
anthropogenic biomes. Current Opinion in Environmental
Sustainability, 5(3), 368-372.
Etter A, et al. (2006). Regional patterns of agricultural land use and
deforestation in Colombia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment 114: 369–386.
Ewers, R. M., et al. (2009). Do increases in agricultural yield spare
land for nature? Global Change Biology, 15(7), 1716-1726.
Field R. and Long P. (2007). Cusuco National Park, Honduras: 2007
Field Report (available from http://opwall.com – last accessed
August 28, 2014).
Fischer, J., et al. (2008). Should agricultural policies encourage land
sparing or wildlife-friendly farming? Front. Ecol. Environ. 6,
380–385.
Gibson, L., et al. (2011). Primary forest are irreplaceable for
sustaining tropical biodiversity. Nature 478, 378–381.
Gini, C. (1912). Variabilita e Mutabilita, Bologna.
Green, S., et al. (2012) Cusuco National Park, Honduras: 2012
Status Report (available from http://opwall.com – last
accessed August 28, 2014)
Hansen, M.C., et al. (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-
century forest cover change. Science, 342(6160), 850-853.
Hayes, T.M. (2006). Parks, People, and Forest Protection: An
Institutional Assessment of the Effectiveness of Protected
Areas. World Development, 34(12), 2064-75.
IUCN and UNEP. (2014). The World Database on Protected Areas
(WDPA). UNEP-WCMC. Cambridge, UK. (available from
www.protectedplanet.net – last accessed August 28, 2014).
Joppa, L. N. and Pfaff, A. (2009). High and far: biases in the locations
of protected areas. PLoS ONE 4, e8273.
Laurance, W.F., et al. (2012). Averting biodiversity collapse in
tropical forest protected areas. Nature, 489, 290–294.
Lenkh, C. (2005) Cusuco forest management report (available from
http://opwall.com – last accessed August 22, 2014).
Litchfield, J.A. (1999). Inequality: Methods and Tools. World Bank
Website on Inequality, Poverty, and Socioeconomic
Performance (available from http://www.worldbank.org/
poverty/inequality/index.htm, accessed August 21, 2014).
Lund, J.F., and Treue, T. (2008). Are we getting there? Evidence of
decentralized forest management from the Tanzanian
Miombo woodlands. World Development, 36(12), 2780-2800.
Mascia, M.B., et al. (2010). Impacts of marine protected areas on
fishing communities. Conservation Biology, 24(5), 1424-1429.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and human
well-being. Vol. 5. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Morse‐Jones, S., et al. (2011). Ecosystem valuation: some principles
and a partial application. Environmetrics, 22(5), 675-685.
Myers, N., et al. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation
priorities. Nature, 403, 853-858.
Naidoo, R. and Adamowicz, W.L. (2006) Modeling opportunity costs
of conservation in transitional landscapes. Conserv. Biol. 20,
490–500.
Nussbaum, M. (2003). Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements:
Sen and Social Justice, Feminist Economics, 9(2/3), 33-59.
Oates, J.F. (1995). The Dangers of Conservation by Rural
Development: A Case Study from the Forests of Nigeria. Oryx,
29, 115.22.
OPHI (2013) Country Briefing 2013: Honduras (available from
www.ophi.org.uk – last accessed August 20, 2014).
Phalan, B., et al. (2011). Reconciling food production and
biodiversity conservation: land sharing and land sparing
compared. Science 333, 1289–1291.
Pimm, S. L. and Raven, P. R. (2000). Biodiversity: extinction by
numbers. Nature 403, 843–845.
12. PROJECT REPORT
12
Porter-Bolland, L. et al. (2012). Community managed forests and
forest protected areas: An assessment of their conservation
effectiveness across the tropics. Forest Ecology and
Management 268, 6-17.
Rodrigues, A.S.L., et al. (2004) Global gap analysis: priority regions
for expanding the global protected-area network. Bioscience
54, 1092–1100.
Sampaio G, (2007). Regional climate change over eastern Amazonia
caused by pasture and soybean cropland expansion. Geophys.
Res. Lett. 34, L17709.
Sanchez-Azofeifa G.A. (2003). Integrity and isolation of Costa Rica’s
national ´parks and biological reserves: examining the
dynamics of land-cover change. Biol. Conserv. 109, 123–35.
Sen, A. (2000). A Decade of Human Development. Journal of Human
Development, 1(1), 17-23.
Sen, A. (2004). Capabilities, Lists, and Public Reason: Continuing the
Conversation, Feminist Economics, 10(3), 77-80.
Spinage, C. (1998). Social Change and Conservation
Misrepresentation in Africa., Oryx, 32, 265.76.
Steffan-Dewenter, I., et al. (2007). Tradeoffs between income,
biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning during tropical
rainforest conversion and agroforestry
intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences,104(12), 4973-4978.
West P., et al. (2006). Parks and peoples: the social impact of
protected areas. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 35, 251–77.