Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds like glucose. It occurs in two stages: in the light-dependent reactions, chloroplasts use energy from sunlight to convert water to oxygen and produce ATP and NADPH; in the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH fuel the conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates like glucose using the enzyme RuBisCO. Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth as it produces oxygen and supplies organic compounds and energy.

2. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other
organisms to convert light energy, normally from the
Sun, into chemical energy that can be later released to
fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy is
stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which
are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water.

3. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform
photosynthesis; such organisms are called
photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric
oxygen levels and supplies all of the organic compounds
and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.

5. The process always begins when energy from light is
absorbed by proteins called reaction centers that contain
green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are
held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are
most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are
embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-
dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip
electrons from suitable substances, such as water,
producing oxygen gas. Furthermore, two further
compounds are generated: reduced nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of
cells.

6. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, sugars are produced
by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions
called the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric
carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing
organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH
produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting
compounds are then reduced and removed to form
further carbohydrates, such as glucose.

7. Light dependent reactions
(Light reaction)
In the light dependent reactions, one molecule of
the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses
one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of
chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to
a quinone molecule, allowing the start of a flow of
electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the
ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this
creates a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane;
its dissipation is used by ATP synthase for the concomitant
synthesis of ATP.

8. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron from
a water molecule through a process called photolysis,
which releases a dioxygen (O2) molecule. The overall
equation for the light-dependent reactions under the
conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:
2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi + light → 2 NADPH
+ 2 H+ + 3 ATP + O2

10. Light Independent reactions (Dark
reactions or Calvin Cycle)
In the light independent (or "dark") reactions, the
enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the
atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin-Bensen
cycle that requires the newly formed NADPH, releases
three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form
sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-
independent reactions in green plants is
3 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ →
C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 NADP+ + 3 H2O

11. Carbon fixation produces an intermediate product,
which is then converted to the final carbohydrate
products. The carbon skeletons produced by
photosynthesis are then variously used to form other
organic compounds, such as the building material
cellulose, as precursors for lipid and amino
acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration.

12. The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process
in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon
sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, to yield two molecules
of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate,
also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-
phosphate, in the presence of
ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent
stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

13. This product is also referred to as 3-
phosphoglyceraldehyde or, more generically,
as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced is used to
regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can
continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled"
often condense to form hexose phosphates, which
ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The
sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon
skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions
like the production of amino acids and lipids.