- Ethics is derived from Greek and Latin words meaning custom, habit, or way of acting. It was Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle who started the study of ethics.
- Ethics can be defined as the study of human morality and conduct, and is concerned with distinguishing right from wrong. It examines how humans are accountable for their actions and consequences.
- There are differing approaches to ethics such as theistic (based on religion and God) and atheistic (relying only on reason and matter) but both are concerned with moral education and norms. Ethics can be general, concerning principles of morality, or special, concerning application to specific circumstances.
Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine science. These scientists are also famous abroad in different science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine marine science, chemistry, engineering and biology.
Norm
Norm of Morality
• Types of norm:
Eternal Divine Law
Human Reason
Law as the object norm of morality
• General Notion of Law
o Law of Nature
o Natural Law
Moral Law
o Essential Elements for a Law to be Reasonable:
• Divisions of Law
o Eternal Law
The Natural Moral Law
Law of Conscience
i. Attributes of the Natural Law
ii. The Contents of Natural Law
Formal norms
Material norms
Human Positive Law
Law as the subject norm of morality
Conscience
• Conscience as an Act of Intellect
(Judgement of Reason)
• Conscience as a Practical Moral Judgement
• Conscience as the Proximate Norm of Morality
• Kinds of Conscience
i. Correct or True Conscience
ii. Erroneous of False conscience
Invincibly erroneous conscience
Vincibly erroneous conscience
Perplexed conscience
Pharisaical conscience
i. Certain Conscience
ii. Doubtful Conscience
iii. Scrupulous Conscience
iv. Lax Conscience
Human Acts and Acts of Man are both man's actions...Are they moral or immoral? Check out what to learn about the morality and the standard of morality based on the Christian moral perspectives- from Aristotelian to Thomisian...
Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine science. These scientists are also famous abroad in different science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine marine science, chemistry, engineering and biology.
Norm
Norm of Morality
• Types of norm:
Eternal Divine Law
Human Reason
Law as the object norm of morality
• General Notion of Law
o Law of Nature
o Natural Law
Moral Law
o Essential Elements for a Law to be Reasonable:
• Divisions of Law
o Eternal Law
The Natural Moral Law
Law of Conscience
i. Attributes of the Natural Law
ii. The Contents of Natural Law
Formal norms
Material norms
Human Positive Law
Law as the subject norm of morality
Conscience
• Conscience as an Act of Intellect
(Judgement of Reason)
• Conscience as a Practical Moral Judgement
• Conscience as the Proximate Norm of Morality
• Kinds of Conscience
i. Correct or True Conscience
ii. Erroneous of False conscience
Invincibly erroneous conscience
Vincibly erroneous conscience
Perplexed conscience
Pharisaical conscience
i. Certain Conscience
ii. Doubtful Conscience
iii. Scrupulous Conscience
iv. Lax Conscience
Human Acts and Acts of Man are both man's actions...Are they moral or immoral? Check out what to learn about the morality and the standard of morality based on the Christian moral perspectives- from Aristotelian to Thomisian...
This is the third chapter of the course Readings in Philippine History as per the course guide from Commission on Higher Education.
Course sub-topics:
-Site of the First Mass
-Cry of Balintawak or Pugad Lawin?
-Rizal's Retraction
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Capture and analyze your feelings in personal moral experiences;
2. compare reasonable and emotional responses;
3. check real-life cases against the 7-step model;
This is the fourth chapter of the course Readings in Philippine History as per the course guide from Commission on Higher Education.
Course sub-topics:
1. Agrarian Reform Policies from Commonwealth Period to the 5th Republic
2. Philippine Constitutions
2.1 1935 Constitution
2.2 1973 Constitution
2.3 1986 Constitution
3. Philippine Taxation
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
This is the third chapter of the course Readings in Philippine History as per the course guide from Commission on Higher Education.
Course sub-topics:
-Site of the First Mass
-Cry of Balintawak or Pugad Lawin?
-Rizal's Retraction
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Capture and analyze your feelings in personal moral experiences;
2. compare reasonable and emotional responses;
3. check real-life cases against the 7-step model;
This is the fourth chapter of the course Readings in Philippine History as per the course guide from Commission on Higher Education.
Course sub-topics:
1. Agrarian Reform Policies from Commonwealth Period to the 5th Republic
2. Philippine Constitutions
2.1 1935 Constitution
2.2 1973 Constitution
2.3 1986 Constitution
3. Philippine Taxation
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
Ethical Considerations of BECCS - Presentation by Duncan McLaren (Lancaster University/former Friends of the Earth) at the UKCCSRC's CCS: Issues in governance and ethics workshop in Edinburgh, 23 September 2014
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
1. Ethics - Origin
• Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethicos
or that which pertains to ethos the English
translation of which is
“custom”, “characteristic way of acting”, or
“habit”
• The Latin equivalent is mos, mores from
which come the word moral and morality
2. Ethics - Origin
• It was the Greek Philosophers who started the study of Ethics.
Among those notable are
Socrates – “knowing what is right is doing what is right”; a person can
act correctly and well if he knows what is a good life; evil is done out
of ignorance
Plato – the life of reason is the happiest and the best form of life; if
one wants to be happy, one should be a harmonious man: a man of
virtue; ethics is a matter of nature --- virtues are innate to us
Aristotle – ethics is a matter of planning, purpose and decision: a
matter of character
Socrates was regarded as the Father of moral Philosophy
Aristotle has greatly influenced ethical thinking with three important
treatises – The Nicomachean Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics and the
Magna Moralia (Great Ethics)
3. Definition of Ethics
• There are several definitions of Ethics
• Ethics is defined as
– The practical science of the morality of human conduct
– The philosophical science dealing with the morality of
human acts
– The science of the morality of human acts
– The study of man as a moral being, one who is rationally
able to distinguish between right and wrong
– Ethics is concerned with morality, the quality which makes
an act good or evil, correct or wrong
– Ethics is concerned with the norms of human behavior
4. Ethics: The science of the Morality of
Human Acts
Human act – are actions done intentionally and freely like
walking, reading, working, playing, shopping, joining a
contest or signing a contract
Acts of man – are instinctive, such as the physiological and
psychological movements like breathing, feeling happy, or
falling in love
Ethics does not study what man cannot control, but they
look at acts of man as factors affecting man’s judgment
and violations
Ethics examines how man is accountable for his actions
and its consequences.
Ethics proposes how man ought to live his life -
meaningfully
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
5. Ethics: The Art of Correct Living
Art provides what is orderly and harmonious in an art
work, Ethic does the same for our everyday lives
Ethics is the art of correct living for Ethics teaches us how
we may put order and harmony in our lives.
It is a practical science – it is beneficial only when its truths
are put into practice as rules of conducts
Every one is expected to be decent and
trustworthy, deviating from it causes chaos and disarray
Morality is not only necessary to a person but also to a
society “Without civic morality, communities perish;
without personal morality their survival has no
value”(Bertrand Russell) – when people do not accept the
rule of law society crumbles
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
6. Ethics and Religion
Ethics and religion are both concerned with moral
education but they differ from each other
Ethics is a science and relies on reasons for its
conclusion
Religion is a system of beliefs and practices based on
faith and revelation or truths revealed to Man by God.
Ethics teaches the value of religion, presenting it as a
duty of man towards the Supreme being
Religion as an organized church or
institution, contributes to the development of ethical
thought.
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
7. Ethical Norms and Laws
Laws
Human laws regulate external actions, but not thoughts
or feelings
Sometimes legalizes immoral acts hence “what is legal
is not necessarily moral”
Ethical norms
Covers thoughts and feelings thus a person could sin
because of what he thinks or desires.
It is not sufficient to do good, one must be sincere in
doing what is good
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
8. Ethical Approaches
ATHEISTIC APPROACH
Assumes that only matter exists and man is responsible only
to the State since there is no God who rules the universe
Morality is an invention of man to suit his requirements and
to preserve the society
Moral truths are temporary and changeable depending on
the situation
Some of its tenets are as follows
Matter is the only reality
Man is a matter and does not have spiritual soul
Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the
welfare of society
There is no life after death
Man is accountable only to the state
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
9. Ethical Approaches
THEISTIC APPROACH
Assumes that God is the Supreme Lawgiver
Everything must conform to God’s Eternal Plan of creation
Man must exercise his freedom in accordance with God’s will
There are absolute principles of morality which are not
changeable
Man is accountable for his actions and deserves rewards or
punishments in this life or the next
Some of their tenets are as follows
God is the Supreme Creator and Law giver
Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal
interest among with that of others
Man has an immortal soul
Man is accountable for his actions, both good and Evil
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
10. General and Special Ethics
General Ethics – about the principles of morality. It
explains the norms with which the moral
significance of human act is determined
Special ethics – the application of the principles of
General ethics into the problems and issues
confronting a person on account of his
circumstances in life, for instance as a
citizen, neighbor, worker, wife, husband or child
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
11. Reading: WHAT IS ETHICS
by: Jovito R. Salonga
Points raised
Ethics is the discipline dealing with the right and wrong
Common sense tells us that things that are right are the things
that help the people and the society at large
It has a practical dimension – reciprocity; as reflected in the
Golden rule “Do unto other what you want others to do unto you”
or its negative “Do not do unto others what you do not want
others to do unto you”
It has a spiritual dimension – why we feel shame or guilt ;
conscience
Abe Lincoln said “ When I do good I feel good. When I do bad I feel
bad”
Our best moments are not the times when we are a lot of money
but moments when what we did meant a lot good to others
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 1
12. Man as A Person
Moral Character
Character
is the will of the person directing him towards a recognized
idea
is not the product of a moment’s inspiration, but a disciplined
tendency to choose the right thing in any given circumstance
When a person falls below the expectation he is said to have
bad character
A person who lives up to the ideals of his humanity is said to
have good character or moral integrity
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
13. Social Dimension of a Person
Society is but an extension of the person
George Hegel teaches that man is fully developed
in his participation in family life, civic community
and in the State
Thomas Hill Green expressed the conviction that a
person’s morality must identify itself with public
welfare
Paul Tillich said that natural law is the demand for
us “to be a person in the community of other
persons”
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
14. Social Dimension of a Person
Society is but an extension of the person
George Hegel teaches that man is fully developed
in his participation in family life, civic community
and in the State
Thomas Hill Green expressed the conviction that a
person’s morality must identify itself with public
welfare
Paul Tillich said that natural law is the demand for
us “to be a person in the community of other
persons”
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
15. Reading : Be Proud you Are Human
From the beginning we found ourselves alone in this
universe – we realized this and turned our attention to
making something practical and useful out of this
unprecedented situation
We found a Light, a God and we got a sense of direction and
a goal to work on
We set up a standard for living together
We created for ourselves governing systems covering vast
geographical spaces
We have conceived the ideal of justice and plan it all for men
we are persistent – we find ways to browse the water, air
and our neighboring planets
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
16. HUMAN ACTS
Performed by a person who is acting
knowingly, freely and willfully
These actions are deliberate, intentional or
voluntary
These are differentiated from acts of man which
are instinctive and are not under the control of
the free will
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
17. Attributes of Human Acts
Human act is done knowingly
The doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the
consequences of his actions
Every normal person of age is presumed to act
knowingly
Children below the age of reason, the senile and the
insane – are considered incapable of moral judgement
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
18. Attributes of Human Acts
Human act is done freely
The doer acts by his own initiative and choice without
being forced to do so by another person
An action done under duress is not considered
voluntary
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
19. Attributes of Human Acts
Human act is done willfully
The doer consents to the act, accepting it as his own
and assumes accountability for its consequences
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
20. Kinds of Human Acts
Elicited Acts – those performed by the Will but are
not bodily externalized (no external manifestation)
Commanded Acts – those mental and bodily
actions performed under the command of the Will
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
21. Elicited Acts
Wish – the tendency of the Will towards an object without
considering whether it is attainable or not
Intention – the tendency of the will towards an object
which is attainable without necessarily committing oneself
to get it
Consent – the acceptance of the will to carry out the
intention
Election – the selection of the will of those means
necessary to carry out the intention
Use – the command of the will to make use of the means
elected to carry out the intention
Fruition – the enjoyment of the will due to the attainment
of the intetion
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
22. Commanded Acts
Internal action
Those performed mentally such as
reasoning, recalling, imagining, and reflecting
External action
Those performed bodily, such as
walking, dancing, talking and writing
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
23. In summary
Philosophers speak of Human acts as “being first in
intention, but last in execution”
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 3
24. Moral Accountability
Human acts, being voluntary acts are accountable
acts
Actions are attributed on the doer as its pricipal
cause and therefore deserving of either rewards
or punishments
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 6
25. Subject of Human Acts
The subject of a human act is any person who is
capable of acting intelligently and freely
Business organizations, institutions, associations
or unions which are constituted by law as juridical
person are also subject of human acts
Professional Ethics with Values Education Week 6
26. Modifiers of Human Acts
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect
and will of a person however there are factors
that may influence the intellect and the will so
that actions are not perfectly voluntary
The Moral Axiom is:
“The Greater the knowledge and the freedom, the
greater the voluntariness and therefore the
accountability”
27. Ignorance
Ignorance - The absence of knowledge which a
person ought to possess
Everyone normal person who has attained the age of
reason approximately seven years old is expected to
know the general norms of proper conduct and
behavior
Vincible Ignorance – one which can easily be corrected
through ordinary diligence
Not knowing time or your seatmate’s name
28. Types of Ignorance
Ignorance
Vincible Ignorance – one which can easily be corrected
through ordinary diligence
Not knowing time or your seatmate’s name
Invincible ignorance – the person is either not aware of his
state of ignorance or being aware of it does not have the
means to rectify such ignorance
A waiter who served contaminated food because he is not aware
Affected ignorance – a vincible ignorance which is
intentionally kept in an effort to escape responsibility
An employee who refuses to heed the instruction of his
supervisor
29. Principles of Ignorance
• 1) Invincible Ignorance renders an act involuntary
• - a person is not liable or cannot be culpable if he is not aware of his
ignorance or when there is no means of rectifying his ignorance
•
• 2) Vincible Ignorance does not destroy but lessens voluntariness and the
corresponding accountability over the act
• - when a person becomes aware of one’s ignorance, he/she has the moral
obligation to rectify it- and to act with this is a form of imprudence
•
• 3) Affected Ignorance though it decreases voluntariness, increases the
accountability over the resultant act
• - it interferes intellect – decrease voluntariness
• - it is willed to persist – increases accountability
• - refusing to rectify ignorance is malicious – and malice is graver if
ignorance is used as an excuse for not doing the right thing
30. Passion
• - Either tendencies towards desirable objects
(positive emotions like
love, desire, delight, hope, bravery etc) or
tendencies away from undesirable or harmful
things (negative emotions like
horror, sadness, hatred, despair, fear, anger
etc)
31. Types of Passion (related to Action)
• 1) Antecedent Passions
• - precedes the act
• - predisposes a person to act
•
• 2) Consequent Passions
• - those that are intentionally aroused and kept
• - voluntary in cause; the result of the will
playing the strings of emotion
32. Principles of Passion
• 1) Antecedent Passions do not always destroy voluntariness but
they diminish accountability for the resultant act
• - they weaken the will power without obstructing freedom
completely
• - therefore, crimes of passion are always voluntary although
accountability is diminished because it interferes with the freedom
of the will
•
• 2) Consequent Passions do not lessen voluntariness but may even
increase responsibility
• - consequent passions are direct results of the will which fully
consents to them instead of subordinating them to its control
33. Fear
• - disturbance on the mind of the person –
being confronted by an impending danger or
harm to himself, to his loved ones or to his
property
• - one is compelled to decide to perform an act
so as to avoid threat of future or imminent
evil
34. Types of Fear
• 1) Act done with fear
• - certain actions which by nature are dangerous or risky
• - in theses cases, fear is a normal response to danger
• - these actions are voluntary because the doer is in ful control of his faculties and
acts inspite of fear
• - fear here is an instinct for self-preservation (we even fear new experiences or
situations) ex. Being left alone in a strange place, being asked to speak before a
group of people
•
• 2) Act out of fear or because of fear
• - fear here becomes a positive force compelling a person to act without careful
deliberation
• - fear modifies the freedom of doing, inducing the person to act in a certain
predetermined manner, even without his full consent
• Ex. A child – studies/reads his books – out of fear of his mother
• A man – stops smoking – fear of contracting cancer
35. Principles of Fear
• 1) Acts done with fear are voluntary
• - acting inspite of his fear and is in full control of himself
•
• 2) Acts done out of fear are simply voluntary although conditionally
involuntary
• - simply voluntary = person remains in control of his faculties
• - conditionally involuntary = if it were not for the presence of something
feared, the person would not act or would act in another way
• - Intimidating or threatening as person with horror is an unjust act
• - Legally speaking, acts done out of fear – invalid acts
• Ex. Contract – made out of fear – voidable – later be annulled
•
• 3) Acts done because of intense fear or panic are involuntary
• - panic – obscures the mind – in this mental state, the person is not
expected to think sensibly
36. Habit
• - permanent inclinations to act in a certain
way
• - lasting readiness and facility born of
frequently repeated acts or for acting in a
certain manner
• - acquire the role of second nature – moves a
person to perform certain acts with relative
ease
37. Habit
• Voluntary Habits
• - those caused by the repetition of voluntary
acts
• Involuntary Habits
• - a habit becomes such if the will is resolved to
remove it and there is a struggle to overcome
it
38. Principles of Habit
• 1) Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in
cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to counteract
the habitual inclination
• - Bad Habits – voluntary in cause because they are
results of previously willed acts done repeatedly
• - as long as the habits are not corrected, evil acts done
by force of habit are voluntary and accountable
• - can be not accountable – if a person decides to fight
his habit. For as long as the effort towards this purpose
continues, actions resulting from such habit may be
regarded as acts of man because the cause of such
habit is no longer expressly desired
39. Violence
• - any physical force exerted on a person by
another free agent for the purpose of
compelling the said person to act against his
will
• Ex. Bodily
torture, maltreatment, mutilation, etc
40. Principles of Violence
• 1) External actions or commanded actions performed by a person
subjected to violence, to which reasonable resistance has been
offered, are involuntary and are not accountable
• - active resistance should always be offered to an unjust aggressor
• - if resistance is impossible and there is a serious threat to one’s
life, a person confronted by violence cab offer intrinsic resistance
•
• 2) Elicited acts, or those acts done by the will are not subjected to
violence and are therefore voluntary
• Will – a spiritual faculty – therefore, not within the reach of
violence