This document discusses the relationship between persuasive communication and propaganda. It explores how persuasion is an essential part of public relations but also overlaps with propaganda. While propaganda aims to deliberately manipulate audiences, ethical persuasion allows audiences to make informed decisions. The key difference is that persuasion involves open dialogue, while propaganda is one-sided communication intended to benefit the communicator over the audience. Overall, the document examines the challenges for PR to use persuasion ethically and avoid the negative connotations of propaganda.
The document discusses several media theories:
- Effects theory argues that media has direct effects on audiences, potentially manipulating them
- Uses and gratifications theory examines what audiences do with media to fulfill needs
- Reception theory views audiences as active interpreters of media texts based on their social and cultural backgrounds, leading to varied readings of the same text.
This document provides an overview of the law of misrepresentation in contracts. It defines misrepresentation as a false statement of fact that induces a party to enter a contract. There are three types of misrepresentation: fraudulent, negligent, and innocent. For fraudulent misrepresentation, the innocent party can rescind the contract and claim damages. For negligent misrepresentation, rescission and damages are also available if there was a special relationship. For innocent misrepresentation, the court decides on remedies. The document discusses key cases like Hedley Byrne v Heller that established rules around duties of care for negligent misrepresentation. It provides examples and explains available remedies under the Misrepresentation Act 1967.
According to Section 17 of fraud, fraud involves intentionally deceiving or inducing someone to enter a contract through suggestions of untrue facts, concealment of information, promises with no intent to perform, or other acts meant to deceive as defined by law. The essential elements of fraud are that it involves a party to a contract making a false representation of fact that actually deceives the other party and causes them loss. The remedies for fraud include rescinding the contract or claiming damages if the party whose consent was caused by fraud suffers a loss.
This document discusses modes of persuasion and Cialdini's persuasion model. It explains the three modes of persuasion - ethos, pathos, and logos. It then analyzes how an advertisement uses each mode, appealing to credibility with celebrities, emotions with humor, and logic with safety rules. The document also outlines Cialdini's six principles of persuasion - liking, reciprocity, consensus, consistency, authority, and scarcity - and provides examples of how to apply each principle.
The document discusses propaganda techniques, beginning with a definition of propaganda as persuasive messaging that aims to represent the interests of a group through emotional appeals and faulty reasoning rather than logic. It notes that propaganda is intended to influence thoughts and actions and comes in many forms, but always has a persuasive function, sizeable target audience, representation of a specific group's agenda, and use of emotional appeals or faulty reasoning. The document then examines 11 common propaganda techniques: assertion, bandwagon, card stacking, glittering generalities, false dilemmas, lesser of two evils, name-calling, pinpointing the enemy, plain folk, transferring, and testimonials. It provides examples and discussion topics for analyzing different types of propaganda.
This document discusses how to identify and analyze arguments. An argument must have at least one premise and a conclusion. It also discusses different types of statements that are not arguments, such as warnings, advice, opinions, and reports. Conditional statements on their own are not arguments, but can be used as part of an argument. Necessary conditions are required for something to occur, while sufficient conditions alone are enough to trigger something.
The document provides an introduction to morality. It discusses how morality relates to judging right from wrong and choosing to do right. It explains that morality comes from various sources, including family, friends, religion, society, emotions, and personal values. Moral behavior can depend on consequences, emotions, situations, rules, authority, customs, and conscience. The document provides examples of moral, immoral, and amoral people and discusses making moral decisions through considering facts, options, advice, values, and prayer. It emphasizes that morality matters for healthy relationships and society.
This document summarizes defamation and copyright laws in Pakistan. It discusses what constitutes defamation according to Pakistani law, including the Defamation Ordinance of 2002 and Defamation Act of 2004. It also outlines copyright law in Pakistan based on the Copyright Ordinance of 1962, including what types of works are covered, ownership and infringement issues. Finally, it mentions some famous defamation cases in Pakistan and legislative responses to copyright piracy.
The document discusses several media theories:
- Effects theory argues that media has direct effects on audiences, potentially manipulating them
- Uses and gratifications theory examines what audiences do with media to fulfill needs
- Reception theory views audiences as active interpreters of media texts based on their social and cultural backgrounds, leading to varied readings of the same text.
This document provides an overview of the law of misrepresentation in contracts. It defines misrepresentation as a false statement of fact that induces a party to enter a contract. There are three types of misrepresentation: fraudulent, negligent, and innocent. For fraudulent misrepresentation, the innocent party can rescind the contract and claim damages. For negligent misrepresentation, rescission and damages are also available if there was a special relationship. For innocent misrepresentation, the court decides on remedies. The document discusses key cases like Hedley Byrne v Heller that established rules around duties of care for negligent misrepresentation. It provides examples and explains available remedies under the Misrepresentation Act 1967.
According to Section 17 of fraud, fraud involves intentionally deceiving or inducing someone to enter a contract through suggestions of untrue facts, concealment of information, promises with no intent to perform, or other acts meant to deceive as defined by law. The essential elements of fraud are that it involves a party to a contract making a false representation of fact that actually deceives the other party and causes them loss. The remedies for fraud include rescinding the contract or claiming damages if the party whose consent was caused by fraud suffers a loss.
This document discusses modes of persuasion and Cialdini's persuasion model. It explains the three modes of persuasion - ethos, pathos, and logos. It then analyzes how an advertisement uses each mode, appealing to credibility with celebrities, emotions with humor, and logic with safety rules. The document also outlines Cialdini's six principles of persuasion - liking, reciprocity, consensus, consistency, authority, and scarcity - and provides examples of how to apply each principle.
The document discusses propaganda techniques, beginning with a definition of propaganda as persuasive messaging that aims to represent the interests of a group through emotional appeals and faulty reasoning rather than logic. It notes that propaganda is intended to influence thoughts and actions and comes in many forms, but always has a persuasive function, sizeable target audience, representation of a specific group's agenda, and use of emotional appeals or faulty reasoning. The document then examines 11 common propaganda techniques: assertion, bandwagon, card stacking, glittering generalities, false dilemmas, lesser of two evils, name-calling, pinpointing the enemy, plain folk, transferring, and testimonials. It provides examples and discussion topics for analyzing different types of propaganda.
This document discusses how to identify and analyze arguments. An argument must have at least one premise and a conclusion. It also discusses different types of statements that are not arguments, such as warnings, advice, opinions, and reports. Conditional statements on their own are not arguments, but can be used as part of an argument. Necessary conditions are required for something to occur, while sufficient conditions alone are enough to trigger something.
The document provides an introduction to morality. It discusses how morality relates to judging right from wrong and choosing to do right. It explains that morality comes from various sources, including family, friends, religion, society, emotions, and personal values. Moral behavior can depend on consequences, emotions, situations, rules, authority, customs, and conscience. The document provides examples of moral, immoral, and amoral people and discusses making moral decisions through considering facts, options, advice, values, and prayer. It emphasizes that morality matters for healthy relationships and society.
This document summarizes defamation and copyright laws in Pakistan. It discusses what constitutes defamation according to Pakistani law, including the Defamation Ordinance of 2002 and Defamation Act of 2004. It also outlines copyright law in Pakistan based on the Copyright Ordinance of 1962, including what types of works are covered, ownership and infringement issues. Finally, it mentions some famous defamation cases in Pakistan and legislative responses to copyright piracy.
Contingent contracts are agreements that are dependent on the occurrence or non-occurrence of some future uncertain event, and performance under such contracts can only be enforced after the event in question has occurred or become impossible. The document outlines the essential elements and types of contingent contracts under Indian contract law, and explains the circumstances under which contingent contracts become void or enforceable.
The concept of news has existed since early human societies, where people would exchange local information at weekly markets or in letters. News was communicated through word of mouth until the development of newspapers, radio, and television. Even with new technologies, the basic definition of news relies on identifying newsworthy events or changes and their importance and impact. Nowadays, online newspaper websites have become a strong source of immediate news for people with busy lifestyles.
This document provides an overview of print media, including its history, types, and key terminology. It discusses how print media has evolved from handwritten manuscripts to digital technologies. It outlines various forms of print media like newspapers, magazines, newsletters, books, and posters. Newspapers are described as one of the most important print media, providing information, education, and advertising. The document also defines 15 common terminology used in print media like lead, banner, caption, and classifieds.
The document discusses the theory of deduction and categorical propositions. It explains that Aristotelian logic focuses on arguments with categorical propositions that relate classes or categories to each other. There are four standard forms of categorical propositions - universal affirmative (A), universal negative (E), particular affirmative (I), and particular negative (O). Each relates the subject and predicate classes in a different way. For example, an A proposition states that all members of the subject class are members of the predicate class, while an O proposition states that at least one member of the subject class is not a member of the predicate class.
The Allegory of the Cave (Reflection Paper)Denni Domingo
Plato's Allegory of the Cave uses the metaphor of chained prisoners in a cave to represent how people form beliefs based on limited experiences. The prisoners see shadows on the cave wall from objects passing behind them and believe these shadows represent the full extent of reality. One prisoner escapes and sees the true objects, representing how education and experience can reveal greater truths. When the prisoner returns to tell the others, they refuse to believe the new information, clinging to their initial limited perceptions. The allegory conveys that people should seek knowledge and truth beyond their initial empirical experiences and be willing to change beliefs in light of new evidence and education.
This document discusses propaganda in media. It defines propaganda as deliberate attempts to manipulate perceptions and behaviors to further an agenda. The document explains that media uses propaganda techniques like plain folks appeal, name-calling, the big lie, and emotional words to shape attitudes. These techniques are used to impress audiences without relying on facts. In summary, the document analyzes common propaganda methods employed by media and how propaganda has become an inherent part of influencing audiences.
The document discusses four normative theories of the press:
1) Authoritarian theory views media as controlled by authorities to strengthen the government through censorship and licensing.
2) Libertarian theory sees people as rational and able to judge information freely without restrictions.
3) Social responsibility theory supports private ownership but with self-regulation and ethical standards to benefit society.
4) Soviet communist theory treats media as owned by the state to spread propaganda and ideology in support of communist rule.
Codes of ethics are meant to guide journalists and ensure truth, accuracy, impartiality and other standards. They help journalists deal with ethical dilemmas and provide accountability. The codes emphasize getting facts right, presenting all sides, maintaining credibility, and correcting errors. Case studies show how codes can be applied, such as protecting sources in the Watergate story or deciding whether to publish a decades-old accusation before an election. Overall, codes are intended to support ethical journalism and avoid issues like paid news or unnecessary religious provocation.
The document provides an overview of various communication models, including linear, transactional, and interactive models. It summarizes several key models, such as Lasswell's model, Aristotle's model, Shannon and Weaver's model, Berlo's SMCR model, Barnlund's transactional model, and Schramm's interactive model. The document is intended as learning material for a session on communication models.
This document discusses types of proposition conversion. Proposition conversion involves interchanging the subject and predicate of an original proposition without changing quantity. There are two main types: simple conversion, where the quantity stays the same, and partial (accidental) conversion, where the quantity changes. Simple conversion can be from universal to universal, particular to particular, or empty to empty propositions. Partial conversion changes the quantity, such as from universal to particular or empty to oblique. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of conversion.
Online multimedia journalism is the process of combining text, images, sound, videos and graphics, to tell an interesting story with the use of the new technologies and internet.
The document discusses the logical fallacy of appeal to force (also known as argumentum ad baculum), where a person is threatened with unpleasant consequences if they do not agree with the proposition. It provides examples of how this fallacy can be used in politics, such as threats of being seen as unpatriotic or allowing further loss of liberties if one does not support a particular policy or candidate. While threats can be persuasive, the appeal to force fallacy is logically unsound because the truth or falsity of the proposition is unrelated to any threats made against those who disagree.
This document discusses aspects of effective oral communication, including voice, posture, gestures, facial expressions, and delivery. It provides details on voice elements like stress, intonation, intensity, quality, and rate. It also explains the importance of good posture, types of gestures, and how facial expressions convey emotions. Maintaining good eye contact and using bodily actions appropriately during speaking is emphasized.
This document summarizes Philippine libel law. It defines libel and slander, outlines who can be held liable and penalties. It discusses why libel is punishable, rules on venue and statutes of limitations. It also covers who can file a libel complaint, essential elements of libel, and available defenses. The key points are that libel involves public imputation that causes dishonor, slander is oral defamation, penalties include fines and imprisonment, and defenses include privileged communication, fair comment, apology and proof of truth.
The document discusses the origins and definitions of propaganda. It began as a term used by the Catholic Church to refer to the dissemination of its doctrines to non-Catholic countries. Propaganda generally refers to attempting to persuade people to accept a point of view or take an action. While propaganda can be rational and for enlightened purposes, it often involves distorting facts or falsifying them. The Nazis skillfully used propaganda to influence public opinion. Modern propaganda is seen more negatively due to its reliance on distorting the truth for self-interested purposes.
Communication is the process of exchanging messages or ideas between people through verbal or non-verbal means. It comes from the Latin word "communicare" meaning to share or unite. There are several key principles of communication:
1. Communication is schema-driven, meaning it relies on a person's prior knowledge and experiences stored in their brain.
2. Communication is interpretive because only the sender fully knows the intended meaning, while the receiver must interpret and infer meaning.
3. Communication does not guarantee a direct link between minds, as the message must be communicated to others in order to be understood.
4. Communication is active and powerful, as messages can have varied effects on participants and are subject
Mass media refers to communication mediums that transmit messages to a large audience, including print, broadcast, and digital media. Print media includes books, newspapers and magazines, which have existed for thousands of years but became more widespread and accessible due to inventions like paper mills, the printing press, and movable type. Broadcast media transmits audio and video messages through radio waves and includes television and radio. Both print and broadcast media serve important functions like informing the public and providing entertainment, though commercialization and advertising are also major aspects, especially for television and radio. Key inventors who helped advance these media include Johannes Gutenberg, who invented the printing press, and Thomas Edison, who developed early technologies for recorded sound and film.
The document discusses the concept of free consent in contracts. It defines key terms like consent, coercion, undue influence, misrepresentation, and fraud.
Free consent is consent that is not caused by coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation, or mistake. Coercion involves threatening unlawful acts, while undue influence involves exploiting power dynamics in relationships.
Misrepresentation involves innocent factual errors, while fraud requires intentionally deceiving the other party. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts. Threats of suicide can amount to coercion. The document compares coercion and undue influence and outlines the requirements for establishing misrepresentation and fraud.
This document provides an overview of utilitarian moral philosophy as developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. It discusses key concepts of utilitarianism like consequentialism, hedonism, and producing the greatest good for the greatest number. It also examines criticisms of utilitarianism and how Mill attempted to address these criticisms through his concept of rule utilitarianism and emphasizing the quality of happiness over just the quantity.
This dissertation analyzes techniques used in British propaganda during World War 1 and compares them to modern PR strategies. It uses content analysis of newspaper articles about the 2014 WWI centenary celebrations and propaganda from 1914-1918. It also performs discourse analysis on WWI propaganda poetry and semiotic analysis of photographs and posters. The study concludes some PR techniques are similar to propaganda but without the intent to coerce. Modern PR involves more public participation and transparency compared to propaganda during WWI which aimed to manipulate public opinion through emotional appeals and deception.
This is a 20 minute presentation devised by myself and one other, which argues that can all Public Relations be seen as Propaganda as well as how can you tell if persuasion is ethical or not. We received 75% for this presentation
Contingent contracts are agreements that are dependent on the occurrence or non-occurrence of some future uncertain event, and performance under such contracts can only be enforced after the event in question has occurred or become impossible. The document outlines the essential elements and types of contingent contracts under Indian contract law, and explains the circumstances under which contingent contracts become void or enforceable.
The concept of news has existed since early human societies, where people would exchange local information at weekly markets or in letters. News was communicated through word of mouth until the development of newspapers, radio, and television. Even with new technologies, the basic definition of news relies on identifying newsworthy events or changes and their importance and impact. Nowadays, online newspaper websites have become a strong source of immediate news for people with busy lifestyles.
This document provides an overview of print media, including its history, types, and key terminology. It discusses how print media has evolved from handwritten manuscripts to digital technologies. It outlines various forms of print media like newspapers, magazines, newsletters, books, and posters. Newspapers are described as one of the most important print media, providing information, education, and advertising. The document also defines 15 common terminology used in print media like lead, banner, caption, and classifieds.
The document discusses the theory of deduction and categorical propositions. It explains that Aristotelian logic focuses on arguments with categorical propositions that relate classes or categories to each other. There are four standard forms of categorical propositions - universal affirmative (A), universal negative (E), particular affirmative (I), and particular negative (O). Each relates the subject and predicate classes in a different way. For example, an A proposition states that all members of the subject class are members of the predicate class, while an O proposition states that at least one member of the subject class is not a member of the predicate class.
The Allegory of the Cave (Reflection Paper)Denni Domingo
Plato's Allegory of the Cave uses the metaphor of chained prisoners in a cave to represent how people form beliefs based on limited experiences. The prisoners see shadows on the cave wall from objects passing behind them and believe these shadows represent the full extent of reality. One prisoner escapes and sees the true objects, representing how education and experience can reveal greater truths. When the prisoner returns to tell the others, they refuse to believe the new information, clinging to their initial limited perceptions. The allegory conveys that people should seek knowledge and truth beyond their initial empirical experiences and be willing to change beliefs in light of new evidence and education.
This document discusses propaganda in media. It defines propaganda as deliberate attempts to manipulate perceptions and behaviors to further an agenda. The document explains that media uses propaganda techniques like plain folks appeal, name-calling, the big lie, and emotional words to shape attitudes. These techniques are used to impress audiences without relying on facts. In summary, the document analyzes common propaganda methods employed by media and how propaganda has become an inherent part of influencing audiences.
The document discusses four normative theories of the press:
1) Authoritarian theory views media as controlled by authorities to strengthen the government through censorship and licensing.
2) Libertarian theory sees people as rational and able to judge information freely without restrictions.
3) Social responsibility theory supports private ownership but with self-regulation and ethical standards to benefit society.
4) Soviet communist theory treats media as owned by the state to spread propaganda and ideology in support of communist rule.
Codes of ethics are meant to guide journalists and ensure truth, accuracy, impartiality and other standards. They help journalists deal with ethical dilemmas and provide accountability. The codes emphasize getting facts right, presenting all sides, maintaining credibility, and correcting errors. Case studies show how codes can be applied, such as protecting sources in the Watergate story or deciding whether to publish a decades-old accusation before an election. Overall, codes are intended to support ethical journalism and avoid issues like paid news or unnecessary religious provocation.
The document provides an overview of various communication models, including linear, transactional, and interactive models. It summarizes several key models, such as Lasswell's model, Aristotle's model, Shannon and Weaver's model, Berlo's SMCR model, Barnlund's transactional model, and Schramm's interactive model. The document is intended as learning material for a session on communication models.
This document discusses types of proposition conversion. Proposition conversion involves interchanging the subject and predicate of an original proposition without changing quantity. There are two main types: simple conversion, where the quantity stays the same, and partial (accidental) conversion, where the quantity changes. Simple conversion can be from universal to universal, particular to particular, or empty to empty propositions. Partial conversion changes the quantity, such as from universal to particular or empty to oblique. Examples are provided to illustrate each type of conversion.
Online multimedia journalism is the process of combining text, images, sound, videos and graphics, to tell an interesting story with the use of the new technologies and internet.
The document discusses the logical fallacy of appeal to force (also known as argumentum ad baculum), where a person is threatened with unpleasant consequences if they do not agree with the proposition. It provides examples of how this fallacy can be used in politics, such as threats of being seen as unpatriotic or allowing further loss of liberties if one does not support a particular policy or candidate. While threats can be persuasive, the appeal to force fallacy is logically unsound because the truth or falsity of the proposition is unrelated to any threats made against those who disagree.
This document discusses aspects of effective oral communication, including voice, posture, gestures, facial expressions, and delivery. It provides details on voice elements like stress, intonation, intensity, quality, and rate. It also explains the importance of good posture, types of gestures, and how facial expressions convey emotions. Maintaining good eye contact and using bodily actions appropriately during speaking is emphasized.
This document summarizes Philippine libel law. It defines libel and slander, outlines who can be held liable and penalties. It discusses why libel is punishable, rules on venue and statutes of limitations. It also covers who can file a libel complaint, essential elements of libel, and available defenses. The key points are that libel involves public imputation that causes dishonor, slander is oral defamation, penalties include fines and imprisonment, and defenses include privileged communication, fair comment, apology and proof of truth.
The document discusses the origins and definitions of propaganda. It began as a term used by the Catholic Church to refer to the dissemination of its doctrines to non-Catholic countries. Propaganda generally refers to attempting to persuade people to accept a point of view or take an action. While propaganda can be rational and for enlightened purposes, it often involves distorting facts or falsifying them. The Nazis skillfully used propaganda to influence public opinion. Modern propaganda is seen more negatively due to its reliance on distorting the truth for self-interested purposes.
Communication is the process of exchanging messages or ideas between people through verbal or non-verbal means. It comes from the Latin word "communicare" meaning to share or unite. There are several key principles of communication:
1. Communication is schema-driven, meaning it relies on a person's prior knowledge and experiences stored in their brain.
2. Communication is interpretive because only the sender fully knows the intended meaning, while the receiver must interpret and infer meaning.
3. Communication does not guarantee a direct link between minds, as the message must be communicated to others in order to be understood.
4. Communication is active and powerful, as messages can have varied effects on participants and are subject
Mass media refers to communication mediums that transmit messages to a large audience, including print, broadcast, and digital media. Print media includes books, newspapers and magazines, which have existed for thousands of years but became more widespread and accessible due to inventions like paper mills, the printing press, and movable type. Broadcast media transmits audio and video messages through radio waves and includes television and radio. Both print and broadcast media serve important functions like informing the public and providing entertainment, though commercialization and advertising are also major aspects, especially for television and radio. Key inventors who helped advance these media include Johannes Gutenberg, who invented the printing press, and Thomas Edison, who developed early technologies for recorded sound and film.
The document discusses the concept of free consent in contracts. It defines key terms like consent, coercion, undue influence, misrepresentation, and fraud.
Free consent is consent that is not caused by coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation, or mistake. Coercion involves threatening unlawful acts, while undue influence involves exploiting power dynamics in relationships.
Misrepresentation involves innocent factual errors, while fraud requires intentionally deceiving the other party. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts. Threats of suicide can amount to coercion. The document compares coercion and undue influence and outlines the requirements for establishing misrepresentation and fraud.
This document provides an overview of utilitarian moral philosophy as developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. It discusses key concepts of utilitarianism like consequentialism, hedonism, and producing the greatest good for the greatest number. It also examines criticisms of utilitarianism and how Mill attempted to address these criticisms through his concept of rule utilitarianism and emphasizing the quality of happiness over just the quantity.
This dissertation analyzes techniques used in British propaganda during World War 1 and compares them to modern PR strategies. It uses content analysis of newspaper articles about the 2014 WWI centenary celebrations and propaganda from 1914-1918. It also performs discourse analysis on WWI propaganda poetry and semiotic analysis of photographs and posters. The study concludes some PR techniques are similar to propaganda but without the intent to coerce. Modern PR involves more public participation and transparency compared to propaganda during WWI which aimed to manipulate public opinion through emotional appeals and deception.
This is a 20 minute presentation devised by myself and one other, which argues that can all Public Relations be seen as Propaganda as well as how can you tell if persuasion is ethical or not. We received 75% for this presentation
This document discusses the role of media in conflict prevention and peace building. It outlines several ways media can function, such as providing information, acting as a watchdog, influencing policymakers, and building bridges between groups. Examples are given of media initiatives that promoted peace in places like Africa. However, challenges also exist like fragile democracies, politics, poverty and ethnic differences that can limit media's impact. The conclusion calls for more collaboration between media and peace building professionals to maximize strategic impact.
This document discusses the debate around investigative journalism, public relations, and their impact on the public sphere. It outlines how investigative journalism is important for democracy but faces pressure due to economic challenges in the media industry. While PR is often blamed, the document argues the problems stem more from commercial pressures that prioritize profits over investigative reporting and the lack of a solid online business model to fund it. Overall, the media industry's structure and lack of solutions, not PR or the internet itself, are responsible for challenges to investigative journalism.
Introduction
The role of international Media in conflict
Hate Media
Social Media and Information Warfare in the Ukraine-Russia War
The role of Media in Constructing a Culture of Peace
The document outlines the course content for a public relations course. It discusses definitions of public relations, the origins and history of the field, research methods, planning, evaluation, international public relations, and fundamentals of public relations writing. Key topics covered include Grunig and Hunt's widely cited definition of public relations as the management of communication between an organization and its publics, the development of public relations in the early 20th century, and the historical background and development of public relations in Africa.
Jo 2003 The Portrayal Of Public Relations In The News MediaAna ADI
This study analyzed over 300 news stories from major newspapers and television networks that contained the term "public relations" between 1998-2001. The study found that public relations was primarily portrayed as image and reputation management (51.8% of stories) and persuasion efforts (25.1% of stories). Additionally, negative connotations of public relations prevailed in the news stories, with image and reputation management being the most common function attributed to public relations. The results suggest journalists perceive public relations as primarily focused on promoting favorable images rather than relationship management.
This document discusses the relationship between media and foreign policy. It defines key terms like foreign policy, mass media, and discusses theories like agenda-setting and framing that explain how media can influence foreign policy. It analyzes three types of relationships between media and foreign policy: manipulative/advocative, adversarial, and indifferent. Manipulative media can promote government agendas while adversarial media may challenge policies. The document also provides examples of how US and Pakistani media have related to foreign policy issues in their countries.
This document discusses the expanding role of public relations in organizational branding and messaging. It proposes that public relations can play an important role in crafting the brand narrative and using social media to facilitate conversations about the brand. As storytelling and social media have become important tools in branding, public relations practitioners are well-suited to these tasks due to their skills in relationship building, authentic communication, and two-way conversations. The integration of public relations into branding strategies can help organizations navigate today's consumer landscape that values transparency and social consciousness.
This document provides an overview of phonetic symbolism in advertising. It begins by acknowledging those who supported the author's research. It then discusses how advertising is ubiquitous in modern society and aims to influence consumer behavior. Advertising affects culture by shaping perceptions of needs, desires, and the American dream. Advertisers strategically appeal to consumers' unconscious desires to manipulate attitudes and behavior. Language used in advertising can also influence culture by promoting concise messages and definitions. Advertising plays an important economic role by creating jobs, investment opportunities, and driving supply and demand.
Disclaimer:
Background pictures and Information doesn't belong to the account holder. The photos are search from google while the information have been cited at a k-12 program book entitled:
MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY (Module 11)
Exclusively published and distributed by
DIWA LEARNING SYSTEM INC
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Author: Boots C. Liquigan
I hope this will help in your learning and activities but please cite the book. Thank you!
This document provides definitions and discussions around public relations. It defines public relations as the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organization and its publics. It discusses the origins of public relations in ancient civilizations using persuasion and propaganda to maintain power. It outlines the significance, need, functions, components, tools, and skills of public relations including establishing relationships, communication, and building understanding between organizations and their stakeholders.
The document defines propaganda as the deliberate attempt to shape perceptions and direct behavior to further an agenda. It discusses how propaganda uses mass media and conceals its sources. Several tactics of propaganda are described, including plain folks, testimonials, bandwagon, card stacking, transference, glittering generalities, and name calling. The document also defines public opinion as the collective views held by citizens on issues, and discusses how mass media and literacy impact public opinion and a government's ability to enact policies.
Public relations involves managing a company's image and reputation through planned communication with the public. It aims to influence opinion and behavior through relationships. The document traces the origins and evolution of the PR industry from individual publicists in the early 1900s to the professionalization of the field. It discusses key figures like Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays and how their work developing media and public outreach techniques shaped the practice of PR. The document also distinguishes PR from publicity and propaganda and outlines some common PR functions.
Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is being presented. Propaganda can be found in news and journalism, government, advertising, entertainment, education, and activism and is often associated with material which is prepared by governments as part of war efforts, political campaigns, health campaigns, revolutionaries, big businesses, ultra-religious organizations, the media, and certain individuals such as soapboxes.
The document discusses propaganda, defining it as a sustained, organized campaign to influence others to accept a decision through techniques like the "big lie". It notes there can be positive propaganda like safety campaigns. Propaganda is described as a deliberate attempt to shape perceptions and direct behavior to further the propagandist's intent. The purpose of propaganda is to influence people's opinions by appealing to emotions. Characteristics include having an ideological bent, being institutional in nature through groups, relying on mass persuasion, and using ethically suspect influence methods. Common propaganda tricks are also outlined.
This document discusses several key concepts related to audiences and media effects:
- Audiences are "imagined communities" constructed by media institutions for profit motives.
- Audiences can be passive, directly influenced by media messages, or active, interpreting messages based on their own contexts.
- New digital technologies have fragmented audiences into niche groups.
- Uses and gratifications theory sees audiences as active in using media to fulfill personal needs.
- Reception theory examines how audiences decode media texts based on their own frameworks and experiences.
The Steadfast and Reliable Bull: Taurus Zodiac Signmy Pandit
Explore the steadfast and reliable nature of the Taurus Zodiac Sign. Discover the personality traits, key dates, and horoscope insights that define the determined and practical Taurus, and learn how their grounded nature makes them the anchor of the zodiac.
How MJ Global Leads the Packaging Industry.pdfMJ Global
MJ Global's success in staying ahead of the curve in the packaging industry is a testament to its dedication to innovation, sustainability, and customer-centricity. By embracing technological advancements, leading in eco-friendly solutions, collaborating with industry leaders, and adapting to evolving consumer preferences, MJ Global continues to set new standards in the packaging sector.
Brian Fitzsimmons on the Business Strategy and Content Flywheel of Barstool S...Neil Horowitz
On episode 272 of the Digital and Social Media Sports Podcast, Neil chatted with Brian Fitzsimmons, Director of Licensing and Business Development for Barstool Sports.
What follows is a collection of snippets from the podcast. To hear the full interview and more, check out the podcast on all podcast platforms and at www.dsmsports.net
𝐔𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐢𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐅𝐮𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐍𝐄𝐖𝐍𝐓𝐈𝐃𝐄’𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐎𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬
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Persuasion and ethics
1. Can persuasive communication be defended on ethical grounds and how is it
different from propaganda?
Introduction
Persuasion is a process of communication designed to influence the judgements and
actions of others. Most PR academics agree it is the goal of the vast majority of
public relations programmes and hence forms its dominant practice. The art of
communication is central to the function of PR: “Stripped to its fundamentals, public
relations means communicating with others” (Tymson and Sherman, 1996, cited in
Reddi, 2002, p19). Moloney (2000) expands on this view: “…PR people use processes
of persuasion, compromise, bargaining and negotiation in search of compliance and
problem solving” (p.55). While persuasive communication often co‐habits with
propaganda and its implied connotations, a pivotal element of ethical persuasion is
truthfulness; where truthfulness requires intention and action that does not mislead,
misinform or deceive. Messina (2007) defined ethical persuasion as: “An attempt
through communication to influence knowledge, attitude or behaviour of an
audience through presentation of a view that addresses and allows the audience to
make voluntary, informed, rational and reflective judgments” (p.33). From the CIPR’s
definition of ‘understanding’ in its glossary, it is clear there are historic links between
PR practice and propaganda: “Understanding is a two‐way process and to be
effective, an organisation needs to listen to the opinions of those with whom it deals
and not solely provide information. Issuing a barrage of propaganda is not enough in
today's open society.” Miller’s (1989) definition of public relations further highlights
the overlap between PR and propaganda as a process that attempts to manage
symbolic control over the environment, observing that: “Effective persuasion and
effective public relations are virtually synonymous” (p. 368). However,
contemporary PR practice has sought to distance itself from propaganda as it has
become increasingly discredited as unethical. This is a view echoed by Weaver et. al.
(2006) who observed that as PR practitioners seek to distance themselves from
propaganda tactics, especially because they have been discredited as manipulative,
new models of ethical persuasion have been developed. Free will to engage in
2. debate and discourse is fundamentally what separates persuasive communication
and the negative connotations of propaganda. This essay analyses the relationship
of persuasive communication as an essential element of public relations practice.
The discussion highlights the challenges facing practitioners to operate ethically on
behalf of their organization, while simultaneously acting in the public interest to
minimise dissonance. The essay argues for the need to understand the distinctions
between persuasive communication and propaganda in order to implement
persuasive tactics in an ethical manner.
3. Propaganda as Persuasion
Jowett and O’Donnell (1999) focused their definition on the unneutrality of
propaganda as a communication process: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic
attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behaviour to
achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.” (p. 6). The
idea that public opinion could be managed and PR was an instrument of social
control started in America shortly after the first world war; shifting from largely a
public information to a purely press agentry model of communication. European
business leaders and governments of the 1920s believed the publics’ emotions
provided levers of influence that mere facts could never match (Ewen, 1996). As a
strategic form of communication, propaganda is a technique that attempts to
intentionally influence or manipulate a group of publics through language and
imagery whilst maintaining an advantageous position. Propaganda as a sub‐category
of persuasion has a shared heritage with public relations and has contributed both to
the development of communications practice as well as the reputation and public
perception of PR today. Nazi Reichsmarshall and propagandist, Herman Goering in
an interview stated: “…it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and
it is always a simple matter to drag the people along…that is easy.” (Rampton and
Stauer, 2003, p.137). This unsettling view is one that has become the dominant
understanding of how propaganda works, why it attracts mistrust and why PR
practitioners seek to distance themselves from the activity. The public relations
industry continues to face the challenge of low public opinion due to its close
associations with propaganda and spin.
However since the end of the Second World War, propaganda has moved away from
being the preserve of the political classes. As a persuasive tool it is used in promoting
consumer products including cars and beer. It does so through advertising, by
bypassing rational thought, manipulating individuals on a more emotional and
symbolic level. For example, during the Desert Storm conflict in 1991, the American
population experienced heightened fears about their general safety and security.
Taking advantage of this insecurity the Hummer sport‐utility vehicle was launched
4. with their anxiety in mind. Civilians wanted more more robust, secure and aggressive
cars (Rampton and Stauer, 2003). This is a classic example of where persuasive
techniques were employed in the traditions of propaganda, in other words the
American public were persuaded that buying this car would allay their fears and
increase personal safety levels. These claims were later proved completely
unfounded as the vehicles actually caused many traffic related fatalities. The
Hummer had in fact been originally designed for military use.
Rampton and Stauer (2003) contend that there is a distinct difference between
propaganda and persuasive communication. Arguing that a propagandist’s view of
communication is a set of techniques for indoctrinating a ‘target audience’, whereas
the democratic concept of communications is an ongoing process of dialogue among
diverse voices (p.134). This suggests the propagandist does not regard the
audiences’ well‐being as a primary concern, assuming that audiences are extremely
passive and possess very little intelligence to participate in discourse. At the heart of
every propagandist is self‐interest. Their aim is to promote the concerns of the
organisation at the expense of the recipient. Jowett and O’Donnell (1999) expands
on this view: “People in the audience may think the propagandist has their interest
at heart, but in fact, the propagandist’s motives are selfish ones” (p.9). Indeed
Jowett and O’Donnell’s definition has some similarities with the CIPR official
definition of public relations which stresses the need for a ‘planned and sustained’
effort to achieve organisational objectives while ‘influencing opinion and behaviour’
as opposed to Jowett and O’Donells ‘deliberate and systemic’ attempts to
‘manipulate cognition, and direct behaviour’. Whilst it might seem desirable to place
the two concepts, persuasion and propaganda at polar opposites, there is in fact an
overlap; a concept endorsed by Heath (2005): “Because there may sometimes be a
fine line between persuasion and propaganda, public relations practitioners must
understand the differences and implement persuasive tactics in an ethical manner”
(p.615). The 2005 Think Road Safety Campaign by the UK Department of Transport
used fear as an emotional leverage and as a means to persuade. The inherent
difference between black and white propaganda models is the acknowledgement of
the source and its accuracy. Although the Think Campaign manipulates the media to
5. gain publicity for its cause, it is acting ethically since it does so for the greater public
good; even while employing a one‐way public information communication model.
This strong emotional response to visual stimuli has also been used effectively by
charity fundraisers to illicit immediate responses from potential donors. Most
recently it has been used by the 2010 Digital Death Campaign for Keep a Child Alive
which showed hard hitting images of dead celebrities to raise funds to fight HIV/AIDS
in Africa and India – eliciting a response from Twitter and Facebook, for fans to
donate up to $5000 to buy their lives back. Although this campaign makes use of
propaganda techniques, it cannot be assessed as unethical, especially since there is a
discernable social benefit. A view echoed by Jowett and O’Donnell: “When the
information is used to accomplish a purpose of sharing, explaining or instructing, this
is considered to be informative communication.” (pp.25‐26). This power to influence
society means that the profession of public relations holds an enormous
responsibility to be ethical. A view endorsed by Harlow (1976) who observed that
the public relations professional: “…define and emphasises the responsibility of
management to serve the public interest…and uses research and ethical
communication techniques as its principal tools” (cited in Tench and Yeomans, 2006,
p.4).
6. Ethical Persuasion and Public Interest
The UK Department of Health has enacted this concept with various persuasive
communication campaigns aiming to affect and change society’s attitudes and
behaviour. Most notably in recent years they have included anti‐smoking, drinking,
and obesity and cancer screening campaigns. Health Secretary, Andrew Lansley
(2010) in discussing the Healthy Lifestyle role ‘for all society’ stated the campaign
aims were: “to improve the health of the nation and to improve the health of the
poorest fastest." This involved numerous complex messages to a diverse range of
publics, aiming to persuade and affect changes in behaviour. Modern PR academics
have provided the structures and tools necessary to communicate persuasive
messages with ethical consideration. The Westley and Maclean model of
communication (1977) facilitates ethical persuasion by a process of advocacy, using
various channels including feedback, to affect behaviour. A process by which Lansley
says is achievable by ‘nudging’ rather than ‘nannying’. Persuasion was achieved by
the encoding and dissemination of scientific facts with feedback an intrinsic element
of the campaigns design and the evaluation of attitudes are considered and included
in the planning stage and throughout the programme’s lifespan (Grunig, 2001). This
agenda and its objective can be defended on ethical grounds since the required
behavioural change is for the benefit of the campaigns’ publics. PR academics have
argued that persuasion is considered unethical only when an organisation
deliberately lies, distorts the facts or attempts to deceive its publics to mask its
intentions. However many critics have argued that persuasion can never be
considered on a sound ethical basis because the true end is not public welfare but
rather organisational profit (Curtin and Boynton, 2000). However, while many PR
academics would agree that the role of the public interest is central to ethical PR
practice and by inference ethical persuasion, very little guidance by way of literature
exists to inform PR practitioners how to determine what is in the public interest. It is
clear that by acting on behalf of an organisation, it is likely that a PR practitioner
would be acting in the private interest of their client rather than in the public
interest. Hence without a viable definition of the public interest, it becomes difficult
if not impossible to expect PR practitioners’ compliance. How common or universal
7. must an interest be before it is in the public interest? (Messina, 2007). For example,
medical opinion on the benefits of consuming pre and pro‐biotic products (which
boost levels of certain bacteria in the gut) is widely split. While some doctors claim
they bring great health benefits to consumers’ immune systems, others believe
there is no clear evidence to back this up. However, the UK is awash with these food
products, which claim through advertising, to make consumers’ health better.
8. Boundary Spanning and Rhetorical Persuasion
The role of boundary spanner is central to a PR practitioner’s activity and explains
how the practitioner interacts with the organisation’s environment. This concept of
the ethical guardian acting for the good of the organisation and its publics has
formed much of the valued function of modern PR today, with the practitioner
acting as a boundary spanner, gathering information from the internal and external
environments, assessing the impact of organisational actions upon its publics, and
recommending the ethical course of action based on supporting organisational
objectives, whilst minimising dissonance. This role enacts the two‐way symmetric
model of systems theory, since a vital component is feedback where compromise on
both the organisations’ and publics’ view is achieved. An approach supported by
Fawkes (2007) who reiterates Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) view: “In the two‐way
symmetric model practitioners serve as mediators between organisations and their
publics. Their goal is mutual understanding” (p. 316). As a boundary spanner, the PR
practitioner’s role is considered only truly ethical when it is symmetrical. However, it
is difficult, if not impossible, to practice public relations in that way with the
everyday realities of running a PR department.
Rhetoric and persuasion are historically linked. Rooted in the culture of ancient
Greece, it has influenced the way all forms of human discourse were analysed,
appraised and critiqued. Aristotle (a champion of rhetoric) formulated a theory that
today is still regarded as an invaluable tool for assisting the art of persuasion and the
function of PR. To demonstrate this, he outlined four means of persuasion:
• Ethos ‐ achieved by establishing credibility, the speaker must posses
character, integrity and be knowledgeable in their subject.
• Pathos ‐ appeals to an audience’s emotions in order to persuade.
• Logos ‐ logic as a means to persuade; logical arguments are built from
statements of evidence that lead to a sound conclusion.
• Kairos ‐ fitness or timeliness, appropriateness of the message tone.
10. A Case for Professionalisation
A key element of persuasion is that information must be based on truth, a value also
embraced by the CIPR in its formalized professional codes of conduct. Contained
within it are references to integrity, honesty, competence, confidentiality,
transparency, conflicts of interest and conforming to accepted business practice and
ethics. These codes of conduct provide a framework that directs PR professionals to
their duty to observe common standards of behaviour and conduct (Cook, 1988,
Pearson, 1989). Sharpe (1990) suggests that the ethical goal for public relations
practitioners consists of five professional responsibilities (Black, 1994, Blumenthal,
1972):
• Honest communication to obtain organisational credibility.
• Being open and consistent to gain public confidence.
• Fairness in action to ensure fair treatment is received in return.
• Maintaining continuous communication so that mutual understanding and
respect is achieved.
• Accurate research of the social environment with a willingness to change
when actions no longer serves the public interest.
Codifying public relations activity provides a point of reference or yardstick by which
practitioners can operate professionally while reinforcing ethical expectations. In the
2001 UK Population Census, 48,000 respondents identified themselves as being
employed in public relations and yet the CIPR only has a modest 9,500 members.
Moreover, in a survey conducted for this paper within a global PR company; out of
220 staff, only one was an accredited member of an official industry association
(Whiteside, 2010). Taking a critical perspective L’Etang (2008) expands on this view,
arguing that the practice of public relations is ‘ethically challenged’ because it is
unregulated, seeks to influence attitudes, opinions and decision‐making. Without
wider accreditation and ability to control entry into the PR industry it is difficult to
ensure ethical accountability.
11. Conclusion
PR is indeed a form of persuasive communication. However the difference between
persuasive communication and propaganda is the intent of the person who creates
the message. Both communicative processes seek symbolic control over
environments. However the hostility that exists between the two communications
processes lies with its manipulative aim (Molonely, 2000). A view echoed by Jowett
and O’Donnell (1999) in suggesting propaganda is distinguished by its purpose; to
benefit the propagandist. The inference is that an ethical communicator who avoids
propaganda must avoid communication, the sole or main intent of which is to
manipulate the behaviour of others to benefit the communicator’s cause. This essay
has demonstrated that persuasion can be but is by no means necessarily
propaganda. Nor is it necessarily ethical or unethical since this should be assessed in
relation to the context in which it is being practiced. The main determinant of
persuasive communication as ethical PR practice is in meeting the public interest.
However, the concept of the public interest has been found to be elusive as there is
no universal definition of what that entails; thus it is incapable of guiding the
everyday reality of persuasion in PR practice.
Word Count: 2750
12. Bibliography and References
Curtin, P. and Boynton, L. (2001) Heath, R. Ethics in Public Relations. Cited in
Handbook of Public Relations. London. Sage.
Ewen, S. (1996) PR!: A Social History of Spin. 1st ed. New York. Perseus Books Group.
Fawkes, J. (2007) Public Relations Models and Persuasion Ethics: a new approach.
Cited in Journal of Communication Management. Vol. 11 No. 4. Emerald Group.
Harlow, R. F. (1976) Building a Definition of Public Relations. Cited in Tench, R. and
Yeomans, L. (2006) Exploring Public Relations. 1st ed. Harlow. Pearson Education.
Heath, R. (2005) Encyclopedia of Public Relations. London. Sage Publications.
Grunig, J. and Hunt, T. (1984), Managing Public Relations. New York. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Jowett, G. and O’Donnell, V. (1999) Propaganda and Persuasion. 3rd ed. London.
Sage.
Lansley, A. (2010) Ed. Triggle, N. in Healthy lifestyle role ‘for all society’. [Online]
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health‐11866031. [Accessed 11 Dec 2010].
Messina, A. (2007) Public relations the public interest and persuasion: an ethical
approach. Cited in Journal of Communication Management. Vol. 11 No. 1. Emerald
Group.
Miller, G. (1989) Public Relations and Persuasion. Cited in L’Etang, J and Pieczka, M.
(2006) Public Relations: critical debates and contemporary practice. New Jersey.
Lawrence Earlbaum.
13. Moloney, K.(2006) Rethinking Public Relations: The Spin and the Substance. 2nd ed.
London. Routledge.
Rampton, S. and Stauber, J. (2003) Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of
Propaganda in Bush’s War on Iraq. London. Constable & Robinson Ltd.
Smith, M. and Ferguson, D. (2001) Heath, R. Ethics in Public Relations. Cited in
Handbook of Public Relations. London. Sage.
Tench, R. and Yeomans, L. (2006) Exploring Public Relations. 1st ed. Harlow. Pearson
Education.
Tymson, C and Sherman, B. (1996) In Reddi, C. Ed. Public Relations and
Communication. 1st ed. 2002. India, CVN PR Foundation Press.
Whiteside, A. (2010) Personal Communications. PRCo, London. 14th December 2010.
A Whiteside is a Manager of Digital PR for PRCo.