he sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system.
Each sense organ contains different receptors.
General receptors are found throughout the body because they are present in skin, visceral organs (visceral meaning in the abdominal cavity), muscles, and joints.
Special receptors include chemoreceptors (chemical receptors) found in the mouth and nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and mechanoreceptors found in the ears.
he sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system.
Each sense organ contains different receptors.
General receptors are found throughout the body because they are present in skin, visceral organs (visceral meaning in the abdominal cavity), muscles, and joints.
Special receptors include chemoreceptors (chemical receptors) found in the mouth and nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and mechanoreceptors found in the ears.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
2. 2
The Special Senses
Chemical senses
Taste (gustation)
Smell (olfaction)
Vision
The ear
Hearing
Equilibrium
3. 3
re: Touch
The sense of touch is
part of the General
somatic senses____
This chapter deals with the Special
category of the two left sensory boxes
4. 4
TASTE
Taste buds: mostly on tongue
Two types
Fungiform papillae (small, on entire surface of tongue)
Circumvallate papillae (inverted “V” near back of tongue)
5. 5
Taste buds of 50-100
epithelial cells each
Taste receptor cells
(gustatory cells)
Microvilli through pore,
bathed in saliva
Disolved molecules
bind & induce receptor
cells to generate
impulses in sensory
nerve fibers
6. 6
Types of taste
Sweet
Sour
Salty
Bitter
Glutamate (MSG)
Gustatory (taste) pathway to brainstem &
cerebral cortex via two cranial nerves:
VII (Facial n.) – anterior 2/3 of tongue
IX (Glossopharyngeal n.) – posterior 1/3
tongue and pharynx
7. 7
Olfactory epithelium in roof of nasal cavity
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Has millions of bipolar neurons = olfactory receptor cells
Only neurons undergoing replacement throughout adult life
Olfactory cilia bind odor molecules
Mucus captures & dissolves odor molecules
Each receptor cell has an axon - are bundled into “filaments” of
olfactory nerve
Penetrate cribriform plate of ethmoid bone & enter olfactory bulb
Smell
(olfaction)
8. 8
Olfactory bulb is in forebrain
In bulb nerve axons branch and synapse with
mitral cells (neurons in clusters of “glomeruli”)
Mitral cells send signals via olfactory tract
Olfactory bulb__
_______Olfactory tract
___Filaments of Olfactory nerve (CN I)
*
*
10. 10
1000 types of smell receptors (approx.)
Convergence of many receptor cell signals
onto one glomerulus registers a signature
pattern
Brain recognizes the pattern: sent to
unclus (olfactory center) and limbic area
Anosmia: absence of the sense of smell
Trauma
Colds or allergies producing excessive mucus
Polyps causing blockage
1/3 are from zinc deficiency
11. 11
The Eye and Vision
Vision is the dominant sense in humans
70% of sensory receptors in humans are
in the eyes
40% of the cerebral cortex is involved in
processing visual information
The eye (or eyeball) is the visual organ
Diameter 2.5 cm (1 inch)
Only anterior 1/6 visible
Lies in bony orbit
Surrounded by a protective cushion of fat
12. 12
Accessory structures of the eye
Eyebrows
Eyelids or palpebrae
Upper & lower separated by palpebral fissure
Corners: medial & lateral canthi
Eyelashes
13. 13
Eyelid tarsal plates give structure
Where orbicularis oculi muscles attach (close eyes)
Levator palpebrae superioris muscle
Lifts upper lid voluntarily (inserts on tarsal plate)
14. 14
Tarsal glands –
modified sebaceous
(oil) glands in tarsal
plates
Conjunctiva -
transparent mucus
membrane of stratified
columnar epithelium
Palpebral conjunctiva
Bulbar conjunctiva
Covers white of eye but
not the cornea
(transparent tissue over
the iris and pupil)
15. 15
Lacrimal apparatus
Responsible for tears
The fluid has mucus,
antibodies and lysozyme
Lacrimal gland in orbit
superolateral to eye
Tears pass out through
puncta into canaliculi
into sac into
nasolacrimal duct
Empty into nasal cavity
(sniffles)
16. 16
Extraocular (extrinsic) eye muscles: 6 in #
“EOMs intact” means they all work right
Four are rectus muscles (straight)
Originate from common tendinous or anular
ring, at posterior point of orbit
Two are oblique: superior and inferior
17. 17
Extraocular (extrinsic) eye muscles
Cranial nerve innervations:
Lateral rectus: VI (Abducens n.) – abducts eye outward
Medial, superior, inferior rectus & inf oblique: III (Oculomotor n.)
– able to look up and in if all work
Superior oblique: IV (Trochlear n.) – moves eye down and out
19. 19
Double vision: diplopia (what the patient experiences)
Eyes do not look at the same point in the visual field
Misalignment: strabismus (what is observed when shine a
light: not reflected in the same place on both eyes) – can be a
cause of diplopia
Cross eyed
Gaze & movements not conjugate (together)
Medial or lateral, fixed or not
Many causes
Weakness or paralysis of extrinsic muscle of eye
– Surgical correction necessary
Oculomotor nerve problem, other problems
Lazy eye: amblyopia
Cover/uncover test at 5 yo
If don’t patch good eye by 6, brain ignores lazy eye and visual pathway
degenerates: eye functionally blind
NOTE: some neurological development and connections have a
window of time - need stimuli to develop, or ability lost
20. 20
3 Layers form the external wall of the eye
1. (outer) Fibrous: dense connective tissue
Sclera – white of the eye
Cornea
100s of sheets of collagen fibers between
sheets of epithelium and endothelium
Clear because regular alignment
Role in light bending
Avascular but does have pain receptors
Regenerates
2. (middle) Vascular: uvea
Choroid – posterior, pigmented
Ciliary body
Iris (colored part: see next slide)
3. (inner) Sensory
Retina and optic nerve
21. 21
1. (outer layer) Fibrous:
dense connective tissue
Sclera – white of the eye
Cornea
2. (middle) Vascular: uvea
Choroid – posterior,
pigmented
Ciliary body
Muscles – control lens
shape
Processes – secrete
aqueous humor
Zonule (attaches lens)
Iris
3. (inner layer) Sensory
Retina and optic nerve
22. 22
Layers of external wall of eye continued
1. (outer) Fibrous: dense connective tissue
Sclera – white of the eye
Cornea
2. (middle) Vascular: uvea
Choroid – posterior, pigmented
Ciliary body
Iris
Pigmented put incomplete: pupil lets in light
Sphincter of pupil: circularly arranged smooth muscle -
parasympathetic control
for bright light and/or close vision
Dilator of pupil: radiating smooth muscle –
sympathetic control
for dim light and/or distance vision
3. (inner) Sensory
Retina
23. 23
Layers of external wall of eye continued
1. (outer) Fibrous: dense connective tissue
Sclera – white of the eye
Cornea
2. (middle) Vascular: uvea
Choroid – posterior, pigmented
Ciliary body
Iris
3. (inner) Sensory
Retina -------will cover after the chambers
and lens
25. 25
Chambers and fluids
Vitreous humor in posterior segment
Jellylike
Forms in embryo and lasts life-time
Anterior segment filled with aqueous
humor – liquid, replaced continuously
Anterior chamber between cornea and iris
Posterior chamber between iris and lens
Glaucoma when problem with drainage
resulting in increased intraocular pressure
(see previous pics)
26. 26
Lens: thick, transparent biconvex disc
Changes shape for precise focusing of light on
retina
Onion-like avascular fibers, increase through life
Cataract if becomes clouded
Note lens below,
but in life it is clear
Cataract below: the lens is milky
and opaque, not the cornea
28. 28
(to a lesser degree, not
shown here, the cornea also)
a. Resting eye set for distance vision: parallel light focused on retina
b. Resting eye doesn’t see near objects because divergent rays are
focused behind retina
c. Lens accommodates (becomes rounder) so as to bend divergent rays
more sharply, thereby allowing convergence on the retina
Note: images are
upside down and
reversed from left to
right, like a camera
The eye is an optical
device: predominantly
the lens
29. 29
Retina: develops as part of the brain
Retina is 2 layers
Outer thin pigmented layer:
Melanocytes (prevent light scattering)
Inner thicker neural layer
Plays a direct role in vision
Three type of neurons:
1. (outer layer) Fibrous: dense connective tissue
Sclera – white of the eye
Cornea
2. (middle layer) Vascular: uvea
Choroid – posterior, pigmented
Ciliary body
Iris
3. (inner layer) Sensory
Retina and optic nerve
Remember
the 3 layers of
the external
eye?
1. Photoreceptors
2. Bipolor cells
3. Ganglion cells
30. 30
Light passes through pupil in iris, through vitreous
humor, through axons, ganglion cells and bipolar cells, to
photoreceptors next to pigmented layer
31. 31
Photoreceptor neurons signal bipolar cells, which signal
ganglion cells to generate (or not) action potentials: axons
run on internal surface to optic nerve which runs to brain
*Know that axons from the retina form the optic nerve, CN II
32. 32
Photoreceptors: 2 types
Rod cells
More sensitive to light - vision permitted in
dim light but only gray and fuzzy
Only black and white and not sharp
Cone cells
High acuity in bright light
Color vision
3 sub-types: blue, red and green light cones
*Know that rods are for B & W and cones are for color
33. 33
One of the Ishihara charts for color blindness
Commonly X-linked recessive: 8% males and 0.4% females
37. 37
Visual pathways
Green is area seen by both eyes, and is
the area of stereoscopic vision
At optic chiasm, medial fibers from each eye
(which view lateral fields of vision) cross to
opposite side. Optic tracts (of crossed and
uncrossed, sensing opposite side of visual field of
both eyes) synapse with neurons in lateral
geniculate of thalamus. These axons form the optic
radiation and terminate in the primary visual cortex
in the occipital lobe. Left half of visual field
perceived by right cerebral cortex, and vice versa.
38. 38
Visual field defects
print this out and follow from the fields to the visual cortex using 4 colors
remember: fields are reversed and upside down
1. Optic nerve
ipsilateral (same side) blind eye
2. Chiasmatic (pituitary tumors
classically)
lateral half of both eyes gone
3. Optic tract
opposite half of visual field gone
4. & 5. Distal to geniculate
ganglion of thalamus:
homonymous superior field (4)
or homonymous inferior field (5)
defect
Visual cortex
Visual fields
1.
2.
3.
5.
4.
Location of lesion:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
39. 39
Terminology, remember…
Optic – refers to the eye
Otic – refers to the ear
Getting eyedrops and ear drops mixed up
is probably not a good idea
40. 40
The Ear Parts of the ear
Outer (external)
ear
Middle ear
(ossicles) for
hearing)
Inner ear
(labyrinth) for
hearing &
equilibrium
41. 41
Sound in external acoustic meatus hits
tympanic membrane (eardrum) – it vibrates
Pressure is
equalized by the
pharyngotympanic
tube (AKA
eustachian or
auditory tube)
42. 42
TM causes ossicles in air filled middle ear to move:
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrup)
Ossicles articulate to
form a lever system
that amplifies and
transmits the vibratory
motion of the TM to
fluids of inner ear
cochlea via oval
window
These are 3 of the
smallest bones of the body
43. 43
Skeletal muscles of middle ear
When loud, muscles
contract, limiting
vibration and
dampening the noise
44. 44
Inner ear = bony “labyrinth” of 3 parts
1. Cochlea - hearing
2. Vestibule - equilibrium
3. Semicircular canals -
equilibrium
Filled with
perilymph and
endolymph
fluids
Cochlea_______________________
Vestibule___________
Semicircular canals____
In petrous part of
the temporal bone
45. 45
Spiral organ of Corti in cochlea contains
receptors for hearing (amplifies sound 100 times)
Vibration of
stirrup at oval
window starts
traveling
waves
displacing
basilar
membrane
Sensory hair
cells
stimulated
Nerve ending
of cochlear
nerve division
of VIII
(Vestibulo-
cochlear n.)
47. 47
Equilibrium pathway
Via vestibular nerve branch of VIII
(Vestibulocochlear n.) to the brain
stem
Only special sense for which most of
the information goes to lower brain
centers
48. 48
Vestibule contains
utricle and saccule
Each contains a macula
Senses static equilibrium
and linear acceleration of
the head
(not rotational movements)
Tips of hairs imbedded in
otolithic membrane (calcium
carbonate “stones”)
Vestibular nerve branches of
VIII (Vestibulocochlear n.)
49. 49
Semicircular canals
Each of the 3 lies in one of the 3 planes of space
Sense rotational acceleration of the head
Duct with ampulla housing a small crest: crista ampulla
Hairs project into jellylike cupula & basilar cells synapse
with fibers of vestibular nerve