1) The document discusses empathy, its origins in evolution and biology, and how it develops through a child's environment. It explores the relationship between empathy and moral reasoning. 2) One study found that situations requiring "intended harm via personal force" elicited more emotional responses in participants, showing the link between empathy and morality. 3) Empathy arises from evolutionary adaptations like the autonomic nervous system and limbic system, but its development depends on one's environment as well as biological factors like certain brain regions and disorders. Understanding empathy could help address issues like criminal behavior.

1. Rusnov 1
Diana Rusnov
Mr. Hagney
PICI
23 April 2014
Understanding Empathy- Origin, Evolution, Biology, Development, and Environment
Society has often labeled many of the faces responsible for genocide, war crimes, murder,
and sexual assault with the moniker, “evil,” but has never fully attempted to understand the
biological and environmental implications of moral and immoral acts. We have irrationally
punished those involved in these atrocities and have failed to look into the workings of our
society to improve human conduct. Although the seed for empathy is planted within the human
population since birth, it must be carefully tended to throughout a child’s development and is
morphed by the biological conditions of a child’s brain and the environment in which he or she
grows up. An exploration into the world of moral reasoning and a clearer link between empathy
and “evil” could potentially help find a cure for “empathy-deficiency,” and help limit socially
irresponsible behaviors, thus creating a more morally-aware and ethical society.
Empathy is defined as the capacity to comprehend the emotional states of others and react
appropriately to them. The term is often linked to the adage of “stepping into another person’s
shoes.” Empathy is crucial to our improvement of social engagement and our heightened ability
to understand what constitutes “right” and “wrong.”
The connection between empathetic response and moral reasoning has been a murky
topic of study in the past, until a recent breakthrough. Liane Young, Ph.D., and Ezequiel
Gleichgerrcht, Ph.D. conducted numerous experiments in which they found a “key relationship”
between morality and empathy, suggesting that the decision-making processes most scientists

2. Rusnov 2
believed to be based purely on practicality and utilitarianism could be induced by emotional
judgments. In the question of whether it is or is not acceptable to harm one person in order to
help save many, Young says that when people come to the conclusion of not harming an
individual- emotional, non-utilitarian responses are at work. Adversely, if we are inclined to
harm an individual, our logical controlled processes drive our decision. Their study decision-
making situations involving 2,748 individuals proved that, “utilitarian judgment may arise not
simply from enhanced cognitive control, but also from diminished emotional processing and
reduced empathy” (Boston College).
In the first of three experiments, a “personal” version had participants choose whether or
not to push a man to his death in front of a trolley in order to stop it from killing five others. The
“impersonal” version instead offered a switch that could be flipped to divert the trolley from its
path. The second experiment’s “personal” scenario asked participants if it was morally
acceptable to smother a crying baby to death in order to save other civilians during war. The
alternate scenario gave participants the option of diverting toxic fumes from a room of three
people to a room of only one single person. The third and final experiment tested a moral
dilemma and selfishness, asking “if it was permissible to transplant the organs of one patient,
against his will, to save the lives of five patients” and “if it was morally permissible to report
personal expenses as business expenses on a tax return to save money.” The study aimed to find
a connection between utilitarian responders and selfish responders, concluding that those
individuals with a reported lower level of compassion and concern for others picked the
utilitarian response due in part to their reduced empathy and not a “generally deficient moral
sense.” It showed that “personal” situations which entail “intended harm via personal force,”

3. Rusnov 3
elicited an emotional, non-utilitarian response in those otherwise utilitarian responding
participants. (Boston College).
Empathy is a function of our innate evolutionary capacity and our environment working
together to develop our ultimate moral reasoning and theory of mind. These attributes allow us to
understand that all humans possess varying goals, thoughts, imaginations, intentions and
interpretations. Empathy is thought to stem from the evolution of our autonomic nervous
system, which helps control heart-rate, breathing, blood pressure, and other bodily functions.
This system is subconsciously responsible for regulating responses to stress or threatening
stimuli; perhaps for our early ancestors this meant a hungry predator or the hunger resulting from
food scarcity. The limbic system is a small component of the the larger autonomic nervous
system that consists of the hypothalamus, the parahippocampal cortex, the amygdala, the septum,
basal ganglia, nucleus accumbens, insula, retrospenial cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex,
responsible for emotional response, especially fear. Leading researcher on empathy,
psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen, discusses ten critical areas for empathy response and explores
how their deficiency comes into play for disorders such as narcissistic personality disorder,
borderline personality disorder, and autism spectrum disorders. In his book, The Science of Evil,
Baron-Cohen explores empathy in the context of psychological disorders from a biological and
environmental perspective.
Beyond his renowned research, Baron-Cohen has formulated a means of measuring
empathy, through the Empathy Quotient Questionnaire. This 60 item self-assessment tests
whether or not the participant strongly agrees, slightly agrees, slightly disagrees, or strongly
disagrees with the 40 medically significant questions (The remaining 20 questions are mere
distractions.) The test is considered a significant diagnostic tool for diagnosing autism spectrum

4. Rusnov 4
disorder. In Baron-Cohen’s Empathy Scale, there are seven degrees of empathy, with seven
being the highest and zero being the lowest. Additionally, on a zero scale, there is a positive and
negative zero-degree empathy erosion.
On the positive side, there are those with Asperger’s and Autism Spectrum Disorders
who lack both affective and cognitive empathy, whereas those on the negative side lack either
one or the other. Cognitive empathy is the ability to feel or think about peoples’ emotional states
whereas affective empathy entails the proper response to those emotions. Those on the positive
spectrum lack empathy because of their failure to understand and express emotion. Baron-Cohen
believes that the autistic mind possesses a behavior called “systematization.” This is especially
popular in young males and correlates to Baron-Cohen’s male theory of autism that accounts for
male prevalence in autism. Systemizing is the opposite of empathizing, a behavior naturally
more prevalent in females, and is the attraction to patterns to recognize social emotions.
Systemizing limits one’s ability to recognize complex human emotion and thus debilitates social
development. Baron-Cohen outlines it as the…
“constant striving to step out of time, to set aside the temporal dimension in order to see
the eternal repeating patterns in nature. Change represents the temporal dimension
seeping into an otherwise perfectly predictable, systemizable world, where wheels spin
round and round and levels can move only back and forth…. People with autism…may
become aware of the dimension of time only during events that contain novelty and
which therefore violate expectations. The ‘zero-positive’ mind finds change toxic”
(Baron-Cohen).
The major difference between an autistic individual and one with a personality disorder on the
negative spectrum, is that if one were to point out to the autistic individual who does not always

5. Rusnov 5
recognize socially proper from improper behavior (a lapse in their emotional judgment), they
would attempt to fix their behavior whereas an individual with a personality disorder has full
understanding of the extent of their actions but simply does not care who they offend.
Borderline Personality Disorder is distinguished by impulsive thoughts and behaviors, a
lack of self-control, fluctuating inter-personal relationships, and a diminished sense of self. Most
sufferers of BPD, like other personality disorders, suffer some sort of trauma, usually in early
childhood, prompting the symptoms described. Brain scanning technology actually shows a
heightened activation of the amygdala in those with BPD. In a study focusing on amygdala
activity in BPD, Nelson H. Donegan and colleagues of Yale University, reported that “BPD
patients showed significantly greater left amygdala activation to the facial expressions of
emotion compared with healthy subjects, and in post-scan debriefing some patients had difficulty
disambiguating neutral faces or found them threatening” (Donegan). Dr. Michael J. Minzenberg
and his research team also confirmed that “BPD group exhibiting significantly greater activation
in the right amygdala to fear minus neutral facial expressions, and a significantly larger
magnitude of deactivation on (relative to healthy control) in the bilateral rostral/subgenual
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to fear and in the left ACC to fear minus neutral; and they
concluded that BPD patients exhibit changes in fronto-limbic activity in the processing of fear
stimuli, with exaggerated bilateral amygdala response and impaired emotion-modulation of ACC
activity” (Minzenberg). Those with Borderline Personalities thus have a flailing perception of
emotion that gives way to their risk-taking and irrational behaviors. The biological
underpinnings of Narcissistic Personality Disorder in which patients exhibit signs of jealousy and
envy that juxtapose their sense of self-pride and worth is similar to those of BPD. Subjects with
Anti-Social Personality Disorder, who best encompass the concept of empathy erosion, will have

6. Rusnov 6
an intact understanding of theory of mind and executive functions of management and reasoning
but lack affective processing. These again, like the other disorders, stem from problems in the
amygdala, in addition to what Baron-Cohen calls the empathy circuit, 10 areas in the brain that
have to do with emotional response and decision-making.
Animals also exhibit a high sense of empathy. Rats, who share a common ancestor with
humans through the 66 million year old Protungulatum donnae, possess a sense of empathy, but
only under unique circumstances. Rats will “choose to help according to which rats they’ve had
a positive social experience with in the past,” according to experimenters at the University of
Chicago. (Kim). When albino rats were placed with other albino rats, the animals were said to
have formed a close connection within two weeks of living together, and when one of the rats
was placed in a plastic cell and expressed distress at escaping, the other rat made an effort in
helping. Even when an albino rat who was a stranger was placed in the cell, the rat assisted it in
escaping. It seemed as if rats had no bias as to who to empathize with, other than appearance.
But appearance did not override familiarity when the white albino rat was placed with a white
and black, patchy Longs-Evans rat. The white rat helped the Longs-Evans one even if it was a
stranger, as long as it had lived with one of that kind in the past.
Bonobo chimpanzees are our closest ancestors and are distinguished for their impressive
empathetic abilities by consoling other chimps during difficult periods. They are recognized for
their elevated amounts of “gray matter in brain regions involved in perceiving distress in both
oneself and others, including the right dorsal amygdala and right anterior insula,” as well as “a
larger pathway linking the amygdala with the ventral anterior cingulate cortex, a pathway
implicated in both top–down control of aggressive impulses as well as bottom–up biases against
harming others” (Rilling). Not only is the increased amount of empathy a significant factor in

7. Rusnov 7
the ancestorship of bonobos to humans, but the mechanism supports “behaviors like sex and play
that serve to dissipate tension, thereby limiting distress and anxiety to levels conducive with
prosocial behavior,” linking the two species more than ever. (Rilling). They also have enlarged
amounts of white matter connectivity in regions like the anterior insula, amygdala,
hypothalamus, and orbitofrontal cortex that have an effect on empathy, emotion regulation,
sexual behavior and anxiety. In regards to the connection between bonobo, human, and (another
closely related ancestor) chimp, empathy…
“Anecdotal observations have led to the suggestion that bonobos may be more empathic
than chimpanzees. Psychopathy, a disorder marked by lack of empathy, is associated
with reduced size and function of the amygdala as well as reduced functional
connectivity between the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). These
results and others have led to the hypothesis that the pathway from the amygdala to the
VMPFC is involved in perceiving distress in others and in learning to avoid behaviors
that provoke such distress…There is evidence that testosterone impairs the functioning of
this pathway in humans, and chimpanzee males have both higher baseline testosterone
metabolite levels, as well as a more pronounced increase in testosterone in response to
feeding competition compared with bonobo males... There is also suggestive evidence, in
the form of the ratio of the second to fourth finger length (2D : 4D), that chimpanzees
may have higher prenatal androgen levels than bonobos (or humans). Prenatal
testosterone levels are inversely correlated with measures of empathy in human children.
Thus, the neurobiological characteristics that differentiate chimpanzees from bonobos
bear a striking similarity to those that differentiate patients with empathy deficits from
normal controls.” (Rilling).

8. Rusnov 8
In addition to the innateness of empathy, there are a number of biological factors that can
affect empathy, from defective genes and enzymes, faulty hormone production and injury to the
empathy circuit part of the brain. Baron-Cohen’s team of researchers found that with more
testosterone produced in the womb, the less empathetic and more prone to violence people
became, comes as no surprise considering that men score lower on empathy tests than women.
Baron-Cohen also found a sex steroid gene, a social-emotional behavior gene and two neural
growth genes that if mutated in any way caused a decrease in empathy post-natally. The studies
of Avshalom Caspi also proved fruitful not only for the biological case of empathy, but the
environmental as well. Caspi chose to study 1000 New Zealand males for anti-social behavior.
He studied the enzyme MAO-A, which helps breaks down excess neurotransmitters in the brain
and has been linked to aggression in mice and humans. Investigators “found that maltreated
children with a genotype resulting in high levels of MAO-A gene expression were less likely to
develop antisocial problems as adults than those expressing low levels of the gene.” Caspi’s
main intent in this experiment was to look at how the environment played a role in MAO-A gene
expression. Findings showed that “findings showed that associations between childhood
maltreatment and antisocial behavior were modified by MAO-A, with those “having the low-
activity variant being more responsive to the effects of maltreatment than the high-activity
group.” Those with a low level of MAO-A were more likely to have “conduct disorder” and
commit crimes. (Caspi, Moffitt).
Children are deeply influenced by those around them in their environment and display
signs of empathy just shortly after birth, seen in their crying as a response to the crying of other
babies. As young newborns become adjusted to breast-feeding, they will show signs of
aggression if their rhythmic sucking, an impulse, becomes interrupted. Also, the orbito-frontal

9. Rusnov 9
cortex plays a central role in the development of empathy, emotional memory, infant attachment,
and emotional regulation and that a loving gaze can affect the development of these
characteristics in adult-hood. For this reason, mothers should spend as much time with their
babies as possible showing physical contact, love and compassion toward them. The
conglomeration of these factors is called “secure attachment.” If secure attachment becomes
insecure, the child is at risk for developing mental health problems such as depression, anxiety,
and conduct disorder. An insecurely attached child is one who is prone to more abuse and
neglect later in their lives. As children begin to develop thought and independence, parents are
cautioned to use punishment properly, paying attention to children when they are positively
interacting with others and not bickering or fighting. Child psychologists also suggest appealing
to the child’s desire for independence and a sense of adulthood, by “helping them engage in
rational thinking about their behavior,” as coinciding with Erik Erikson’s third stage of
psychosocial development. (Landers). This “initiative vs. guilt” stage concerns children aged 2
to 6 as they attempt to retain their childish demeanor while gaining some sense of responsibility.
Consistent punishment and “explicit modeling of behavior to develop empathy and induction that
gives explanations that appeal to children’s “pride” can increase pro-social behavior and
empathy development. (Landers).
Paul Bloom of Yale University ran experiments at the Yale Cognitive Center to prove
that infants possessed knowledge of “good” and “evil.” He showed children a “neutral” puppet
who had trouble opening a heavy box. He then showed an image of a “good” puppet who helped
the “neutral” one open the box, and proceeded with a “bad” puppet who closed it every time the
“neutral” puppet came close to opening it. When children were asked to select which puppet
they would choose to give a cookie to, 89 percent of children (at only 3 months of age) selected

10. Rusnov 10
the “good” puppet. The results were conclusive even in assorted environments that made sure to
test any possible limiting variables. One outraged child went so far as to whack the “bad” puppet
on the head. As children approached the age of 1, the number selecting the “good” puppet
decreased. This is so because those children were put into situations that tested their own
selfishness, (i.e receiving more cookies from the “bad” puppet prompted them to select the “bad”
puppet as being the “good” one). Children of a younger age are less selfish. If given a reward
for something, most suggest that it be split equally. When posed with questions like, “If
someone else does more work than you, shouldn’t they get more of the reward?” children
believed that, “No, everyone should get the same, regardless.” (Bloom).
The environment children spend their time in will reflect their adult personality. Culture,
language, religion, and social interaction will all come to play a big part in forming their identity;
by Erikson’s standards, the “identity vs. role confusion” stage experienced from age 12 to 18.
Paul Bloom explores these topics in his book, Just Babies: The Origins of Good and Evil.
Children who grown up in a predominately white culture will prefer white faces and children
who grow up in a predominately Ethiopian culture will prefer Ethiopian faces, but children who
grow up in a blended, diverse community will show no preference. Interestingly, young children
show absolutely no inclination toward race when it comes to picking their playmates by the age
of 3. This takes on a significant change as we become older. Research shows that we are unable
to show empathy to those of another race, who are in pain. Italian scientists showed participants
of African and Italian descent film clips of black and white skinned hands being poked and
prodded by needles, and measured their nervous system, heart rate, and sweat responses.
"White observers reacted more to the pain of white than black models, and black observers
reacted more to the pain of black than white models," says the lead researcher, Alessio Avenanti,

11. Rusnov 11
Ph.D., an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Bologna. (Mann). Participants
were also shown a purple hand being pricked, and reacted with even more empathy than toward
their own group, proving that the response difference was a result of skin color and not the
absence of the familiar. Despite our lack of racial bias as children, it is well understood that
children prefer the familiar. At the tender age of 3 days, babies will “adjust their sucking rate on
a pacifier when listening to a story read by their mother – but not a stranger,” showing
stimulation to the sounds of their mothers’ voices but not the strangers. (Bloom). As children
enter their adolescent years, competition can greatly affect their behavior. The 1954 famous
Robbers’ Cave Experiment brought together white, middle-class, 10 year old boys and split them
into two groups, the “Rattlers” and the “Eagles.” For an entire week, neither group had any
knowledge of the other and had formed a solid bond and companionship with the boys who
comprised their own group. The groups were made aware of each other’s existence before
making contact, upon which bullying, name-calling, and competition unleashed and led to
stealing and destruction of property. The only thing that brought the boys together was a series
of tasks that required each member of both groups to work together to solve, while a set of
games and activities proved insufficient. This has brought about questions of why teenagers
seem to have such low empathy. While parents may attribute this to their parenting, the answer
comes from biology as teenagers as Dutch researchers discovered. "Cognitive empathy, or the
mental ability to take others' perspective, begins rising steadily in girls at age 13. But boys don't
begin until age 15 to show gains in perspective-taking, which helps in problem-solving and
avoiding conflicts. Adolescent males actually show a temporary decline, between ages 13 and
16, in a related skill—affective empathy, or the ability to recognize and respond to others'
feelings. Fortunately, the boys' sensitivity recovers in the late teens. Girls' affective empathy

12. Rusnov 12
remains relatively high and stable through adolescence,” a six-year study found.
(Shellenbarger).
Although mental health professionals have unveiled legitimate methods to raise a child
and ensure success, they are not to be outshined by the diverse cultures who present a different
way of parenting. Amy Chua, known for her controversial memoir, Battle Hymn of the Tiger
Mother, came under fire for her Asian parenting style. Chua “never allowed her daughters to
attend a sleepover, watch T.V or play computer games, choose their own extra-curricular
activities, get any grade less than an A, play any instrument other than piano or violin.” She
frowned upon sports teams and social interaction. Chua recounted the time her 7 year old
daughter Lulu “gave up” playing a difficult piano piece and began “screaming, kicking and
thrashing,” when Chua refused to let her walk away and threatened to donate her dollhouse to the
salvation army and give her “no lunch, no dinner, no Christmas or Hanukkah presents, no
birthday parties for two, three, four years,” and spat out names at her like “lazy, cowardly, self-
indulgent and pathetic.” Chua argued that she “instilled a sense of respect and discipline that will
last them a lifetime” (Brown). Yet, more and more Western parents are becoming intrigued by
this style of parenting, notorious for having produced intelligent, successful, and competent
children. Chua’s eldest daughter Sophia is after all, attending the ivy-league Harvard University.
While even her daughters hold no grudges against her, saying they would also “be strict parents
themselves is because that represents a mother who loved her children more than anything”
(Saner), evidence shows that overindulgent strictness can make for catastrophe with children
exhibiting signs of stress like headaches and stomach aches, including feelings of “depression.”
(Foster). The modern Chinese have produced the equivalent of robots, who “already spend less
time in sports and socializing,” as kids. (Kiderra). While Amy Chua correlates Western parenting

13. Rusnov 13
to a “Disney movie”- “appealing to all the people who never win any prizes” (Maslin), she
herself possesses the exact lack of empathy and understanding of so much of the entire
population, a quality that may resonate through a Chinese culture, that more often than not,
produces anti-social, unmotivated, and un-independent children at risk for “empathy-erosion.” It
is up to the parents raising their children to determine which values and morals to instill in them.
Considering the amount of biological evidence behind the causes of empathy deficiency,
whether they are the origin or merely one of the factors affected by the disease, bioengineering is
the pathway to alleviating the symptoms of mental disorders associated with empathy deficiency
and perhaps curing the mutated genes, enzymes and hormones that cause issues in the first place.
Scientists are under the impression that “any kind of gene therapy may have to be applied to
individuals with autism early on.” (Hoy). A study in mice with defective neuroligin 1 (ASD)
showed that treatment with a doxycycline antibiotic to help turn off the altered gene allowed
mice to show normal development and behavior. However, if the gene was turned off after
development, mice still showed altered synapses and behavior. ASD, as discussed, can arise
from a variety of physiological complications. Environment (i.e., air pollution,
organophosphates, and heavy metals) also contributes to the incidence of ASDs. Because
current treatments of ASD only alleviate symptoms, stem cell therapy is believed to produce
positive chemicals in the brain to help increase blood supply to repair and regenerate damaged
cells. Chromosomal micro-array is the clinical standard for testing ASD. Using tissue samples
or blood, CMA can detect genetic disorders more effectively than karyotyping chromosome pairs
because it can sub-microscopically detect specific regions of DNA for targeting. Early diagnoses
are the key to treating this disease. Treatments for other mental diseases are being studied every
day, but have received criticism from ethical groups. Simon Baron-Cohen himself believes we

14. Rusnov 14
should leave “those aspects of autism that do not require treatment free to blossom.” (Biome).
Those who can live comfortably, learn normally, and be compassionate without it harming their
well-being and that of others around them shouldn’t have to endure countless amounts of
treatment. Many of the mental disorders elaborated on are manageable and do not have to be a
hindrance to everyday life. Eliminating misdiagnoses and educating the public on their
healthcare rights must be a top priority, as well as eliminating the taboo of mental disorder. As a
society, we like to see “evil-doers” punished for what the crimes they have committed. This
comes in the form of support for the death-penalty and maximum incarceration, where Simon
Baron-Cohen argues, that empathy skills have no chance of being improved in, believing we are
setting people up for the worst. He is an advocate for mental health therapy in our prison
institutions, that way if prisoners ever did get out of the system, they might be less likely to
commit those crimes again.
Those with any form of “empathy-erosion” have turned to psychological treatment.
Therapies are effective in treating the disorders discussed in the earlier pages of this essay. A
problem often found in previous therapies, is that while patients understand their negative
behaviors to the extent that they can find more positive, suitable alternatives for them, they still
often say, ‘I understand the logic of my alternative thinking but it doesn’t really help me feel
much better’ or ‘I know I’m not to blame for the abuse but I still feel that I am’. (Gilbert).
Therapists are changing their approach to mental disease in the hope of fixing these problems.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Borderline Personality Disorder is a type of cognitive-
behavioral therapy focused on changing negative thought processes by helping build confidence
and self-esteem through social-support. It is thought to decrease suicide attempts by half
compared to other therapies. The goal of treatment is to alter distorted thoughts and create a

15. Rusnov 15
more realistic self-image. All personality disorders include the cognitive-behavioral therapy as a
component of their treatment in order to change negative behaviors. Other therapies are used to
target specific symptoms. Schema therapy, an integrated form of psychotherapy specially
designed to treat personality disorders and ‘treatment-resistant’ patients focuses not on
unchangeable character traits, but on the patient’s emotional state. It uses a package of special
treatment techniques- ‘limited reparenting’ being the most important of these. In establishing a
relationship with the patient, the therapist assumes a parenting role. Since “psychopaths are often
antisocial and emotionally detached” and “don’t trust anyone and refuse to cooperate, to gain
their trust, the therapist adopts a caring and compassionate role.” The goal is to break through
this emotional detachment and draw patients into a more vulnerable position, making them
‘softer’. The next step is to teach patients how to discuss their emotions. This is done using the
language of ‘schema modes’. A schema mode is an emotional state (intimidating, aggressive,
manipulative) that can take over a patient temporarily and play an important role in violent
behavior. The belief “is that behind these extreme emotional schemas lies a more vulnerable
side. That’s the key to accessing strong emotions. Many patients were abused or mistreated as
children. The goal is to help heal these earlier wounds.” (Van Vinkenveen). Furthermore, the
patient’s capacity for self-reflection is increased, and they learn to better control their frustrations
and impulsive behaviors.
The person who said that “it takes a village to raise a child,” was mistaken in only a few
ways. Not only is it a result of the society the child develops in, but a working of the biology of
their brains. Since empathy is at the core of morality and what it means to be a decent human
being, it is vital that children be instilled with it as best as possible. This means we must pursue
their innate ability to empathize, offering affection and attention to them as babies, following

16. Rusnov 16
through with guidance and support in their childhood and adolescent years. A combination of all
of these will help nurture healthy brain development for a lifetime, thus lowering the risk for
empathy-deficiency mental health disorders.

17. Rusnov 17
Works Cited
Baron-Cohen, Simon. The Science of Evil: On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty. New York: Basic,
2011. Print.
Bloom, Paul. Just Babies: The Origins of Good and Evil. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.
"Boston College." Empathy a Key Factor in Moral Judgment. Boston College and Institute of
Cognitive Neurology, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Brown, Eryn. "Parenting Experts Weigh in on 'Tiger Mother'" Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times,
21 Jan. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Caspi, Avshalom, and Terrie Moffitt. New Arrivals Explore Genes, Environment and Behavior. N.p.:
Duke Institute for Genome Sciences and Policy, Nov.-Dec. 2007. PDF.
Decety, Jean. "The Empathic Brain and Its Dysfunction in Psychiatric Populations: Implications for
Intervention across Different Clinical Conditions." BioPsychoSocial Medicine. N.p., 16 Nov.
2007. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Donegan, Nelson H. "Amygdala Hyperreactivity in Borderline Personality Disorder: Implications for
Emotional Dysregulation." Www.biologicalpsychiatryjournal.com. N.p., 5 Mar. 2003. Web. 22
Apr. 2014.
Foster, Peter. "Third of Chinese Primary School Children Suffer Stress, Study Finds."
Http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7027377/Third-of-Chinese-primary-
school-children-suffer-stress-study-finds.html. N.p., 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Gilbert, Paul. "Advances in Psychiatric Treatment." Introducing Compassion-focused Therapy. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Hoy, Jennifer L., Paola A. Haeger, John R.L Constable, Renee J. Arias, Raluca McCallum, Michael
Kyweriga, Lawrence Davis, Eric Schnell, Michael Wehr, Pablo E. Castillo, and Philip

18. Rusnov 18
Washbourne. "The Journal of NeuroscienceSociety for Neuroscience." Neuroligin1 Drives
Synaptic and Behavioral Maturation through Intracellular Interactions. N.p., 29 May 2013.
Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Kiderra, Inga. "Is There a 'Tiger Mother' Effect?" Is There a 'Tiger Mother' Effect? N.p., n.d. Web. 22
Apr. 2014.
Kim, Meeri. "Rodent Empathy Is Environmental and Not Genetic, Study Shows." Washington Post.
The Washington Post, 15 Jan. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Landers, Cassie. "The Talking Page Literacy Organization - Early Childhood Development from Two
to Six Years of Age." The Talking Page Literacy Organization - Early Childhood Development
from Two to Six Years of Age. UNICEF, n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Mann, Denise. "Skin Color Affects Ability to Empathize with Pain." CNN. Cable News Network, 27
May 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Maslin, Janet. "BOOKS OF THE TIMES; But Will It All Make Mommy Happy?" The New York
Times. The New York Times, 20 Jan. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Minzenberg, Michael J. "Fronto-limbic Dysfunction in Response to Facial Emotion in Borderline
Personality Disorder: An Event-related FMRI Study." Elsevier. N.p., 14 Mar. 2007. Web. 22
Apr. 2014.
Rilling, James K., Jan Scholz, Todd M. Pruess, Matthew F. Glasser, Bhargav K. Errangi, and Timothy
E. Behrens. "Differences between Chimpanzees and Bonobos in Neural Systems Supporting
Social Cognition."Http://scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/04/04/scan.nsr017.full.
N.p., 24 Feb. 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Saner, Emine. "Is Strict Parenting Better for Children?" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 10
June 2011. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.

19. Rusnov 19
Shellenbarger, Sue. "Teens Are Still Developing Empathy Skills." The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones
& Company, 15 Oct. 2013. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
"Simon Baron-Cohen Discusses the Latest Developments in Autism Research." Biome Simon
BaronCohen Discusses the Latest Developments in Autism Research Comments. Biome, n.d.
Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
Van Vinkenveen, Hans. "Webmagazine Maastricht University 2012." "Some Psychopaths Can Be
Treated" N.p., 23 Oct. 2012. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.