Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together to form polymer chains. There are two main types of polymerization: 1) Addition (chain) polymerization involves linking monomers together through double or triple bonds. It includes initiation, propagation, and termination steps. 2) Condensation (step-growth) polymerization combines monomers by removing a small molecule, like in polyester formation. It does not involve chain growth. Condensation polymerization has a lower degree of polymerization and molecular weight increases slowly as functional groups are consumed in each step. In contrast, addition polymerization can achieve very high degrees of polymerization and molecular weight increases rapidly through successive monomer additions to growing chains.

1. Polymer Chemistry
CHEM 3430
1

2. List of Topics
No. of
Weeks
Contact Hours
Introduction to polymer chemistry, definitions and types of polymeric
materials. Homo and copolymers. 1 2
Classifications of polymers: natural and synthetic polymers, linear, branched
and cross-linked polymers thermoplastics and thermosets. 1 2
Methods of polymerization (condensation, Free radical, Cationic and anionic)
1 2
Mechanism of polymerizations.
1 2
Coordination polymerization, Stereo regular polymer
Mechanism and kinetics of coordination polymerization. 2 4
Molecular weight and molecular weight determination.
1 2
Mechanical and thermal properties of polymers.
2 4
Methods of petrochemical production
1 2
Chemistry of industrial fibers
1 2
Technology in manufacturing polyethylene's – Polystyrenes – PVC and natural
rubber 3 6
2

3. Grading
Assessment task (e.g. essay, test, group project,
examination, speech, oral presentation, etc.)
Week Due Proportion of
Total Assessment
Mid term I 6th week 15%
Mid term II 11th week 15%
Class discussion
During the
entire course
3%
Participation and attendance
During the
entire course
2%
Quizzes
During the
entire course
5%
Group work
During the
entire course
5%
Assignment and presentation
From 2nd to 14th
week
5%
Final written Exam at the end of semester.
By the end of
the semester
50%
3

4. List Recommended Textbooks and Reference
Material (Journals, Reports, etc)
1. "Polymer Chemistry: The Basic Concepts", Paul C.
Hiemenz.
2. Polymer Synthesis: Theory and Practice:
Fundamentals, Methods, Experiments By Dietrich
Braun, Harald Cherdron, Matthias Rehahn, H. Ritter, B.
Voit Published by Springer, 2005.
4

5. What is polymer Chemistry
• Chemistry of large molecules ( macromolecules).
• “Macromolecules” : molecules existed as a result of covalently linked
smaller units, and possessed unique physical and chemical properties.
• Polymer is macromolecules, but macromolecules may not be a
polymer.
5

6. What is polymer
• Polymer is compound consisting of long-chain molecules, each
molecule made up of 1000- 10 000 repeating units connected together.
• The word polymer is Greek words poly: many, and meros (reduced to
mer: part.
• Molar mass ranges from 104- 106 g/g-mole.
• Most polymers are based on carbon and are therefore considered
organic compounds.
6

7. Polymer Chain Lengths
• Many polymer properties are affected by the length of
the polymer chains. For example, the melting
temperature increases with increasing molecular
weight.
• At room temp, polymers with very short chains (roughly
100 g/mol) will exist as liquids.
• Those with weights of 1000 g/mol are typically waxy
solids and soft resins.
• Solid polymers range between 10,000 and several
million g/mol.
• The molecular weight affects the polymer’s properties
(examples: elastic modulus & strength).
7

8. 8
Polymeric Materials, Repeating units
polyethylene
ethylene

9. 9
Polymeric Materials, Repeating units

10. Typical Values of DP and MW for Selected Polymers
10

11. :polyethylene of chain length n ; (2b) concise notation for
depicting the polymer structure of chain length n
11
Polymeric Materials & Notation

12. 12

13. 13
Plastics and the
environment

14. 14
Historical Background

15. Classification of Polymers 1. By Source:
15

16. Classification of Polymer
2. by Skeletal Structure
Polymers can exist with various skeletal structures - such as:
1. Linear polymers.
2. Branched polymers.
3. cross-linked polymers.
4. Network polymers.
5. Dendiemer Polymer
16

17. Classification of Polymer by Structure:
Linear structure : chain-like structure
Characteristic of thermoplastic polymers.
17
Linear

18. Polymer Structure
• Branched structure that includes side branches along
the chain, also found in thermoplastic polymers.
18

19. Polymer Structure
• Loosely Cross-linked: bonding occurs between branches and
other molecules at certain Connection points. As in an elastomer
19
Loosely Cross- Linked

20. Tightly cross-linked or network structure - in effect,
the entire mass is one gigantic macromolecule. As in a
thermoset.
20
Polymer Structure
network structure

21. Polymer Structure
21
Dendrimer Polymer: from the Greek word means tree- like polymer,
dendrimer structure has:
1. Symmetric around the core.
2. Spherical three-dimensional morphology.
Dendrimer Structure

22. Classification of Polymer: 3. by Composition
22

23. Nomenclature of Polymer
23

24. Types of Polymers
• Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers.
• It can be classified into the following three categories:
• 1. Thermoplastic polymers
• 2. Thermosetting polymer plastics
• 3. Elastomers  rubbers
24

25. Polymer Classification
Polymers are commonly classified according to thermal
effect as follows:
25
Polymers
Elastomers
Thermosets
Thermoplastics
Crystalline Amorphous
plastics rubbers

26. Thermoplastics
Thermosetting plastics
• Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics soften when heated, and they
become hard and rigid once again when cooled.
• Example: Polyethylene, PVC, Nylon Uses: Bags, Toys
• Thermosetting plastics: Thermosetting materials do not become softy
on heating.
• Example: Bakelite Uses: Electric switches, Telephone parts, Cooker
handles
26

27. Effect of Branching on Properties
• Thermoplastic polymers always possess linear or
branched structures, or a mixture of the two
- If Branches increase among the molecules, the polymer
becomes:
- Stronger in the solid state.
- More viscous in liquid state.
.
27

28. Crystalinity and Properties
•As
As crystallinity is increased in a polymer:
- Density increases.
- Stiffness, strength, and toughness increases.
- Heat resistance increases.
- It becomes opaque (Not transparent).
28

29. THERMOPLASTICS PROPERTIES
• 1. Formed by addition Polymerization.
• 2. Long chain linear polymers.
• 3. Soften on heating and stiffen on cooling
• They can be moulded into any shape.
• Less than 100% crystallinity, but instead amorphous.
29

30. THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
30
• 1. Formed by condensation Polymerization.
• 2. Three dimensional network structure joined by
strong covalent bonds
• 3. Do not soften on heating
• 4. Rigid materials
• 5. At high temperature, thermoset plastics
degrade rather than melt.

31. Hydrocarbon Molecules
• Many organic materials are hydrocarbons
• Most polymers are made up of H and C.
• The bonds between the hydrocarbon
molecules are covalent.
• Each carbon atom has 4 electrons that may
be covalently bonded, the hydrogen atom has
1 electron for bonding.
• A single covalent bond exists when each of
the 2 bonding atoms contributes one electron
(ex: methane, CH4).
31

32. 32
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Each carbon has a single
bond to 4 other atoms; the
4 valence electrons are
bonded, the molecule is
stable.
The covalent bonds in each
molecule are strong, but
only weak hydrogen and
van der Waals bonds exist
between the molecules.  Most of these hydrocarbons have relatively
low melting and boiling points.
 However, boiling temperatures rise with
increasing molecular weight.

33. 33
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• Double & triple bonds are somewhat unstable : involve sharing 2 or 3
pairs of electrons, respectively. They can also form new bonds
• Double bond found in ethylene - C2H4
• Triple bond found in acetylene - C2H2
C C
H
H
H
H
C C H
H

34. 34
Isomerism
• Two compounds with same chemical formula can have
different structures (atomic arrangements).
for example: C8H18
• normal-octane
• 2,4-dimethylhexane
C C C C C C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
=
H3C CH
CH3
CH2 CH
CH2
CH3
CH3
H3C CH2 CH3
( )
6


35. Synthesis of Polymers
• There are a number different methods of preparing polymers from
suitable monomers, these are
• 1. step-growth (or condensation) polymerization
• 2. Chain growth (addition) polymerization

36. 1. Addition: repeating units and monomers are same
• Addition polymerization involves the linking together of molecules, double or
triple chemical bonds
2. Condensation: "step-growth polymerization,
Condensation: repeating units and monomers are not equal,
Example: Reactions of alcohol, amine, or carboxylic acid (or other carboxyl
derivative) functional groups.
36
Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a
chemical reaction to form linear chains or a three-dimensional network of
polymer chains.
Synthesis of Polymers

37. Types of Polymerization
• 1. Chain-growth polymers, also known as addition polymers, are
made by chain reactions

38. Addition (Chain) Polymerization
– Initiation
– Propagation
– Termination
38

39. 39
Addition
Free radical polymerization: ethylene gas reacts with the
initiator( catalyst) (“R.” is the unpaired electron)
C C
H H
H
H
monomer
(ethylene)
R +
free radical
R C C
H
H
H
H
initiation
R C C
H
H
H
H
C C
H H
H
H
+ R C C
H
H
H
H
C C
H H
H H
propagation
dimer

40. Some Common Addition Polymers
40

41. Types of Polymerization
• 2. Step-growth polymers, also called condensation polymers, are
made by combining two molecules by removing a small molecule

42. Condensation (Step) Polymerization
42

43. Condensation Polymers
43

44. Addition Vs. Condensation Polymerization
• In addition polymerization although x may assume any value, y is
confined to unity
• the growing chain can react only with a monomer molecule and
continue its growth

45. Addition Vs. Condensation Polymerization
• Polymerization reactions can generally be written as
x-mer + y-mer → (x +y)-mer
• In a reaction that leads to condensation polymers.

46. Comparison of Step-Reaction and
Chain-Reaction Polymerization
Step Reaction Chain Reaction
Growth occurs throughout
reaction between monomers, oligomers,
and polymers
DPa low to moderate
Monomer consumed rapidly while
molecular weight increases slowly
No initiator needed; same reaction
mechanism throughout
No termination step; end groups still reactive
Polymerization rate decreases steadily as
functional groups consumed
Growth occurs by successive addition of
monomer units to limited number of
growing chains
DP can be very high
Monomer consumed relatively slowly, but
molecular weight increases rapidly
Initiation and propagation mechanisms different
Usually chain-terminating step involved
Polymerizaion rate increases initially as
initiator units generated; remains relatively
constant until monomer depleted
aDP, average degree of polymerization. 46