The document outlines the systematic methodology employed by social scientists to conduct research, emphasizing the importance of clearly defined research questions and hypotheses in fields like emergency management and criminal justice. It discusses various research designs, including qualitative and quantitative approaches, and emphasizes the need for operationalizing vague variables to ensure accurate measurement. The text also presents the benefits of mixed methods research, combining both qualitative and quantitative data to gain comprehensive insights into social phenomena.

1. Presentation
Understanding Research Methodology
In conducting social science research, the social scientist seeks
to understand, and in turn explain, the world in which he or she
lives. Rather than simply rely on what they observe and apply
assumptions, beliefs, or general guesses to explain observations,
social scientists approach this endeavor for an increased
understanding using a systematic scientific method. Social
scientists in the fields of homeland security, emergency
management, and many others take this approach because it is
their ultimate intention to go beyond their own personal
understanding of why things happen. They want to inform
others of these explanations and contribute to a greater body of
knowledge. The purpose of developing, testing, and refining
explanations for what is observed is to ultimately predict future
behaviors or prescribe potential remedies for negative conduct
in the form of policies.
Research methodology is comprised of the approaches, designs,
plans, methods, and tools or instruments scientists will use to
conduct their exploration. Remember that social science
includes studying phenomena and activities related to
emergency management, criminal justice, and homeland
security. Consider an example to help understand this need for a
systematic approach to studying your surroundings to devise a
strategy or policy.
In this example, a planner known as Officer Lightly works in a
local law enforcement department and is directed to develop a
community policing plan with the intent to solicit and
incorporate the assistance of citizens in reducing the annual
number of property crimes each year. The former planner,
Officer Grimly, had planned to develop a program based on his
own beliefs about what would work. Officer Grimly simply
briefed and published the plan to his department's leadership
and then moved on to his next assignment. However, Officer

2. Lightly is familiar with the scientific process and understands
its value for tackling social science projects. Officer Lightly
determines there is a wide assortment of objectives he might
pursue, but he knows he needs to first start with a specific
research question and then develop and test a hypothesis.
Depending on the findings from his test of the hypothesis, he
may proceed in his original direction or decide to take a
different course.
Officer Lightly decides to craft two research questions and at
least one hypothesis for each. He has formulated the following:
· Research Question 1 (R1): Where in the community do
property crimes occur in the largest concentrations?
· Hypothesis 1 for R1: If an area in the community is low
income, property crimes are higher.
· Research Question 2 (R2): What are citizens in areas of high
crime currently doing in response to, or to protect against,
property crimes?
· Hypothesis 1 for R2: If citizens act purposively to prevent
property crime, they will not be victims of property crime.
Measuring Phenomena
In examining Officer Lightly’s variables, he recognizes that
they may be vague and therefore hard to measure. For example,
what constitutes low income or acting purposively? The
researcher must operationalize these concepts. Operationalizing
variables requires defining them and determining how they will
be measured. The researcher may, for example, characterize a
low-income area as one where 8 of 10 homes within a certain
radius report annual family incomes below the federally defined
poverty level of $19,000 for a family of four. There are many
different techniques used to operationalize variables, and the
previous example is only one of the potential ways for
operationalization.
Presentation
Types of Research Design Approaches
In any study, providing an answer to the research question or

3. idea is the primary objective. The research question focuses the
investigation on a specific topic that guides the entire research
design process, data collection, data analysis, and research
evaluation. There are an innumerable number of possible
research questions for any topic. Once the entire research
process has been executed, new alternative questions may also
become apparent.
Research design involves the researcher making decisions about
how many samples to study, as well as to administer the
dependent variable to eliminate or control threats to validity.
The particular research design method to be used in a study and
its application to the study must first be fully identified. The
basic research design is fairly clear-cut and will most likely fit
one of the following models:
· Correlational and causal-comparative research
· Survey research
· Qualitative and quantitative research
· Single-case research
Correlational and Causal-Comparative Research
Correlational and causal-comparative research are used to study
phenomena involving the inherent characteristics of
participants. However, there is an important difference between
the two approaches: causal-comparative research focuses on
making group comparisons, whereas the main focus of
correlational research is to estimate the significance of the
relationship between two variables. These differences in focus
result in different types of conclusions that can be drawn
(Mertens, 2005).
Survey Research
Survey research can be thought of as descriptive-research
methods or as data collection methods used within other
research designs (Mertens, 2005). Surveys can be used for a
variety of reasons, and they are used especially in educational
and psychological research. When developing an effective
survey, a good first step is to write a brief purpose for the
survey, in about 25 words or less. This purpose can then be

4. expanded to include specific objectives of the survey. A survey
researcher has a choice between several approaches: simple
descriptive, cross-sectional, and longitudinal. The simple
descriptive approach is a one-time survey administered over a
short period of time. The cross-sectional approach describes the
effects of groups over a specific period of time. The
longitudinal approach considers one cohort or a number of
groups over a long period of time (Mertens, 2005).
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative research is designed to provide an in-depth
description of a specific program, practice, or setting (Mertens,
2005). Quantitative research, on the other hand, is designed for
the study of large groups using questionnaires, surveys, or
observations.
Single-Case Research
Single-case research is particularly appealing to researchers and
practitioners in education and psychology because it is based on
the interest in determining the effectiveness of a single
individual's intervention (Mertens, 2005).
Selecting Research Ideas
A strong research idea should be easy to justify. When choosing
which study to pursue, it is important to ask the following
questions:
· What potential impact will the results of the study have on the
field?
· What will be gained from answering the research question?
· Who will benefit from the results of the study?
In life, there are times when someone will have an idea and
think about that idea and how it could make a difference in the
world. As a professional, a person might have to make an
important decision but not have the tools or the knowledge to
make the best choice. The development of these ideas and the
need for statistical evidence are what fuel the research design
process. As a researcher, a person can be assigned an idea and
asked to work on it, or someone may have his or her own idea to
pursue. Regardless of the circumstances, it is important to

5. understand that research will always be in high demand and that
all research projects must be undertaken with the highest levels
of validity and reliability in mind.
Reference
Mertens, D. M. (2005). Research and evaluation in education
and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Article
Article: Research Design
Research Design
Research design provides detailed plans that specify how data
should be collected and analyzed. It covers two major areas:
quasi-experimental and experimental research. Experimental
design is a method of experimentation with the objective of
implicitly or explicitly including the control of variables;
researchers experiment by observing the effects of one or more
variables on others under controlled conditions. In the quasi-
experimental section, random assignments are not used to
establish equivalent experimental and control groups (Trochim,
2006).
Research Objectives
Research design can be exploratory, descriptive, or
experimental.
Exploration
Research designs may have exploratory objectives. Exploratory
design assumes that investigators have little or no knowledge
about the research problem under study.
Description
Descriptive design means depicting the characteristics of
whatever is being observed. For investigation, important
characteristics of study settings and persons are identified.

6. Later, investigators may conduct experimental research where
one or more of the described variables may be controlled and
assessed. Descriptive designs are the most common in
criminological research.
Experimentation
Experimentation and experimental objectives are designed to
demonstrate cause-effect relationships between variables.
Because the relationship between variables takes a great deal of
time and repeated research efforts to establish, investigators
caution their readers to be careful of jumping into conclusions
about cause-effect variable interrelationships. A key element
with this design is experimental and control groups. A design is
experimental if subjects are randomly assigned to treatment
groups and to control (comparison) groups. Cook and Campbell
(1979) mention 10 types of experimental design. Note that the
control group may receive no treatment or it may be a group
receiving a standard treatment (e.g., students receiving
computer-supported classes versus those receiving conventional
instruction). That is, the control group is not necessarily one to
be labeled "no treatment."
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the application of statistical procedures
and techniques to data collected through surveys, including
interviews and questionnaire administration. They are known
for number crunches because a wide variety of sophisticated
statistical techniques exist to describe what they have
found. Thus, it involves the use of structured questions where
the response options have been predetermined and a large
number of respondents are involved. By definition,
measurement must be objective, quantitative, and statistically
valid. Simply put, it is about numbers—objective data
(Champion, 2005). Thus, quantitative research involves

7. investigation that heavily uses statistical procedures—statistical
manipulations of data considered as primary in an effort to
discover patterns of behavior. On the other hand, qualitative
research is an investigation that does not rely heavily on
statistical analyses—participant observation for the purpose of
discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is the application of observational
techniques or the analysis of documents as the primary means of
learning about persons or groups and their characteristics. This
type of research design is often called fieldwork, referring to
the immersion of researchers into the lives and worlds of those
studied. It involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data
by observing what people do and say. Whereas quantitative
research refers to counts and measures of things, qualitative
research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things
(Champion, 2006).
Qualitative research is much more subjective than quantitative
research and uses very different methods of collecting
information, mainly through individuals, in-depth interviews,
and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is
exploratory and open-ended. Small numbers of people are
interviewed in-depth and a relatively small number of focus
groups are conducted. This type of research is often less costly
than surveys. It is effective in acquiring information about
people's communications, needs, and responses to specific
communications (Hagan & King, 1992).
References
Champion, D. J. (2005). Research methods for criminal justice
and criminology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation:
Design and analysis issues for field settings. Florence,

8. KY: Cengage/Wadsworth.
Hagan, M., & King, R. P. (1992). Recidivism rate of youth
completing an intensive treatment program in a juvenile
correctional facility. International Journal of Offender Therapy
and Comparative Criminology, 36, 349–358.
Trochim, W. M. K. (2006, October). Research methods
knowledge base. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from Web Center
for Social Research Methods Web site:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/
Article
Operationalizing Variables
When examining variables, a researcher might decide that they
may be vague and therefore hard to measure. The researcher
must operationalize these concepts. Operationalizing variables,
stated simply, is defining them and determining how they will
be measured. The researcher may, for example, characterize a
low income area as one where 8 of 10 homes within a certain
radius report annual family incomes below the federally defined
poverty level of $19,000 for a family of four. This is only one
of a number of potential ways to operationalize this variable.
Below are other examples of variable operationalization:
· Property crimes are higher.
· This is measured as follows: 4 in 10 properties (homes and
businesses) in the given area have reported property crimes in
the last 5 years.
· Act purposively to prevent property crime.
· This will be measured based on the types of activities people
engage in with the intention to prevent their homes and
businesses from being targeted. This will still seem vague
because the researcher may not yet know what these activities
will include.
· Property crimes are limited to incidents of vandalism to
include graffiti. Incidents may include reported and nonreported
vandalism.
· Victims of property crime is defined as reported cases of

9. property crime.
Operationalizing a variable may require defining the parameters
of each word within it.
Article
Primary Approaches to Social Science Methods
The approaches or designs employed by social scientists to
pursue their research fall primarily into two main categories:
quantitative and qualitative. It makes sense that a research
project might include elements of each of these; this is known
as employing a mixed methods approach.
Quantitative Methods Approach
Quantitative analysis, as the name implies, is concerned with
collecting, measuring, and processing quantitative data.
Quantitative analysis, or quant, is about numbers and logic
using data that are fixed, objectively gathered, and examined.
By starting with a problem or objective, the researcher brings
together various facts and data, then applies what is already
known and uses his or her own (or mathematical) logic to
pursue answers or make recommendations regarding courses of
action; this process is called convergent thinking. Think of this
process as a kin to what a police detective does in attempting to
solve a case as he starts with a problem then deductively
pursues answers.
Quantitative analysis focuses on mathematical formulas,
computer-based procedures, and statistical outputs. Although
this output is interpreted by human beings, there are a number
of rules that apply to guide the researcher in this interpretation.
The data and information gathered is essentially known, but it is
patterns in the data or observations that are looked for to
determine predictors or to help explain phenomena. By
combining the known information with rigorous mathematical
procedures, the researcher can elicit findings to help inform his
or her study and test his or her hypotheses. Examples of basic
quantitative data might include income or temperatures.
The quantitative approach to scientific inquiry relies on a

10. number of assumptions. One assumption is that social
conditions have phenomena that are rooted in an objective
reality. These facts then are able to be collected and considered
in quantities. Another assumption is that variables can always
be identified, and articulated and relationships between them
can be measured quantifiably. An important assumption that
quantitative analysis is tied to is the belief in the value of, and
intent to capture, an outsider’s perspective, with the outsider
being the objective scientist.
Quantitative analysis has several clear purposes. First, it is
designed to produce findings that offer a generalized view about
phenomena, relationships, patterns, or observations.
Furthermore, the explanations or interpretations drawn from
quantitative findings are intended to serve as general—therefore
widely applicable—findings to support or refute a relevant
theory or hypothesis. Another purpose of quantitative analysis
is to yield findings that help predict additional analysis from the
same data. In other words, when statistical analysis is
performed following accepted protocols, it should produce a
consistent output, which can also be reproduced by other social
scientists, given the same data and same tested hypotheses.
Ultimately, quantitative research focuses on providing causal
explanations for variables within a relationship.
Qualitative Methods Approach
From the moment we are born, we are observing and processing
information. In many cases, we predict an expected outcome
based on what we have experienced firsthand in the past. We
also observe what happens to others and discover lessons
vicariously or listen carefully to what others say and heed
advice. In these ways, we learn about our environment and then
make sense of why things happen as they do. Students of social
science may not see these methods for understanding our world
as precise, yet they recognize that these help provide context
and fundamental knowledge.
Qualitative research relies on subjective methods to collect data
or information that is also interpreted in subjective ways. This

11. is not to say the interpretations or analyses are biased, rather
the researcher focuses his or her examination on concepts,
perceptions, and words, as communicated by participants. The
data that is interesting to, and collected by, the qualitative
researcher is dynamic and complex, potentially reflecting an
ever-changing reality. The qualitative researcher employs
divergent thinking in approaching a problem by formulating
several or many innovative and unique possibilities that will
serve as, or contribute to, solutions. The researcher’s thoughts
diverge in several directions, drawing from multiple facets, to
supply potential answers.
With a qualitative approach, reality is the result of social
construction, with the premise being that we create our reality
versus discovering it. The observations, collection of data, and
interpretation of findings are all subjectively processed by the
researcher, which naturally means the variables used in
qualitative research are complicated and difficult to measure,
and the perspectives are those of an insider.
The purpose for using qualitative methods includes providing a
larger context for research and findings. Within the captured
environment, the motivations and perspectives of participants or
those observed are also considered in crafting a
multidimensional profile. Qualitative research approaches
complex social systems intending to engender understanding
and meaning.
Mixed Methods Approach
It may seem obvious that these two primary approaches can be
used together, but designing research that masterfully leverages
both types of methods is a bit more complicated than it might
first appear. The mixed methods approach blends quantitative
and qualitative approaches to refine and complement each other
by creating a new whole. There are many possibilities for
selecting and integrating the methods, instruments, tools, and
processes from each of the primary social research approaches,
which will bring to a study the elements, data, and findings that
are most useful for an exploration. The reason one might

12. employ mixed methods is to tailor a complex research design to
tackle a complex research problem.
Article
Types of Data
The type of data the researcher already has, seeks out or
eventually uses can aid him in determining the best approach to
employ. There are four types of data: nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio.
Nominal
Nominal data is, stated simply, named data. A nominal scale
includes values such as one’s self-designation of their race. For
example, a racial characterization cannot be ordered or
measured, but by using names to collect data into categories,
data can be identified and referenced.
Ordinal
Ordinal data refers to items that can be placed in an order.
Income, for example, lists dollar figures for several
participants. These income amounts can be placed in an order,
say lowest to highest. High, medium and low may be ordered
positions as well. An ordinal scale depicts a sequence. Another
example might be reflected in questions on a survey that ask
“How happy are you in your current position? One, Very happy;
two, moderately happy; …” and so on. Ordinal data is not
processed by arithmetic.
Interval
Interval data is recognized as being equal distances apart. The
common example is temperature as expressed in Fahrenheit
degrees. Interval data cannot be multiplied or divided but it can
be measured in quantities. It can also be represented on a scale.
Ratio
Ratio data can be multiplied and divided. On a ratio scale
numbers might be multiples of other numbers. (4 is twice as
much as 2.) Ratio data can be measured on a scale as well; for
example the difference between 1 and 2 is the same as the
difference between 3 and 4. Ratio data can be scale data. At the

13. same it can be multiplied or divided and measured in quantities,
so it is also quantitative data.
Article
Methods of Quantitative Analysis
Consider a community policing research project. The
researcher has developed two research questions, has two
hypotheses to test, and has also operationalized the variables. In
the following example, just one variable is used to illustrate
each of the major approaches. The variable used will be victims
of property crime,which is limited to cases of vandalism
(including graffiti).
A quantitative approach to testing this hypothesis might use
criminal statistics, collecting those reports of
vandalism/graffiti. The data may be statistically processed and
analyzed, looking for demographic, geographic, the time of day,
and other information. Patterns within any of these categories
may help to inform the researcher about the parameters of her
problem.
A qualitative approach to measuring this variable might include
the officer looking for signs of vandalism and graffiti, and then
informally interviewing residents in a vandalized neighborhood
using open-ended questions, and potentially following up
later. Her focus in her questions is to gather actual responses
and capture the words of interviewees, but also to detect
unspoken anxiety, anger, or detachment in residents.
A mixed methods approach might leverage both of these tactics
as described above, or it might be used in a more integrated
fashion. For instance, first the researcher looks at the crime
stats. She then speaks to residents who made the reports in
neighborhoods where reports are high. She then reexamines the
stats to look for relationships to income levels, time of day, and
various demographics. Again, she returns to the neighborhood
and speaks with residents who have not made reports to ask
them about their awareness regarding the vandalism and how its
existence makes them feel in terms of security or trust in the

14. police.
Why Choosing the Proper Approach Matters
Ultimately, the researcher should select and combine (if
appropriate) the research methods that can best aid her in
answering her research question, thereby achieving her
objectives. To the extent possible, especially when the research
will be the foundation for a policy or program, she should
utilize a comprehensive methodology to ensure the resulting
product’s value and applicability.
Activity
CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Developing a Research
Plan
This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and
Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and
concepts with regard to the research design process.
Center for Homeland Defense and Security
Research Process and Methods
Lecture: Developing a Research Plan
Click on the following link to view Developing a Research Plan.
Click Here to View Lecture
Activity
CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Collecting Evidence:
Introduction
This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and
Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and
concepts with regard to the research design process.
Center for Homeland Defense and Security
Research Process and Methods
Lecture: Collecting Evidence: Introduction
Click on the following link to view Collecting Evidence:
Introduction.
Click Here to View Lecture
Activity

15. CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Conducting a
Literature Review
This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and
Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and
concepts with regard to the research design process.
Center for Homeland Defense and Security
Research Process and Methods
Lecture: Conducting a Literature Review
Click on the following link to view Conducting a Literature
Review.
Click Here to View Lecture
Resource Links
(http://www.experiment-resources.com/operationalization.html)
Information on the operationalization of variables into
measurable factors for experimental research.
(http://www.dhs.gov)
Official Web site of the Department of Homeland Security
(DHS).
(http://www.fema.gov/)
Official Web site of the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA). Contains information on types of disasters,
planning, recovery, rebuilding, and federal assistance.
(http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchcontents.html)
A virtual course on the fundamentals of research methods.
(http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/)
A website for people involved in applied social research and
evaluation. You'll find lots of resources and links to other
locations on the Web that deal in applied social research
methods. The site offers an online statistical advisor that will
answer questions and lead you to an appropriate statistical test

16. for your data. It also includes a resource guide for learning
about structured conceptual mapping including links to general
introductory materials, research and case studies illustrating the
use of the method, and information about software. An online
hypertext textbook on applied social research methods that
covers everything you want to know about defining a research
question, sampling, measurement, research design and data
analysis is available, and an online workbook about manual
(i.e., dice-rolling) and computer simulation exercises of
common research designs, for students and researchers to learn
how to do simple simulations.