Physical Methods of Sterilization
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Sterilization is the complete removal of microorganisms from an object or surfaces. Sterilization is obtained when microorganisms are subjected to antimicrobial agents for sufficient time and at optimum conditions. Sterilization is a process of eradicating live microorganisms from substances. It is done to preserve things for a long time and kill germs. If something is not sterilized, it may cause infection to those who use it. Therefore, it should not be taken for granted.
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Caenorhabditis elegans
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Enzyme Mechanism
An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical reaction by which products are formed, and then allows the products to dissociate (separate from the enzyme surface). The combination formed by an enzyme and its substrates is called the enzyme–substrate complex. When two substrates and one enzyme are involved, the complex is called a ternary complex; one substrate and one enzyme are called a binary complex. The substrates are attracted to the active site by electrostatic and hydrophobic forces, which are called noncovalent bonds because they are physical attractions and not chemical bonds.
Endangered Species
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and invasive species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists the global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting, restrict land development, or create protected areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration.
Active methylene compounds
The hydrogens in methane practically do not exhibit acidic character. However when two of the hydrogens are replaced
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present on both sides attract the electron towards themselves and thus weaken the –CH bond of methylene. Thus
hydrogen atom can dissociate to give a stable anion. This same phenomena applies to EAA, the two hydrogen atoms
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High Altitude Adaptations
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Around 81.6 million people, approximately 1.1% of the world's human population, live permanently at altitudes above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)[4] putting these populations at risk for chronic mountain sickness (CMS). However, the high-altitude populations in South America, East Africa, and South Asia have done so for millennia without apparent complications. This special adaptation is now recognised as an example of natural selection in action. The adaptation of the Tibetans is the fastest known example of human evolution, as it is estimated to have occurred any time around 1,000 B.C.E. to 7,000 B.C.E.
Voltage Clamp Technique
The voltage clamp is an experimental method used by electrophysiologists to measure the ion currents through the membranes of excitable cells, such as neurons while holding the membrane voltage at a set level. A basic voltage-clamp will iteratively measure the membrane potential, and then change the membrane potential (voltage) to the desired value by adding the necessary current. This "clamps" the cell membrane at a desired constant voltage, allowing the voltage clamp to record what currents are delivered. Because the currents applied to the cell must be equal to (and opposite in charge to) the current going across the cell membrane at the set voltage, the recorded currents indicate how the cell reacts to changes in membrane potential. Cell membranes of excitable cells contain many different kinds of ion channels, some of which are voltage-gated. The voltage clamp allows the membrane voltage to be manipulated independently of the ionic currents, allowing the current-voltage relationships of membrane channels to be studied.
Fermentation Process in Yogurt Industry
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Fermentation Process in Yogurt Industry
Yogurts are fermented dairy products obtained from lactic acid fermentation by two species of lactic acid bacteria, that is, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. This fermentation leads to acidification and milk coagulation, without addition of rennet (as in cheese), and allows an increase of the shelf life as a result of the low pH. world. They involve probiotic bacteria, which are defined according to the FAO/WHO in 2011 as ‘live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.’
Exonuclease
Exonucleases are enzymes that work by cleaving nucleotides one at a time from the end (exo) of a polynucleotide chain. A hydrolyzing reaction that breaks phosphodiester bonds at either the 3′ or the 5′ end occurs. Its close relative is the endonuclease, which cleaves phosphodiester bonds in the middle (endo) of a polynucleotide chain. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes have three types of exonucleases involved in the normal turnover of mRNA: 5′ to 3′ exonuclease (Xrn1), which is a dependent decapping protein; 3′ to 5′ exonuclease, an independent protein; and poly(A)-specific 3′ to 5′ exonuclease.
Kinetically Perfect Enzymes
A diffusion-limited enzyme catalyses a reaction so efficiently that the rate limiting step is that of substrate diffusion into the active site, or product diffusion out. This is also known as kinetic perfection or catalytic perfection. Since the rate of catalysis of such enzymes is set by the diffusion-controlled reaction, it therefore represents an intrinsic, physical constraint on evolution (a maximum peak height in the fitness landscape). Diffusion limited perfect enzymes are very rare. Most enzymes catalyse their reactions to a rate that is 1,000-10,000 times slower than this limit. This is due to both the chemical limitations of difficult reactions, and the evolutionary limitations that such high reaction rates do not confer any extra fitness.
Origin of Cancer
Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells caused by multiple changes in gene expression leading to
dysregulated balance of cell proliferation and cell death and ultimately evolving into a population
of cells that can invade tissues and metastasize to distant sites, causing significant morbidity and,
if untreated, death of the host.
It is characterized by alterations in the expression of multiple genes, leading to dysregulation of the normal cellular program for cell division and cell differentiation. This results in an imbalance of cell replication and cell death that favours the growth of a tumour cell population. Tumour is an abnormal lump or growth of cells. When the cells in the tumour are normal, it is benign. If something goes wrong, and they overgrew and produced a lump, the cells are abnormal and can grow uncontrollably, they are cancerous cells, and the tumour is malignant. Benign tumour won't invade nearby tissues or spread to other areas of the body (metastasize). A benign tumour is less
worrisome unless it is pressing on nearby tissues, nerves, or blood vessels and causing damage.
Fibroids in the uterus or lipomas are examples of benign tumours. Malignant means that the tumour is made of cancer cells, and it can invade nearby tissues. Some cancer cells can move into the bloodstream or lymph nodes, where they can spread to other tissues within the body—this is called metastasis. Cancer can occur anywhere in the body including the breast, intestines, lungs,
reproductive organs, blood, and skin. The occurrence of cancer varies in different organs (Fig: 01)
Clinically, cancer appears to be many different diseases with different phenotypic characteristics.
As cancerous growth progresses, genetic drift in the cell population produces cell heterogeneity in such characteristics as cell antigenicity, invasiveness, metastatic potential, rate of cell proliferation, differentiation state, and response to chemotherapeutic agents. At the molecular
level, all cancers have several things in common, which suggests that the ultimate biochemical
lesions leading to malignant transformation and progression can be produced by a common but
not an identical pattern of alterations of gene readout. In general, malignant cancers cause significant
morbidity and will be lethal to the host if not treated
Immune responses
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Immune responses
The immune system has evolved to protect the host from a universe of pathogenic microbes that are themselves constantly evolving. The immune system also helps the host eliminate toxic or allergenic substances that enter our body. It is a host defence system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. The host uses both innate and adaptive mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogenic foreign bodies. Both of these mechanisms include self-nonself discrimination.
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Chromosomal translocation is the best-characterized
genetic mechanism for oncogene activation. However, there
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Nutrition in Fungi
Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.
Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:
They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way, they recycle organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are the primary decomposers in forests.
They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may cause illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.
They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two different species, in which both individuals benefit.
Phylum Porifera - Sycon
The invertebrates, or invertebrates, are animals that do not contain bony structures, such as the cranium and vertebrae. The simplest of all the invertebrates are the Parazoans, which include only the phylum Porifera: the sponges.
Parazoans (“beside animals”) do not display tissue-level organization, although they do have specialized cells that perform specific functions. Sponge larvae are able to swim; however, adults are non-motile and spend their life attached to a substratum.
Since water is vital to sponges for excretion, feeding, and gas exchange, their body structure facilitates the movement of water through the sponge. Structures such as canals, chambers, and cavities enable water to move through the sponge to nearly all body cells.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans is a tiny, free-living nematode found worldwide. Newly hatched larvae are 0.25 millimeters long and adults are 1 millimeter long. Their small size means that the animals are usually observed with either dissecting microscopes, which generally allow up to 100X magnification, or compound microscopes, which allow up to 1000X magnification. Because C. elegans is transparent, individual cells and subcellular details are easily visualized using Nomarski (differential interference contrast, DIC) optics.
C. elegans has a rapid life cycle and exists primarily as a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite, although males arise at a frequency of <0.2%. These features have helped to make C. elegans a powerful model of choice for eukaryotic genetic studies. In addition, because the animal has an invariant numbers of somatic cells, researchers have been able to track the fate of every cell between fertilization and adulthood in live animals and to generate a complete cell lineage. Researchers have also reconstructed the shape of all C. elegans cells from electron micrographs, including each of the 302 neurons of the adult hermaphrodite. Moreover, because of the invariant wild-type cell lineage and neuroanatomy of C. elegans, mutations that give rise to developmental and behavioral defects are readily identified in genetic screens. Finally, because C. elegans was the first multicellular organism with a complete genome sequence, forward and reverse genetics have led to the molecular identification of many key genes in developmental and cell biological processes.
The experimental strengths and the similarities between the cellular and molecular processes present in C. elegans and other animals across evolutionary time (metabolism, organelle structure and function, gene regulation, protein biology, etc.) have made C. elegans an excellent organism with which to study general metazoan biology. At least 38% of the C. elegans protein-coding genes have predicted orthologs in the human genome, 60-80% of human genes have an ortholog in the C. elegans genome, and 40% of genes known to be associated with human diseases have clear orthologs in the C. elegans genome. Thus, many discoveries in C. elegans have relevance to the study of human health and disease.
Enzyme Mechanism
An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical reaction by which products are formed, and then allows the products to dissociate (separate from the enzyme surface). The combination formed by an enzyme and its substrates is called the enzyme–substrate complex. When two substrates and one enzyme are involved, the complex is called a ternary complex; one substrate and one enzyme are called a binary complex. The substrates are attracted to the active site by electrostatic and hydrophobic forces, which are called noncovalent bonds because they are physical attractions and not chemical bonds.
Endangered Species
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and invasive species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists the global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting, restrict land development, or create protected areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration.
Active methylene compounds
The hydrogens in methane practically do not exhibit acidic character. However when two of the hydrogens are replaced
by electron withdrawing groups, the rest of the hydrogens become acidic in nature. The electron withdrawing groups
present on both sides attract the electron towards themselves and thus weaken the –CH bond of methylene. Thus
hydrogen atom can dissociate to give a stable anion. This same phenomena applies to EAA, the two hydrogen atoms
bonded to methylene group become acidic and reactive due to two electron withdrawing functional groups i.e. acetyl
and ester attached o methylene carbon.
Thus methylene group attached to two electron withdrawing functional groups is termed as reactive methylene group
High Altitude Adaptations
High-altitude adaptation in humans is an instance of evolutionary modification in certain human populations, including those of Tibet in Asia, the Andes of the Americas, and Ethiopia in Africa, who have acquired the ability to survive at altitudes above 2,500 meters. This adaptation means irreversible, long-term physiological responses to high-altitude environments, associated with heritable behavioural and genetic changes. While the rest of the human population would suffer serious health consequences, the indigenous inhabitants of these regions thrive well in the highest parts of the world. These people have undergone extensive physiological and genetic changes, particularly in the regulatory systems of oxygen respiration and blood circulation, when compared to the general lowland population.
Around 81.6 million people, approximately 1.1% of the world's human population, live permanently at altitudes above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)[4] putting these populations at risk for chronic mountain sickness (CMS). However, the high-altitude populations in South America, East Africa, and South Asia have done so for millennia without apparent complications. This special adaptation is now recognised as an example of natural selection in action. The adaptation of the Tibetans is the fastest known example of human evolution, as it is estimated to have occurred any time around 1,000 B.C.E. to 7,000 B.C.E.
Voltage Clamp Technique
The voltage clamp is an experimental method used by electrophysiologists to measure the ion currents through the membranes of excitable cells, such as neurons while holding the membrane voltage at a set level. A basic voltage-clamp will iteratively measure the membrane potential, and then change the membrane potential (voltage) to the desired value by adding the necessary current. This "clamps" the cell membrane at a desired constant voltage, allowing the voltage clamp to record what currents are delivered. Because the currents applied to the cell must be equal to (and opposite in charge to) the current going across the cell membrane at the set voltage, the recorded currents indicate how the cell reacts to changes in membrane potential. Cell membranes of excitable cells contain many different kinds of ion channels, some of which are voltage-gated. The voltage clamp allows the membrane voltage to be manipulated independently of the ionic currents, allowing the current-voltage relationships of membrane channels to be studied.
Fermentation Process in Yogurt Industry
Yogurt is a diary product widely used by the present generation in their daily diets. you probably don't give much thought to buying yogurt in the store. You have your favorite brand, or maybe you like trying new varieties each week; either way, you just grab it and go.
It is easy to take yogurt for granted, but this delicious dairy product has a long and storied history that started way before the convenience of commercialized yogurt. Read on to discover its surprising origins in ancient civilizations and how it started being mass-produced.
Fermentation Process in Yogurt Industry
Yogurts are fermented dairy products obtained from lactic acid fermentation by two species of lactic acid bacteria, that is, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. This fermentation leads to acidification and milk coagulation, without addition of rennet (as in cheese), and allows an increase of the shelf life as a result of the low pH. world. They involve probiotic bacteria, which are defined according to the FAO/WHO in 2011 as ‘live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host.’
Exonuclease
Exonucleases are enzymes that work by cleaving nucleotides one at a time from the end (exo) of a polynucleotide chain. A hydrolyzing reaction that breaks phosphodiester bonds at either the 3′ or the 5′ end occurs. Its close relative is the endonuclease, which cleaves phosphodiester bonds in the middle (endo) of a polynucleotide chain. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes have three types of exonucleases involved in the normal turnover of mRNA: 5′ to 3′ exonuclease (Xrn1), which is a dependent decapping protein; 3′ to 5′ exonuclease, an independent protein; and poly(A)-specific 3′ to 5′ exonuclease.
Kinetically Perfect Enzymes
A diffusion-limited enzyme catalyses a reaction so efficiently that the rate limiting step is that of substrate diffusion into the active site, or product diffusion out. This is also known as kinetic perfection or catalytic perfection. Since the rate of catalysis of such enzymes is set by the diffusion-controlled reaction, it therefore represents an intrinsic, physical constraint on evolution (a maximum peak height in the fitness landscape). Diffusion limited perfect enzymes are very rare. Most enzymes catalyse their reactions to a rate that is 1,000-10,000 times slower than this limit. This is due to both the chemical limitations of difficult reactions, and the evolutionary limitations that such high reaction rates do not confer any extra fitness.
Origin of Cancer
Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells caused by multiple changes in gene expression leading to
dysregulated balance of cell proliferation and cell death and ultimately evolving into a population
of cells that can invade tissues and metastasize to distant sites, causing significant morbidity and,
if untreated, death of the host.
It is characterized by alterations in the expression of multiple genes, leading to dysregulation of the normal cellular program for cell division and cell differentiation. This results in an imbalance of cell replication and cell death that favours the growth of a tumour cell population. Tumour is an abnormal lump or growth of cells. When the cells in the tumour are normal, it is benign. If something goes wrong, and they overgrew and produced a lump, the cells are abnormal and can grow uncontrollably, they are cancerous cells, and the tumour is malignant. Benign tumour won't invade nearby tissues or spread to other areas of the body (metastasize). A benign tumour is less
worrisome unless it is pressing on nearby tissues, nerves, or blood vessels and causing damage.
Fibroids in the uterus or lipomas are examples of benign tumours. Malignant means that the tumour is made of cancer cells, and it can invade nearby tissues. Some cancer cells can move into the bloodstream or lymph nodes, where they can spread to other tissues within the body—this is called metastasis. Cancer can occur anywhere in the body including the breast, intestines, lungs,
reproductive organs, blood, and skin. The occurrence of cancer varies in different organs (Fig: 01)
Clinically, cancer appears to be many different diseases with different phenotypic characteristics.
As cancerous growth progresses, genetic drift in the cell population produces cell heterogeneity in such characteristics as cell antigenicity, invasiveness, metastatic potential, rate of cell proliferation, differentiation state, and response to chemotherapeutic agents. At the molecular
level, all cancers have several things in common, which suggests that the ultimate biochemical
lesions leading to malignant transformation and progression can be produced by a common but
not an identical pattern of alterations of gene readout. In general, malignant cancers cause significant
morbidity and will be lethal to the host if not treated
Immune responses
The immune system has evolved to protect the host from a universe of pathogenic microbes that are themselves constantly evolving. The immune system also helps the host eliminate toxic or allergenic substances that enter our body. It is a host defence system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. The host uses both innate and adaptive mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogenic foreign bodies. Both of these mechanisms include self-nonself discrimination.
The main parts of the immune system are:
• White Blood Cells
• Antibodies
• Complement System
• Lymphatic System
• Spleen
• Bone Marrow
• Thymus.
Immune responses
The immune system has evolved to protect the host from a universe of pathogenic microbes that are themselves constantly evolving. The immune system also helps the host eliminate toxic or allergenic substances that enter our body. It is a host defence system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. The host uses both innate and adaptive mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogenic foreign bodies. Both of these mechanisms include self-nonself discrimination.
The main parts of the immune system are:
• White Blood Cells
• Antibodies
• Complement System
• Lymphatic System
• Spleen
• Bone Marrow
• Thymus.
DNA Amplification is a Ubiquitous Mechanism of Oncogene Activation in Lung an...
Chromosomal translocation is the best-characterized
genetic mechanism for oncogene activation. However, there
are documented examples of activation by alternate
mechanisms, for example gene dosage increase, though
its prevalence is unclear. Here, we answered the fundamental question of the contribution of DNA amplification
as a molecular mechanism driving oncogenesis. Comparing
104 cancer lines representing diverse tissue origins
identified genes residing in amplification ‘hotspots’ and
discovered an unexpected frequency of genes activated by
this mechanism. The 3431 amplicons identified represent
B10 per hematological and B36 per epithelial cancer
genome. Many recurrently amplified oncogenes were
previously known to be activated only by disease-specific
translocations. The 135 hotspots identified contain 538
unique genes and are enriched for proliferation, apoptosis
and linage-dependency genes, reflecting functions advantageous to tumor growth. Integrating gene dosage with
expression data validated the downstream impact of the
novel amplification events in both cell lines and clinical
samples. For example, multiple downstream components of
the EGFR-family-signaling pathway, including CDK5,
AKT1 and SHC1, are overexpressed as a direct result of
gene amplification in lung cancer. Our findings suggest that
amplification is far more common a mechanism of
oncogene activation than previously believed and that
specific regions of the genome are hotspots of amplification.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Caenorhabditis elegans is a tiny, free-living nematode found worldwide. Newly hatched larvae are 0.25 millimetres long and adults are 1 millimetre long. Their small size means that the animals are usually observed with either dissecting microscopes, which generally allow up to 100X magnification, or compound microscopes, which allow up to 1000X magnification. Because C. elegans is transparent, individual cells and subcellular details are easily visualized using Nomarski (differential interference contrast, DIC) optics.
C. elegans has a rapid life cycle and exists primarily as a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite, although males arise at a frequency of <0.2%. These features have helped to make C. elegans a powerful model of choice for eukaryotic genetic studies. In addition, because the animal has an invariant number of somatic cells, researchers have been able to track the fate of every cell between fertilization and adulthood in live animals and to generate a complete cell lineage. Researchers have also reconstructed the shape of all C. elegans cells from electron micrographs, including each of the 302 neurons of the adult hermaphrodite. Moreover, because of the invariant wild-type cell lineage and neuroanatomy of C. elegans, mutations that give rise to developmental and behavioural defects are readily identified in genetic screens. Finally, because C. elegans was the first multicellular organism with a complete genome sequence, forward and reverse genetics have led to the molecular identification of many key genes in developmental and cell biological processes.
The experimental strengths and the similarities between the cellular and molecular processes present in C. elegans and other animals across evolutionary time (metabolism, organelle structure and function, gene regulation, protein biology, etc.) have made C. elegans an excellent organism with which to study general metazoan biology. At least 38% of the C. elegans protein-coding genes have predicted orthologs in the human genome, 60-80% of human genes have an ortholog in the C. elegans genome, and 40% of genes known to be associated with human diseases have clear orthologs in the C. elegans genome. Thus, many discoveries in C. elegans have relevance to the study of human health and disease.
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Physical Methods of Sterilization
- 1. PHYSICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION FILTRATION: TYPES OF FILTERS & LAMINAR AIR FLOW 22nd March, 2019 Presented by, SHRYLI K S IVth Semester Molecular Biology YCM (Autonomous) Guided by, Dr N S Devaki Associate Professor Dept. of Molecular Biology YCM (Autonomous)
- 2. CONTENTS • INTRODUCTION • FILTRATION • MEMBRANE FILTERS • LAMINAR AIR FLOW • BIOHAZARDS SAFETY LEVELS OF LAMINAR AIR FLOW • CONCLUSION • REFERENCES • ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
- 3. INTRODUCTION
- 4. FILTRATION
- 5. TYPES OF FILTERS • Candle filters • Asbestos filter • Sintered glass filter • Membrane filters • Syringe filter
- 6. CANDLE FILTER Fig 1: Candle Filter
- 7. ASBESTOS FILTER Fig 2: Asbestos filter Fig 3: Cross section of an Asbestos filter
- 8. SINTERED GLASS FILTER Fig 4: Sintered glass filter Fig 5: filtration using sintered glass filter
- 9. MEMBRANE FILTERS Mixed Cellulose Ester Cellulose Acetate Coated Cellulose Acetate Nylon Filter Polycarbonate Filter Fig 6: Membrane filters
- 10. SYRINGE FILTER Fig 7: Syringe Filter
- 11. LAMINAR AIR FLOW Fig 8: Laminar Air Flow Fig 9: Air Flow Movement in Laminar Air Flow
- 12. BIOHAZARD SAFETY LEVELS OF LAMINAR AIR FLOW
- 13. CONCLUSION
- 14. REFERENCES • Joanne M Willey, Linda M Sherwood & Chirstopher J Woolverton. Prescott’s Microbiology. 9th edition. The McGraw-hill companies publication. 1221 Avenues, New York, 2011, 1139 pages. • R Ananthanarayan, C K Jayaram Panikar, Textbook of Microbiology. Orient Longman Private Limited, Hyderabad, 2000, Sixth edition. • http://www.advantecmfs.com/catalog/filt/membrane.pdf • https://ehs.missouri.edu/ehs/bio/labprac/biocabinet • www.rpi.edu
- 15. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank the department of Molecular Biology for giving me an opportunity to present my seminar. I would also like to thank my guide Dr N S Devaki Ma’am for her valuable guidance and support. Thank you all.