This document discusses research on the genetic and environmental influences on intelligence and academic achievement. It finds that:
1) Behavioral genetic studies show that intelligence and academic achievement are influenced by genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental factors.
2) The importance of genetic influences tends to increase with age, accounting for around 50% of differences in intelligence and 30-60% of differences in academic achievement.
3) Shared environmental influences are more important for younger children but decrease with age, accounting for 0% of differences in intelligence and achievement by adulthood.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
Olivarez - www.nationalforum.com - NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALSWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Implication of Outdoor Environment on Children’s Physical Activity Performanc...paperpublications3
Abstract: Children’s physical activity performance levels vary by provisions and quality of outdoor areas despite this; many pre-schools do little to create the kind of outdoor environment and experiences that are important for young children. The study therefore aimed to finding out the implication of outdoor environment on children’s physical activity level. The study was based on Descriptive survey design. It involved; 44 primary school head teachers, 44 pre-school lead teachers and 309 final pre-school class pupils (88% 88% and 19% of the study population respectively), selected using cluster, purposive and simple random sampling design respectively. Data was collected using questionnaires, interview schedule and Observation checklist. The major findings included that there was a relatively weak relationship between the availability, adequacy, effectiveness and site of various components of outdoor environment in ECDE centres and the ability of preschool children’s ability to Performing various loco-motor activities and Rhythmic Movement Activities. The results from observation and interview schedules indicated that a rich outdoor environment had a positive influence on preschool children‘s development of various skills. The study recommends that the government and other stakeholders need to invest in the provision of outdoors so as to enhance children’s physical activity levels.
Gender Differences in Learners’ Perceptions of an Ideal Primary School INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Scholars have reached a consensus that students’ perceptions of learning environments have an important effect on their learning. The influence of physical attributes of educational space on students’ satisfaction has been studied extensively. However, our knowledge about students’ preferences for an ideal school is very limited. The current study is an attempt to address this gap. The sample in the current study consisted of 118students aged 8 -10 years old in the study. Participants were recruited from two public primary schools in Kerman, Iran. The data gathered through semi-structured interviews, and drawings. Quantitative data was analyzed using chi square tests. The findings from the quantitative data were further explored by qualitative data gathered from 14 (seven girls and seven boys) volunteer students. The study found a significant difference between boy’s and girl’s drawings. Boys portrayed more aerial views and the exterior of the school while girls depicted the frontal views and the interior of their ideal school. In addition, boys incorporated more natural elements, playground equipment and outdoor sport fields in their drawings. In contrast, girls were more likely than boys to use more decorative accessories in their drawings than boys. The result of this study suggests that children’s perceptions about ideal school are gender sensitive. The implications of the study for educational policy makers have been outlined.
Olivarez - www.nationalforum.com - NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALSWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
Implication of Outdoor Environment on Children’s Physical Activity Performanc...paperpublications3
Abstract: Children’s physical activity performance levels vary by provisions and quality of outdoor areas despite this; many pre-schools do little to create the kind of outdoor environment and experiences that are important for young children. The study therefore aimed to finding out the implication of outdoor environment on children’s physical activity level. The study was based on Descriptive survey design. It involved; 44 primary school head teachers, 44 pre-school lead teachers and 309 final pre-school class pupils (88% 88% and 19% of the study population respectively), selected using cluster, purposive and simple random sampling design respectively. Data was collected using questionnaires, interview schedule and Observation checklist. The major findings included that there was a relatively weak relationship between the availability, adequacy, effectiveness and site of various components of outdoor environment in ECDE centres and the ability of preschool children’s ability to Performing various loco-motor activities and Rhythmic Movement Activities. The results from observation and interview schedules indicated that a rich outdoor environment had a positive influence on preschool children‘s development of various skills. The study recommends that the government and other stakeholders need to invest in the provision of outdoors so as to enhance children’s physical activity levels.
Gender Differences in Learners’ Perceptions of an Ideal Primary School INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Scholars have reached a consensus that students’ perceptions of learning environments have an important effect on their learning. The influence of physical attributes of educational space on students’ satisfaction has been studied extensively. However, our knowledge about students’ preferences for an ideal school is very limited. The current study is an attempt to address this gap. The sample in the current study consisted of 118students aged 8 -10 years old in the study. Participants were recruited from two public primary schools in Kerman, Iran. The data gathered through semi-structured interviews, and drawings. Quantitative data was analyzed using chi square tests. The findings from the quantitative data were further explored by qualitative data gathered from 14 (seven girls and seven boys) volunteer students. The study found a significant difference between boy’s and girl’s drawings. Boys portrayed more aerial views and the exterior of the school while girls depicted the frontal views and the interior of their ideal school. In addition, boys incorporated more natural elements, playground equipment and outdoor sport fields in their drawings. In contrast, girls were more likely than boys to use more decorative accessories in their drawings than boys. The result of this study suggests that children’s perceptions about ideal school are gender sensitive. The implications of the study for educational policy makers have been outlined.
Las cinco claves de una banderola perfecta, un manual sobre los pasos a dar para acertar con uno de los elementos clave en publicidad exterior de entornos urbanos
La supervision industrielle à distance par le réseau de téléphonie mobile. Superviser, contrôler et commander n'importe quel équipement, de n'importe où, n'importe quand, à partir de terminaux fixes ou mobiles grâce à la technologie OCCOX et au protocole M2M CHANNEL de DEMTECH.
El Plan Estratégico Estudiantes Siglo XXl fue pensado y elaborado por el equipo técnico del Movimiento Todos por Estudiantes para ser puesto a disposición de las próximas autoridades que gestionarán la actividad de la Institución en el período 2011 al 2014.
Google AdWords: Making Money by Riding on the Coattails -or- an Inventive Bus...Austrotrabant
Presentation held at the Faculty of Law, Masaryk University (Brno / CZ) 7th April 2011, 14.00 - 16.00.
Led by:
Mgr. Matěj Myška
(Institute of Law and Technology)
http://www.cyber.law.muni.cz/en/index.php
Keynote:
Mag. Maximilian Schubert, LLM, Legal officer at ISPA (Internet Service Providers Austria)
Psychological Review
1995, Vol. 102, No. 3,458-489
Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0033-295X/95/S3.00
Where Is the Child's Environment? A Group Socialization
Theory of Development
Judith Rich Harris
Middletown, New Jersey
Do parents have any important long-term effects on the development of their child's personality?
This article examines the evidence and concludes that the answer is no. A new theory of development
is proposed: that socialization is context-specific and that outside-the-home socialization takes place
in the peer groups of childhood and adolescence. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic rela-
tionships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of
children's personality characteristics. The universality of children's groups explains why develop-
ment is not derailed by the wide variations in parental behavior found within and between societies.
In 1983, after many dozens of pages spent reviewing the liter-
ature on the effects parents have on children, Eleanor Maccoby
and John Martin paused for a critical overview of the field of
socialization research. They questioned the size and robustness
of the effects they had just summarized; they wondered whether
the number of significant correlations was greater than that ex-
pected by chance. They cited other research indicating that bi-
ological or adoptive siblings do not develop similar personalities
as a result of being reared in the same household. This was their
conclusion:
These findings imply strongly that there is very little impact of the
physical environment that parents provide for children and very
little impact of parental characteristics that must be essentially the
same for all children in a family . . . Indeed, the implications are
either that parental behaviors have no effect, or that the only
effective aspects of parenting must vary greatly from one child to
another within the same family. (Maccoby & Martin, 1983, p. 82)
Since 1983, many developmental psychologists have focused
on the second of Maccoby and Martin's two possible implica-
tions, "that the only effective aspects of parenting must vary
greatly from one child to another." The other possibility, "that
parental behaviors have no effect," has never been considered as
a serious alternative.
This article examines both alternatives. I begin by showing
why "must vary greatly from one child to another" cannot ex-
plain the results that puzzled Maccoby and Martin. Then I con-
sider the possibility "that parental behaviors have no effect."
The conclusion reached is that, within the range of families that
have been studied, parental behaviors have no effect on the psy-
chological characteristics their children will have as adults. To
I thank the following people, who do not necessarily agree with the
views presented here, for their helpful comments on earlier versions of
this work: William A. Corsaro, Judith L. Gibbons, Charles ...
Criminology Essay QuestionsPlease answer the following questio.docxfaithxdunce63732
Criminology Essay Questions
Please answer the following questions using APA citation in one or two paragraphs:
1. In what fundamental ways does conflict theory differ from the other theories we have covered (choice, trait, social structure, social process)?
2. Which social process theory does the best job of explaining adult criminality? Which social process theory does the best job of explaining juvenile delinquency? (These cannot be the same theories.) What do both of these theories have in common?
Family Size, Family Type and Student Achievement:
Cross-National Differences and the Role of
Socioeconomic and School factors
GARY N.MARKS*
BNTRODUCnON
The finding that students from larger families have less favorable educational outcomes is
well established in the United States (Blake, 1989; Mare and Chen, 1986; Powell and Parcel,
1999). Negative effects for family size or the tiumber of siblings on educational attainment
have been also found in Australia, Finland, Hong Kong and Israel (Le and Miller, 2001; Post
and Pong, 1998; Riala, et al., 2003; Shavit and Pierce, 1991). With regard to family type, it is
generally concluded that in the United States children from divorced families show poorer
educational outcomes than children from intact families (Amato, 2000; Jeynes, 2002:13-18).
Lower educational attainments of students from divorced or single-patent families have also
been found in Finland and Great Britain (Powell and Parcel, 1999; Riala, et al., 2003). In the
United States, children from reconstituted families — that is, families with a stepparent —
tend to have lower educational attainments than children from two-parent families, and, in
quite often, single-parent families (Biblarz and Raferty, 1999; Jeynes, 1999).
It is not possible to conclude if the effects of family size and type on educational outcomes
are similar or very different across countries, even with a large number of single country
studies, due to differences in sampling and measurement. However, cross-national
comparisons are possible with international studies of student achievement, which select
comparable samples and use identical outcome measures. In the first international reading
study, Thomdike (1973:74-79) reported consistently negative correlations between the number
of siblings and reading achievement among 14-year-olds. The median correlation was -0.11,
with stronger negative effects in Scotland, England and Hungary, but very weak correlations
in other countries. In the first international science study, the negative correlation between
family size and science achievement was strongest iti Scotland, England and Japan, and
weakest in Belgium, Italy and Sweden (Comber and Keeves, 1973:258). The more recent
international achievement studies have not been employed to extensively examine the
relationship between family size and achievement. However, they have been used to
investigate the effects of single-parent families. Using data from the Third.
School Effects on Psychological Outcomes During Adolescence.docxWilheminaRossi174
School Effects on Psychological Outcomes During Adolescence
Eric M. Anderman
University of Kentucky
Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used to examine school-level
differences in the relations between school belonging and various outcomes. In Study 1, predictors of
belonging were examined. Results indicated that belonging was lower in urban schools than in suburban
schools, and lower in schools that used busing practices than those that did not. In Study 2, the relations
between belonging and psychological outcomes were examined. The relations varied depending on the
unit of analysis (individual vs. aggregated measures of belonging). Whereas individual students’
perceptions of belonging were inversely related to depression, social rejection, and school problems,
aggregated belonging was related to greater reports of social rejection and school problems and to higher
grade point average.
Research on school-level differences during adolescence often
has focused on nonpsychological outcomes, such as academic
achievement and behavioral issues, instead of on psychological
outcomes (Roeser, 1998). Indeed, research on school-level differ-
ences in nonacademic variables is quite rare. The purpose of the
present research was to examine school-level differences in a
variety of psychological outcomes, using a large nationally repre-
sentative sample of adolescents.
School Effects on Student Outcomes
Although there is an abundant literature on effective schools,
most of the research in this literature has focused on academic
variables, such as achievement, dropping out, and grade point
average (GPA; e.g., Edmonds, 1979; Miller, 1985; Murphy, Weil,
Hallinger, & Mitman, 1985). This literature generally indicates
that schools that are academically effective have certain recogniz-
able characteristics.
Some of these studies have examined differences between pub-
lic schools and other types of schools. For example, some research
indicates that students who attend public schools achieve more
academically than do students who attend other types of schools
(e.g., Coleman & Hoffer, 1987). Other research suggests that there
may be a benefit in terms of academic achievement for students
who attend Catholic schools compared with non-Catholic schools
(Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993). Lee and her colleagues (Lee,
Chow-Hoy, Burkam, Geverdt, & Smerdon, 1998) found that stu-
dents who attended private schools took more advanced math
courses than did students who attended public schools. However,
they also found specific benefits for Catholic schools: Specifically,
in Catholic schools, there was greater school influence on the
courses that students took, and the social distribution of course
enrollment was found to be particularly equitable.
In recent years, psychologists have started to become interested
in the effects of schooling on mental health outcomes (e.g., Boe-
kaerts, 1993; Cowen, 1991; Roeser, Eccles, & Strobel, 1998;
Rutter,.
Child Development, JanuaryFebruary 2002, Volume 73, Number .docxbissacr
Child Development, January/February 2002, Volume 73, Number 1, Pages 1–21
Nature, Nurture, and Development: From Evangelism through
Science toward Policy and Practice
Michael Rutter
During the second half of the 20th century there was an immense increase in both empirical findings on, and
conceptual understanding of, the effects of nature, nurture, and developmental processes on psychological
functioning—both normal and abnormal. Unfortunately, the good science has also been accompanied by ex-
cessive polarizing claims and by unwarranted extrapolations. This article provides a summary review of the
real gains in knowledge, outlines some of the misleading claims, and notes the potential for research and for
science-led improvements in policies and practice. The need to bring about a better interpretation of genetic,
psychosocial, and developmental research strategies and theoretical concepts is emphasized.
INTRODUCTION
Over the last half century, there has been an explosion
of knowledge on the effects of nature, nurture, and
developmental processes. As a result, we have a much
improved understanding of many of the mechanisms
involved in normal and abnormal development,
which carries with it a huge potential for improving
children’s lives. Unfortunately, these advances have
been accompanied by as much misleading scientific
evangelism and journalistic hype as by good science
and honest reporting. As a consequence, both the pages
of scientific journals and the media have been full of the
most absurd confrontations and polarizations. These
have given rise to an unhelpful level of misunder-
standing of the true scientific advances and, more es-
pecially, about their meaning and the implications for
policy and practice. Of course, there have also been
numerous examples of good reporting by scientists
and by journalists. There is every reason to be in-
debted to both. The need is to avoid the twin dangers
of destructive cynicism and gullible expectation.
Nature, nurture, and development are dealt with
in this article as separate topics (with the focus being
mainly on their effects on psychopathology). In each
case, the real advances in knowledge are considered
first, some of the misleading claims are outlined sec-
ond, and the potential for research and for improve-
ments in policies and practice are noted third. Al-
though these are considered as supposedly separate
influences, the truth is that they are closely inter-
twined. The separation is heuristically useful for test-
ing causal hypotheses, but it is crucial that such hy-
potheses deal with the different forms of interplay
that may be occurring. To a considerable extent, it is
the failure to do so that has led to many of the polar-
izing battles and absurd claims.
NATURE: GENETIC RISK AND
PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS
With regard to the influences that reflect nature,
quantitative genetics and molecular genetics are dis-
cussed separately, because they have rather different
patterns .
A comprehensive review of research on the effect that birth order has on academic success in children. Within the CFLE matrix, this literature review falls under the substance areas of families in society and internal dynamics of families. It falls under the competency area of assessment and evaluation skills.
Creativity and Academic Achievement of Higher Secondary School Students in Ta...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
1. Educational Psychology Review, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2000
Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral
Genetic Perspective
Stephen A. Petrill1,2
and Bessie Wilkerson1
Understanding the etiology and relationship between standardized intelli-
gence and academic achievement tests is essential, given their ever-increasing
role in American education. Behavioral genetic studies have examined the
genetic and environmental etiology of intelligence, academic achievement,
and their relationship. Results suggest that genetic, shared environmental,
and nonshared environmental influences have an impact on intelligence and
academic achievement. Behavioral genetic studies also suggest that the impor-
tance of genes may vary as a function of age. Other studies suggest that
genes drive the correlation and that the nonshared environment drives the
discrepancy between measures of intelligence and achievement. Implications
for the identification of intellectually and academically relevant environmen-
tal influences are discussed.
KEY WORDS: behavioral genetics; intelligence; academic achievement.
Why do children perform so differently from one another on standard-
ized tests of intelligence and achievement? Why is it that some students
possess standardized intelligence test scores that correspond with their
achievement test scores, whereas other students show wide discrepancies
between intelligence and achievement? Given the ever-increasing role of
standardized tests of intelligence and academic achievement in American
education, it is important to continually strive to better understand the
relationship among these constructs. The purpose of this paper is to examine
1
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut 06459-0408.
2
All correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Stephen Petrill, Department of Psychology,
Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, 06459-0408, phone (860-685-2602), fax (860-685-2761),
e-mail: spetrill@wesleyan.edu
185
1040-726X/00/0600-0185$18.00/0 2000 Plenum Publishing Corporation
2. 186 Petrill and Wilkerson
this issue from a behavioral genetic perspective. First, we describe the
measures of intelligence and achievement typically used by behavioral ge-
netic studies. We then discuss behavioral genetic methods and examine
research examining intelligence, academic achievement, and their relation-
ship. Finally, we discuss how behavioral genetics can be used to identify the
genetic and environmental factors that shape intelligence and achievement.
THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Although many have attempted to develop general theories of intelli-
gence (e.g., Gardner, 1983; Spearman, 1904; Sternberg, 1985; Thurstone,
1938), the standardized tests used in most educational settings and employed
historically in most empirical research are derived from the Bine´t–Simon
scales of intelligence (1905). The Bine´t scales were designed for the prag-
matic purpose of identifying special needs children in the Parisian public
school system. The Stanford–Bine´t scale was standardized by Terman
(1916) and extended by Wechsler (1939). As the 20th century progressed,
standardized tests of intelligence became commonplace in schools. Most
group and individually administered intelligence tests are direct descend-
ents, modifications of, or reactions to these measures.
Almost all of these standardized tests of intelligence measure specific
dimensions of cognitive functioning, often called group factors. Examples
of these group factors are verbal ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed,
and memory. These dimensions of cognitive functioning, although distinct,
have been shown to correlate with one another, yielding a general intelli-
gence, or g factor that accounts for a large portion, but not all, of the
individual differences in the group factors (see Carroll, 1993). Although
these standardized measures of intelligence certainly do not account for
all types of intelligent behavior, they are highly reliable and predict later
intellectual performance, educational attainment, and occupational status
(Brody, 1992).
Understanding the important dimensions of academic achievement has
also been a focus of intense research. Many studies have used standardized
achievement tests (see Sattler, 1988) that attempt to measure specific types
of academic performance (e.g., reading comprehension, mathematics com-
putation). Others have argued that standardized achievement tests are
nearly identical to measures of intelligence, opting instead for measures of
classroom performance, such as teacher evaluations or cumulative grade
point average (see McCall, Evahn, and Kratzer, 1992).
3. Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral Genetic Perspective 187
BEHAVIORAL GENETIC STUDIES OF INTELLIGENCE
AND ACHIEVEMENT
One of the major misconceptions about behavioral genetics is that the
method describes whether nature or nurture is operating. Instead, behav-
ioral genetic methods assume that differences in measured behavior (in
this case measures of intelligence or academic achievement) can be shaped
by both genetic and environmental factors. The question is not whether
genes or environments are operating, but how much impact do genes and
environments have on intelligence and achievement, and how do genes
influence the similarity and differences between these constructs. Heritabil-
ity (h2
) is the proportion of differences in measured behavior (e.g., academic
achievement) that can be explained by genetic differences in the population.
For example, the similarity in reading ability between family members may
be influenced by shared genes important to reading. In addition, behavioral
genetic methods also provide a powerful tool to separate the environment
into those influences that operate between families and those that operate
within families. Shared environment (c2
) measures differences in behavior
that can be explained by environmental influences that make family mem-
bers similar. For example, the similarity in reading ability between family
members may also be influenced by the fact that family members went to
the same schools and had the same teachers. Nonshared environment (e2
)
measures the extent to which differences in behavior are influenced by
differences within family environments. Thus, nonshared environment mea-
sures environmental differences within families (one child may be a better
reader because he/she has read more books that than his/her sibling). In
addition, e2
measures error and any other factor that makes family members
different. These estimates are obtained by examining twins or families with
adoptive children.
Genetic influences on intelligence are statistically significant, averaging
around 50% when collapsing across all available twin and adoption studies
(Bouchard and McGue, 1981; Chipuer, Rovine, and Plomin, 1990; Plomin
and Petrill, 1997). Interestingly, heritability appears to vary with age, start-
ing around 40% in early childhood, rising to 60% in early adulthood, and
rising to 80% in later life (McGue, Bouchard, Iacono, and Lykken, 1993;
Plomin, 1986; Plomin, Fulker, Corley, and DeFries, 1997). Evidence sug-
gests that the heritability of intelligence may decline to around h2
ϭ .60
in old-old populations (Finkel, Pedersen, Plomin, and McClearn, 1998;
McClearn et al., 1997). In contrast, shared family environmental influences
are significant in early and middle childhood but decrease to zero by adoles-
cence and early adulthood. Nonshared environmental influences are sig-
nificant throughout the lifespan. These results are found not only for general
4. 188 Petrill and Wilkerson
intelligence (e.g., a Full Scale IQ Score), but also for specific cognitive
abilities, especially Verbal Ability, Spatial Ability, and Perceptual Speed
(Plomin, 1988).
In contrast to the hundreds of studies examining the heritability of
intelligence, there are fewer studies examining academic achievement. In-
terestingly, the heritability of academic achievement is almost as high as
the heritability of intelligence. Achievement also displays a similar pattern
of increasing heritability and decreasing shared environment with the age
of the sample. In elementary school, the shared environment accounts for
around 60% of the differences in standardized tests of reading, spelling,
and math achievement, whereas genetic influences account for roughly 30%
(Brooks, Fulker, and DeFries, 1990; Thompson, Detterman, and Plomin,
1991). During the school years, genetic influences increase whereas shared
environment decreases. For example, Husen (1959) suggests that the herita-
bilities for report card grades in a sample of 13-year-old Swedish twins
ranged from 30% to 60%, with shared environment accounting for roughly
25% of the differences in achievement. Loehlin and Nichols (1976) con-
ducted a study of 1300 identical and 864 same-sex fraternal twin pairs.
Again the heritability of performance on the National Merit Scholarship
Qualifying Test was about 40%, and the shared environment was about
30%. Similarly, Gill, Jardine, and Martin (1985) conducted a study of 264
identical and fraternal twins taking the Tertiary Admissions Examination
Test and the Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test (both measures are used
as college entrance exams). Heritability estimates were roughly 44% and
shared environment roughly 43%. In a related study, Baker, Treloar, Reyn-
olds, Health, and Martin (1996) suggested that the heritability of educa-
tional attainment (highest educational level attained) is 57% and the shared
environment is 24%. Similarly, Lichtenstein and Pedersen (1997) examined
genetic influences on educational attainment (highest educational level
attained) in a sample of 91 pairs of male Swedish twins ranging in age
from 27 to 80 years (mean age 52.6 years). The heritability of education
attainment was 42%; shared environmental influences accounted for 21%,
and nonshared environment (and error) explained 31% of the differences
in educational attainment.
Thus, like measures of intelligence, heritability is significant in aca-
demic achievement, and appears to vary with age. Measures of intelligence
and academic achievement are positively correlated with one another, most
likely in a reciprocal relationship (see Brody, 1997). Intelligence test scores
are correlated with later academic achievement (Butler, Marsh, Sheppard,
and Sheppard, 1985) and final educational attainment (Jencks, 1979). At
the same time, IQ scores change in response to educational opportunities
available to individuals (Ceci and Williams, 1997). Whatever the causal
5. Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral Genetic Perspective 189
pathways, the correlation between intelligence and achievement is substan-
tial and consistent, averaging around .50. Thus, the correlation between
intelligence and achievement may be influenced by genetic and/or environ-
mental overlap.
So how might behavioral genetics help us understand the correlation
between standardized tests of intelligence and academic achievement?
There are several possibilities. An environment-only position hypothesizes
that intelligence and achievement correlate due to overlap in the environ-
ments that shape both constructs (Fig. 1). In other words, both intelli-
gence and achievement have genetic and environmental components, but
the environment (such as schooling) drives the correlation between intelli-
gence and achievement. These environmental influences could either be
due to shared environment (both children in the home experience environ-
ments that shape their intelligence and achievement equally) or nonshared
(each child experiences a separate environment, but this unique environ-
mental experience has an effect on that child’s IQ as well as on his/her
achievement).
Second, a gene ϩ environment hypothesis suggests that the correlation
between intelligence and achievement is due to both genetic and environ-
mental overlap (Fig. 2). In this case, there are genes in common across
both constructs, but there are also shared and/or nonshared environmental
influences that affect both intelligence and achievement.
Finally, a gene-only hypothesis suggests that the correlation between
intelligence and achievement is due solely to genetic influences (Fig. 3).
Environmental influences cause intelligence and achievement to be differ-
Fig. 1. The environment influences the correlation between mea-
sures of intelligence and achievement.
6. 190 Petrill and Wilkerson
Fig. 2. Both genes and the environment influence the correla-
tion between measures of intelligence and achievement.
ent from one another. A correlation of .50 between intelligence and achieve-
ment scores means that 75% of the variance (1 Ϫ r2
) in achievement is
not shared with IQ. Thus, the environment (and some genes specific to
intelligence and achievement) may cause achievement scores to diverge
from what would be predicted by intelligence scores.
Making this issue more complex is the fact that different models may
be functioning at different ages. Because shared environmental influences
are more important prior to adolescence, we might expect that the environ-
ment plays a greater role in the correlation between intelligence and
Fig. 3. Genes influence the correlation between measures of in-
telligence and achievement.
7. Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral Genetic Perspective 191
achievement in elementary school and that genetics plays a more important
role in later school years and adulthood. This shift to a gene-only model
makes intuitive sense because children are engaged in school—an environ-
mental influence affecting both achievement test scores and cognitive ability
that stops about when the biggest decrease in shared environment in IQ
and achievement occurs.
When examining the data, the gene-only model appears to be operating
at all points in the lifespan. In other words, although intelligence and
achievement themselves are influenced by both genetic and environmental
factors, the correlation between intelligence and achievement appears to
be driven mostly by shared genetic influences (see Fig. 3). The discrepancy
between intelligence and achievement is influenced primarily by the non-
shared environment (with small independent genetic influences in achieve-
ment and intelligence). Thompson, Detterman, and Plomin (1991) exam-
ined a sample of 278 pairs of identical and fraternal twins ranging in age
from 6 to 12 years. Each twin was given an extensive battery of standardized
cognitive and achievement tests. Multivariate results suggested that the
correlation between the cognitive tests (broken down into Verbal Ability,
Spatial Ability, Perceptual Speed, and Memory) and achievement tests
(i.e., Reading, Spelling, and Math) was driven largely by genetic factors.
These results have since been replicated in an adoption study examining
roughly 500 adoptive and nonadoptive 7-year-old children (Wadsworth,
1994). In addition, the gene-only theory appears to operate in late adulthood
as well. Lichtenstein and Pedersen (1997) demonstrated that 75% of the
correlation between intelligence and educational attainment in a sample
of older adult twins is due to genetic overlap between these constructs.
Thus, the behavioral genetic data paints a picture of intelligence and
achievement that is contrary to conventional wisdom. Genetic influences
appear to vary in importance across the lifespan, and they are primarily
responsible for the correlation between measures of intelligence and
achievement. Shared environment is important in childhood but declines
in adolescence. The nonshared environment (the environment unique to
each child in a family) appears to be the most pervasive environmental
influence across the lifespan, and is also responsible for the discrepancy
between measures of intelligence and achievement.
How might we begin to explain these results? One direction has been
to identify the genes that are associated with cognitive ability and academic
achievement. Although these methods are described in greater detail else-
where (see Plomin, DeFries, McClearn, and Rutter, 1997), molecular ge-
netic techniques look for differences in DNA sequences that are related
to differences in a measured behavior. With respect to intelligence, Chorney
et al. (1998) report a DNA marker associated with IGF2R (found on chro-
8. 192 Petrill and Wilkerson
mosome 6) that explains a small but statistically significant proportion of the
variance in intelligence. It is important to mention that, although Chorney et
al. (1998) found this association between IGF2R and intelligence in two
independent samples, attempts by others to replicate this result have not
yet been reported.
Similarly, other research has described a possible link between another
marker on chromosome 6 and reading disability, as defined as a clinically
significant discrepancy between measures of intelligence and reading (Car-
don et al., 1994). Grigorenko and her colleagues (1997) replicated these
results, suggesting that that phonologic awareness may be partially responsi-
ble for the linkage between DNA markers on chromosome 6 and reading
disability. The validity of these findings is very much in a state of uncertainty.
Some researchers have not only replicated (Gayan et al., 1999) but extended
(Fisher et al., 1999) these findings. Other researchers, however, have failed
to replicate these findings (Field and Kaplan, 1998). Although finding a set
of DNA markers relating to intelligence and achievement is very much a
‘‘work in progress,’’ this search constitutes an important step in understand-
ing the developmental neurobiological pathways that influence individual
differences in the development of complex cognitive functioning.
In addition, we must also reexamine our assumptions concerning the
environment. Harris (1995) argued provocatively that the family environ-
ment is ultimately unimportant as children move from middle childhood
to adolescence where peer and individual influences become more perva-
sive. At first glance, the behavioral genetic data presented so far seem to
support this conclusion: Shared environmental influences are negligible
after adolescence, whereas the nonshared environment (and error) remains
significant. However, the behavioral genetic results do not necessarily imply
that the family environment is unimportant, as suggested by Harris (1995).
The shared environment can occur both at home, at school, or in any
situation in which two members of a family experience an environment in
the same manner. Similarly, the nonshared environmental can occur in the
home (e.g., differential parenting targeted to the strengths and weakness
of each child) or outside of the home. The interesting finding is that within
these familial, peer, or academic contexts, the most important environmen-
tal influences appear to shift from those that are shared by members of a
family to those that are unique to each child within the family.
So how can we identify the shared and nonshared environmental fac-
tors that are associated with intelligence and academic achievement? Typi-
cally, studies have examined the environment using two general approaches.
In the first approach, a measure of some ‘‘environmental’’ influence is
developed (such as number of books in the home) and then correlated
with some outcome (such as intelligence or academic achievement). For
9. Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral Genetic Perspective 193
example, research has suggested that oral language development is associ-
ated with the way in which (as opposed to how much) parents and teachers
read to children (Mason, 1992; Moon and Wells, 1979; Lonigan, 1993;
Whitehurst et al., 1988), availability of books in the home (Scarborough,
1998; Mason, 1992), and parental attitudes/expectations (Briggs and Elkind,
1977; Dunn, 1981; Scarborough and Dobrich, 1994).
A second approach has involved attempts to raise intelligence and/or
academic achievement test scores in at-risk populations. Since the 1970s,
researchers have attempted to develop early educational interventions that
raise the intellectual and academic level of disadvantaged economic groups.
Spitz (1986) reviewed several well-known projects such as Head Start and
the Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. He suggests that early interven-
tion studies have a positive effect on intelligence, but these gains disappear
when the intervention is terminated. In contrast, the Abecedarian Project
(Ramey and Campbell, 1991) involved an intensive daycare program for
children judged to be at risk for academic failure (e.g., median family
income reported was zero). Average age at entry was 4.4 months. In addition
to an intensive daycare program, the Abecedarian Project endeavored to
involve families in the preschool program and performed a support service
to improve communication between parents and teachers once the children
reached elementary school. Campbell and Ramey (1994) then reexamined
these children at 12 years of age, suggesting one-third standard deviation
gains in IQ persisted.
Although these two approaches are different in terms of their aims,
subject populations, and methodologies, behavioral genetic findings may
shed additional light on their findings. First, most studies that examine
the relationship between environmental measures and cognitive outcomes
employ designs that cannot separate genetic from environmental influences.
In other words, these studies assume that ‘‘environmental’’ interventions
are free from genetic measurement error. A growing body of behavioral
genetic research calls this assumption into question (Plomin and Bergeman,
1991; Rowe, 1994; Rowe and Rodgers, 1997; Scarr and McCartney, 1983;
van den Oord and Rowe, 1997). These studies suggest that measures of the
environment possess a significant genetic component. Practically speaking,
these results mean that the correlation between identical twins’ scores
on these environmental measures is greater than the correlation between
fraternal twins’ scores. Because identical twins are more similar genetically,
it is assumed that the greater similarity in identical twins’ scores is due to
genetic influences.
More importantly, the nonshared environment becomes the most
important environmental variable as the population ages and is most re-
sponsible for discrepancies in IQ and achievement scores. However, both
10. 194 Petrill and Wilkerson
approaches typically employ methods that cannot separate shared from
nonshared environmental effects. Attempts to bring about a lifespan in-
crease in intelligence or achievement ought to identify and examine these
nonshared effects. For example, one may examine the number of books a
particular child in the home reads in a given period as opposed to the
number of books the entire family possesses.
Currently, behavioral genetic studies are beginning to examine the
environment using genetically sensitive designs. For example, Pike,
McGuire, Hetherington, Reiss, and Plomin (1996) decomposed the relation-
ship between measures of the environment and behavioral outcomes into
genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environment components.
These analyses were virtually identical to the approach discussed earlier
when examining the overlap between intelligence and achievement. The
difference is that a measure of the environment was employed as one
of the variables. Other approaches have been employed to examine the
nonshared environment directly by studying differences between identical
twins (Pike, Reiss, Hetherington, and Plomin, 1996). Because identical
twins living in the same home share 100% of the same genes and the
shared environment, any difference between identical twins has to be due
to nonshared environmental differences and error. Thus, if one calculates
the difference between identical twins’ environments and outcomes, the
correlation between these difference scores provides an index of nonshared
environmental mediation between the environment and the outcome in
question. Although these approaches have been used when examining social
and emotional development (see Hetherington, Reiss, and Plomin, 1994),
this approach is only beginning to be used to examine cognitive ability
and achievement.
Although genes and environments are often conceptualized as inde-
pendent or parallel processes, numerous theoretical models have also been
developed to explain how genes and environments can correlate or interact
with one another. Scarr and McCartney (1983) describe three types of gene-
environment (GE) correlations. In passive GE correlation, both genes and
environments derive from the same source: the parents. For example, num-
ber of books in the home is related to parents’ cognitive ability, which is
determined, in part, by genetic influences. Because biological parents pro-
vide genes to their children and obtain the books that are in the home, the
child’s environment is indirectly correlated with their genes.
In contrast, other types of GE correlations are the result of genes
directly influencing the environment that the child experiences. Reactive
GE correlation occurs when the environment experienced by an individual
changes as a reaction to his or her genotype. Evidence for reactive GE
correlation has been found in the behavior problems literature, which sug-
11. Intelligence and Achievement: A Behavioral Genetic Perspective 195
gests that antisocial behavior in adopted children, related to biological
parents behavior, is predictive of more negative parenting from adoptive
parents (Ge et al., 1996). Similarly, reactive GE correlation can be posited
for academic achievement. For example, parents might read to their chil-
dren as a function of a child’s interest in reading, which, in turn, could be
a function of genetic variance relating to reading ability (Scarborough,
1991). Another possible but untested example may the tracking that is
found in many schools that is based on children’s performance on tests of
cognitive ability and achievement.
Finally, active GE occurs when a child’s genes make them more likely
to seek out certain environments. For example, sociable children may select
more sociable environments, which, in turn, amplify their sociability. In
the case of academic achievement or intelligence, then, it may be that
more academically oriented children seek out more academically enriched
environments. Finally, Scarr and McCartney (1983) posit that GE interac-
tion occurs when a nonlinear relationship exists between genetic and envi-
ronmental influences. For example, environmental influences on academic
achievement may vary nonlinearly as a function of the child’s genotype.
The purpose of presenting these GE models is not to suggest that all
environmental influences can be boiled down to indirect genetic expression.
Genes do not code environments such as number of books in the home.
However, genes may mediate the extent to which children seek out academi-
cally related environments or have more highly enriched environments
provided for them. Thus, genes may affect not only how efficiently children
learn information but also the likelihood of children being exposed to
enriching environments. Although some have begun to examine the GE
correlation and interaction in cognitive ability (e.g., van den Oord and
Rowe, 1997), many more studies are needed.
Finally, a significant heritability estimate or a genetic correlation be-
tween intelligence and achievement does not mean that intelligence and
achievement cannot be modified by the environment. For one, the environ-
ment is an important determinant of individual differences in achievement
and intelligence, especially in childhood. More importantly, heritability
describes why individuals differ within a group, but it does not examine
average increases in ability or average differences in ability between groups.
Although genetic influences account for 90% of the individual differences
in height, for example, the height of the average person has increased,
presumably due to an average improvement in the environment. Similarly,
although the heritability of IQ has remained stable across the 80ϩ years
that twin studies have been conducted, the measures used to measure IQ
have been restandardized numerous times. The average IQ, although set
to be 100 on a particular test, increases over time. Put another way, if a
12. 196 Petrill and Wilkerson
random sample of children in 1999 were given an intelligence test standard-
ized in 1920, the average IQ would be significantly greater than 100 (Flynn,
1998). Thus, behavioral genetic methods tell us ‘‘what is,’’ not ‘‘what will
be’’ or ‘‘what should be’’ (Plomin and Petrill, 1997).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The major contribution of behavioral genetic studies is that they pro-
vide a more comprehensive picture of the factors that influence intelligence
and achievement. Genetic differences are important to understanding intel-
ligence, achievement, and their relationship. However, the environment is
also important. Intelligence tests are not a veridical window into genetic
potential nor are measures of academic achievement indices of environmen-
tally driven learning. Both are measures of behavior, and thus are poten-
tially subject to genetic and environmental effects.
Behavioral genetic studies also suggest an important distinction be-
tween the shared and the nonshared environment. Shared environmental
influences on intelligence and achievement decrease throughout the life-
span, leaving the nonshared environment as a more important source of
environmental influence. Coupled with research suggesting that genes and
environments are correlated with one another, it appears that we need to
rethink our assumptions about how children are exposed to and seek out
different environments. Far from passively receiving an educational pro-
gram, children may be actively seeking out and receiving enriched environ-
ments based, in part, on genetic influences. Not only should our research
begin to identify these multiple influences on intelligence and achievement,
but our educational practices should also be more sensitive to these sources
of individual differences.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Profs. Nathan Brody, Karl Scheibe, the
editor, and the reviewers for their substantive and editorial advice.
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