This document discusses different configurations of animal-drawn wheeled vehicles. It summarizes the key effects of variables like the number of wheels, shafts, and animals on the vehicle and animals. Two wheels can only support lighter loads and puts weight on the animals unevenly. Four wheels allows for heavier loads and better weight distribution. A single shaft requires more strain from animals while two shafts share the load better. The best configuration is typically two shafts and four wheels, as it balances weight well and doesn't strain animals, though it is more expensive. Proper harnessing is also important to distribute weight comfortably across multiple animals.

1. WHEELED VEHICLES
POWERED BY
ANIMALS

2. They come in many
sizes and shapes,
BUT SOME
FEATURES ARE
IMPORTANT

3. NUMBER OF
WHEELS
NUMBER OF
SHAFTS
2 wheels/1 axle
(i.e. cart)
1 shaft
(disselboom)
4 wheels/2 axles
(i.e. wagon)
2 shafts
Even though they occur in
combination, each has its
own effect on vehicle as
well as animals.

4. 2 WHEELS
(i.e. less expensive to
construct)
EFFECT ON VEHICLE EFFECT ON ANIMAL/s
Better suited to lighter
loads
May not need more than
one animal
Load almost impossible
to balance over axle
Most of load weight
goes forward onto
animal.
If backward, shaft/s
lifted from horizontal.

5. 4 WHEELS
(i.e. more expensive to
construct)
EFFECT ON VEHICLE EFFECT ON ANIMAL/s
Larger & heavier load
possible
Greater pulling and
braking force needed on
slopes
Load better balanced
over axles
On level ground, only
resistance of wheels
important

6. 1 SHAFT (disselboom)
(i.e. less expensive to
construct)
EFFECT ON VEHICLE EFFECT ON ANIMAL/s
More strain required for
turning
Required in pairs suited
to each other
Any forward weight
goes to one place (end
of shaft)
Weights and forces
need to be distributed
evenly over both
animals, especially those
nearest to vehicle

7. 2 shafts
(i.e. more expensive to
construct)
EFFECT ON VEHICLE EFFECT ON ANIMAL/s
Shafts share turning
strain
One animal takes all
weight and exerts all
braking force

8. IMPORTANT
COMBINATIONS
(being those most
commonly used)

9. 2 SHAFTS + 4 WHEELS
Most expensive
1 SHAFT + 4 WHEELS
2 SHAFTS + 2 WHEELS 1 SHAFT + 2 WHEELS
Cheapest
Drawings of vehicles taken or adapted from ICSID ( ) 2005. Animal-drawn carts.
Report to Interdesign meeting on Sustainable Rural Transport, Rustenburg, South Africa,
April 2005. Pretoria, South Africa: South African Bureau of Standards.
NOTE THAT this refers to wagons as ‘high capacity carts’.

10. 2 SHAFTS + 4 WHEELS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Shafts share turning strain
(but vehicle doesn’t turn as
easily)
One animal takes all weight
and exerts all braking force
Larger & heavier load
possible
Greater pulling or braking
force needed on slopes
Load better balanced over
axles
On level ground, only
resistance of wheels
important
For pulling, but not for taking weight or braking,
extra animals can be added in tandem position.

11. 1 SHAFT + 4 WHEELS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Two animals can share weight
and exert braking force
Greater pulling or braking
force needed on slopes
Larger & heavier load
possible
Weights and forces need to
be distributed evenly over
both animals, especially
those nearest to vehicle
Load better balanced over
axles
On level ground, only
resistance of wheels
important
For pulling, but not for taking weight or braking,
extra animals can be added in tandem position.

12. 2 SHAFTS + 2 WHEELS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Shafts share turning strain
(but vehicle doesn’t turn as
easily)
Load almost impossible to
balance over axle
Better suited to lighter loads
(not necessarily an
advantage)
Most of load weight goes
forward onto animal.
If backward, shaft/s lifted
from horizontal.
May not need more than one
animal (in fact rare to see
more than one powering this
type of vehicle)
For pulling, but not for taking weight or braking,
extra animals can be added in tandem position.

13. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Two animals can share weight
and exert braking force
Load almost impossible to
balance over axle
Better suited to lighter loads
(not necessarily an advantage)
Most of load weight goes
forward onto animals.
If backward, shaft/s lifted
from horizontal.
Animals required in pairs suited
to each other
Weights and forces need to be
distributed evenly over both
animals, especially those
nearest to vehicle
1 SHAFT + 2 WHEELS
For pulling, but not for taking weight or braking,
extra animals can be added in tandem position.

14. From this it can
be seen that the
WORST
combination is
1 shaft + 2 wheels

15. When there are only two wheels,
so that weight balance is a problem,
it is essential that no kind of girth/cinch is
used under the body of the animal,
and no ‘collar’ type harness

16. It will also be noticed that
the chief problems are:
• Vehicle turning
• Distributing weight/force
to proper place on animal/s

17. VEHICLE TURNING
is easier when there is only one
shaft (disselboom), as long as it is
centrally mounted.

18. With more than one animal, torque
(for horizontal turning) should not be
exercised through vehicle body, but
through a central pulling point.

19. THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT
is also more difficult to solve when
there is more than one animal, i.e.
when there is only one shaft
(disselboom)
ALL WEIGHT IS BORNE BY THE ANIMALS DIRECTLY IN FRONT OF VEHICLE;
the animals in front of them only help with the pulling, and then only if hitched properly.

20. The shaft (disselboom) in fact acts
as a lever, with the axle as fulcrum,
to transfer the weight to the
END OF THE SHAFT

21. Each species of animal has different
parts of the body for different
strengths.
The donkey here is an example.

22. Note that horses and donkeys have
different shapes

23. A ‘withers strap’ joining the animals to
share the weight may work well enough
on horses
But gives many problems on donkeys

24. This is why a ‘withers strap’ for a
horse, ends up as a ‘neckstrap’ on a
donkey, where it can do a lot of
damage.

25. But there is a solution
(which works not only for donkeys, but
for horses and oxen too)
ESSENTIAL FOR WHEELED VEHICLES:
A breechstrap enables an animal to handle braking (forward force from
vehicle) as well as backing.

26. This uses traditional elements of
harnessing and hitching, so nothing
unfamiliar, and only eliminates the
withers strap/neckstrap
Simple technology, readily available in
most rural areas.

27. In practice, the result is comfortable
animals, easy in their work.

28. FACILITATION AND CONSULTANCY SERVICES
Peta A. Jones, MSc PhD
PO Box 1695 MUSINA 0900 South Africa
cell +27 (0)83 686 7539 e-mail asstute@lantic.net
www.donkeypower.donkecology.com
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