This document discusses rural tourism in Iran. It outlines the benefits of rural tourism such as employment opportunities and poverty alleviation. However, it also discusses barriers like lack of infrastructure and lack of community participation. Rural tours organized by travel agencies are described, focusing on experiences with handicrafts, agriculture and nomadic tribes like the Qashqai. The impacts of political events like the 2009 election protests on rural tourism are also examined.
Concept note for societies involvment in tourismhosting guests
Rural tourism development through cooperatives in Iran faces barriers. This document analyzes rural tourism potential in Iran and how rural cooperatives could help develop rural tourism by empowering individuals and communities. However, rural cooperatives in Iran currently have limited abilities and the government does not prioritize rural tourism development. Barriers to rural tourism through cooperatives include a lack of education, policy research, and advocacy for linking cooperatives to tourism opportunities.
This document summarizes an article from the African Human Mobility Review about upholding refugee rights in the context of the cessation clause. The key points are:
1. The cessation clause in the 1951 Refugee Convention allows for refugee status to be revoked if the circumstances causing a person to flee their home country no longer exist. However, applying this clause risks infringing on refugees' human rights.
2. Examining the controversial application of the cessation clause to Rwandan refugees shows how it led to rights violations by forcing repatriation. It also highlights the problem of prioritizing institutional perspectives over refugees' own knowledge and experiences.
3. There are debates around how to interpret
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the third issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created in 2015 to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
Tourism plays an important economic role globally and domestically. Internationally, tourism accounted for 6.1% of global GDP and 6.8% of global employment in 1994. Domestically, countries are increasingly promoting domestic tourism to stimulate local economies. Different types of tourism include medical tourism, shopping tourism, business tourism, religious tourism, and entertainment tourism. Each type can provide economic benefits such as increased employment, foreign exchange earnings, and business opportunities. However, rapid tourism growth has also led to some negative social, cultural, and environmental impacts. Overall, tourism is considered an important industry that contributes significantly to economic development through job creation, diversification of economies, and stimulation of other interconnected industries.
Neo-colonialism is the worst form of imperialism: the colon exploits, but takes its share of responsibility towards the colonized (Nkrumah, 1973).
Men have travelled for millennia. However, the concept of tourism only emerged in the 18th century in England, because of changes in mores and values in the context of the industrial revolution. Little by little, by the institutionalization of the free time in our societies, tourism, as a hobby, became common practice. In addition to this appropriation of the time, the phenomenon of globalization and the modernization have also shaped the evolution of tourism. Now, it is ' qualified by a certain mass and became an industry '.
Despite this evolution of travel, tourism remains impregnated a vertical migration trend North-South. This leads us to think about the hidden agenda behind this ideology. Can we see in this context the reproduction of a neo speech? It is true that the concepts of exoticism and authenticity, to spawn a still more borrowed path in the tourism field.
A Study of the Factors Influencing Cultural Tourists’ Perception and Its Meas...laxmi2804
The major growth of the Indian tourism sector is contributed by domestic tourism
which tends to be more focused on cultural destinations. Travel and tourism for fun,
pleasure and recreation is still considered an elite ‘five star’ activity by a majority of
the Indians. At the same time, travel and tourism for cultural purposes forms an integral
part of the Indian population, where people from all ages, religions and income groups
often manage time and resources for cultural tourism. Tourism has a huge potential for
poverty alleviation by increasing job opportunities and spending by tourists. Most
important from India's point of view is the fact that these employment opportunities
are created in the small and medium segments of the economy and disperse throughout
the country. When people of a country visit such sites and experience their culture, they
understand ‘who they are and where they have come from’ (Palmer, 1999). Since viewing
of such sites by domestic tourists offers glimpses of a nation's past, their promotion
becomes vital in the construction of national identity (Johnson, 1995). The
measurement of perception of tourists and thereby identifying gaps in the current
service-good composition and customizing pro-tourist product mix, becomes crucially
important for all the stakeholders of the tourism industry. This paper primarily studies
those crucial factors which have a direct impact on the perception of tourists in the
heritage city of Agra.
South Africa is a rainbow nation composed of various racial groups from all facets of the earth. Nevertheless,
xenophobia has become a major issue of social debate in South Africa and abroad. This is due to the most recent
April 2015 xenophobic attacks on foreigners, especially African immigrant entrepreneurs residing in South
Africa. This study explored on xenophobia as a serious challenge hampering African immigrant entrepreneurs in
Johannesburg, South Africa. In this study literature on immigrant entrepreneurs, immigrant entrepreneurship,
ubuntu and xenophobia was reviewed. An exploratory, qualitative approach was adopted using semi-structured
in-depth interviews and focus groups.
Concept note for societies involvment in tourismhosting guests
Rural tourism development through cooperatives in Iran faces barriers. This document analyzes rural tourism potential in Iran and how rural cooperatives could help develop rural tourism by empowering individuals and communities. However, rural cooperatives in Iran currently have limited abilities and the government does not prioritize rural tourism development. Barriers to rural tourism through cooperatives include a lack of education, policy research, and advocacy for linking cooperatives to tourism opportunities.
This document summarizes an article from the African Human Mobility Review about upholding refugee rights in the context of the cessation clause. The key points are:
1. The cessation clause in the 1951 Refugee Convention allows for refugee status to be revoked if the circumstances causing a person to flee their home country no longer exist. However, applying this clause risks infringing on refugees' human rights.
2. Examining the controversial application of the cessation clause to Rwandan refugees shows how it led to rights violations by forcing repatriation. It also highlights the problem of prioritizing institutional perspectives over refugees' own knowledge and experiences.
3. There are debates around how to interpret
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the third issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created in 2015 to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa
AHMR is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of all aspects (socio-economic, political, legislative and developmental) of Human Mobility in Africa. Through the publication of original research, policy discussions and evidence research papers AHMR provides a comprehensive forum devoted exclusively to the analysis of contemporaneous trends, migration patterns and some of the most important migration-related issues.
Tourism plays an important economic role globally and domestically. Internationally, tourism accounted for 6.1% of global GDP and 6.8% of global employment in 1994. Domestically, countries are increasingly promoting domestic tourism to stimulate local economies. Different types of tourism include medical tourism, shopping tourism, business tourism, religious tourism, and entertainment tourism. Each type can provide economic benefits such as increased employment, foreign exchange earnings, and business opportunities. However, rapid tourism growth has also led to some negative social, cultural, and environmental impacts. Overall, tourism is considered an important industry that contributes significantly to economic development through job creation, diversification of economies, and stimulation of other interconnected industries.
Neo-colonialism is the worst form of imperialism: the colon exploits, but takes its share of responsibility towards the colonized (Nkrumah, 1973).
Men have travelled for millennia. However, the concept of tourism only emerged in the 18th century in England, because of changes in mores and values in the context of the industrial revolution. Little by little, by the institutionalization of the free time in our societies, tourism, as a hobby, became common practice. In addition to this appropriation of the time, the phenomenon of globalization and the modernization have also shaped the evolution of tourism. Now, it is ' qualified by a certain mass and became an industry '.
Despite this evolution of travel, tourism remains impregnated a vertical migration trend North-South. This leads us to think about the hidden agenda behind this ideology. Can we see in this context the reproduction of a neo speech? It is true that the concepts of exoticism and authenticity, to spawn a still more borrowed path in the tourism field.
A Study of the Factors Influencing Cultural Tourists’ Perception and Its Meas...laxmi2804
The major growth of the Indian tourism sector is contributed by domestic tourism
which tends to be more focused on cultural destinations. Travel and tourism for fun,
pleasure and recreation is still considered an elite ‘five star’ activity by a majority of
the Indians. At the same time, travel and tourism for cultural purposes forms an integral
part of the Indian population, where people from all ages, religions and income groups
often manage time and resources for cultural tourism. Tourism has a huge potential for
poverty alleviation by increasing job opportunities and spending by tourists. Most
important from India's point of view is the fact that these employment opportunities
are created in the small and medium segments of the economy and disperse throughout
the country. When people of a country visit such sites and experience their culture, they
understand ‘who they are and where they have come from’ (Palmer, 1999). Since viewing
of such sites by domestic tourists offers glimpses of a nation's past, their promotion
becomes vital in the construction of national identity (Johnson, 1995). The
measurement of perception of tourists and thereby identifying gaps in the current
service-good composition and customizing pro-tourist product mix, becomes crucially
important for all the stakeholders of the tourism industry. This paper primarily studies
those crucial factors which have a direct impact on the perception of tourists in the
heritage city of Agra.
South Africa is a rainbow nation composed of various racial groups from all facets of the earth. Nevertheless,
xenophobia has become a major issue of social debate in South Africa and abroad. This is due to the most recent
April 2015 xenophobic attacks on foreigners, especially African immigrant entrepreneurs residing in South
Africa. This study explored on xenophobia as a serious challenge hampering African immigrant entrepreneurs in
Johannesburg, South Africa. In this study literature on immigrant entrepreneurs, immigrant entrepreneurship,
ubuntu and xenophobia was reviewed. An exploratory, qualitative approach was adopted using semi-structured
in-depth interviews and focus groups.
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the first 2016 issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa. In this issue articles on:
1. Xenophobia, Price Competition and Violence in the Spaza Sector in South Africa
2. Angolan refugees in South Africa: alternatives to permanent repatriation?
3.Francophone transnational students, social exclusion and the challenges of adaptation at a South African University of Technology
4.Occupational Change among Nigerian Immigrants living in the Netherlands
5.No Future for our Children: Challenges faced by foreign minors living in South Africa
Effect of Tourism on Economic Wellbeing of Host Communities in Cross River St...ijtsrd
This study examined the effect of tourism on economic wellbeing of host communities in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study modelled the effect of service, product, hotels, transportation and infrastructural facilities on economic well being of host communities in Cross River State. It is a descriptive survey on a sample of 400 respondents from the host communities. Data obtained for the study were analyzed using percentages, mean, standard deviation and regression analysis. From the result of the regression model it was observed that product, service and infrastructure have positive impact on the on the economic well being of the host communities. This means that if product, service and infrastructure are developed and improved, it will bring about more increase in the economic well being of the host communities. On the other hand, hotels and transportation have a negative impact on the economic wellbeing of the host communities. Thus, increase in hotels and transportation cost will bring about a decline in the economic wellbeing of the host communities. The overall significance of the model also supports the alternate hypothesis that the model has goodness of fit and is statistically significant. In other words, tourism consumption has significant impact on the economic wellbeing of the host communities. Based on the analysis and findings of the study the following recommendations are made Since tourism consumption has become imperative for economies to thrive successfully, it is imperative that government should develop and as well as regulate operators in the tourism destination to step up the quality of product, service and infrastructure provided in the tourist destination. This is because they have been found to have positive impact on the on the economic well being of the host communities. The government should also come up with policy instruments containing measures that will effectively' monitor and evaluate the operations of tourism destinations. This is necessary as this research manifest the fact that hotels and transportation cost negatively affects the host communities. In other words it will bring about a decline in the economic wellbeing of the host communities if not regulated. Anionwu, Carol "Effect of Tourism on Economic Wellbeing of Host Communities in Cross River State, Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25295.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/business-economics/25295/effect-of-tourism-on-economic-wellbeing-of-host-communities-in-cross-river-state-nigeria/anionwu-carol
This document summarizes the special issue of the African Human Mobility Review focused on migration in West Africa. It provides an introduction to the topics covered in the issue's research papers. The introduction discusses key trends in intra-regional and international migration patterns in West Africa. It notes that while much migration from the region is to destinations within West Africa, there are also significant flows to Europe and more recently Asia. The introduction provides context on the ECOWAS free movement protocol and its role in facilitating intra-regional mobility. It previews the five research papers in the issue, which examine challenges in implementing the ECOWAS protocol, experiences of migrants during the 2011 Libyan crisis, Ghanaian traders' networks in China, cultural ties
Demography is the most important external factor that will shape the future of tourism. In many developed nations this discussion has centred on the rapidly ageing populations and the impact of this phenomena. Governments and populations are facing changes whether it is increased cost of government pensions, the growth of health care costs, the impact of population growth in cities or the emergence of new family and household structures due to delayed family formulation, declining birth rates and growing divorce rates. The direction and composition of demographic trends will significantly shape the future of society and tourism. But it is not all doom and gloom, for the tourism industry, there is massive opportunity as we enter an era of ageless society where age is undefined. Drawing material from 'Tourism and Demography' a new book by Yeoman et al, Drs Yeoman and Smith address the contribution of the book to the literature on tourism and demography through a series of cognitive maps.
An analysis of coffee stains militating sustainable tourism development in af...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes factors hindering sustainable tourism development in Africa. While Africa has many natural and artificial tourist attractions, tourism traffic to the region is low. The study found this is due to an unfavorable tourism environment in Africa characterized by political instability, negative perceptions, poor access, and diseases. These issues have depressed tourism activity. To realize Africa's potential, the study recommends implementing a universal visa regime, revising tourism pricing, enhancing air access, and financially supporting national tourism bodies.
Poverty alleviation and sustainable tourismAMALDASKH
Poverty alleviation through sustainable tourism can play an important role in developing countries. Tourism accounts for a large portion of GDP and jobs in many developing nations. It has comparative advantages over other industries by attracting visitors to rural areas with cultural/natural attractions. As a labor-intensive industry, tourism provides employment for women, youth and small businesses. Developing countries have seen rising tourist arrivals. Sustainable tourism prioritizes environmental/social impacts and channels revenues to conservation and local communities, helping reduce poverty.
A perspective on tourism and new media from central america höckertTurizem
This document discusses tourism development in Nicaragua from the perspective of rural communities. It begins with quotes highlighting the importance of local well-being over tourism industry profits. It then outlines a case study of community-based tourism in San Ramón, Nicaragua, describing an imaginary visit that highlights both benefits and challenges, such as dependency on loans. The document advocates for responsible representation of rural communities in new media and discusses how new media could help promote rural tourism development that benefits locals.
The document discusses urbanization and rural-urban migration in the Philippines. It defines urbanization as the increase in urban population of an area. Rural-urban migration is driven by factors like poverty, lack of opportunities, and inadequate infrastructure in rural areas. This migration places strain on urban housing and resources. The document also outlines the types, causes, impacts and recommendations regarding rural-urban migration in the Philippines.
This document is an introduction to a collection of papers on decentralization and urban development in West Africa. It provides context on urbanization trends in Africa, noting that West Africa in particular is urbanizing rapidly, with over half the population expected to live in cities between 2015-2020. Though urban growth has occurred, economic growth has not always kept pace. The introduction argues that while decentralization has been discussed in Africa for some time, its implications for urban policy and governance have been underexplored topics in both academic and practical terms. The collection aims to further understanding in this area.
This document discusses the trend of sustainable tourism. It describes how unsustainable tourism can negatively impact the environment, local societies and cultures, and economies through issues like resource depletion, cultural commodification, and economic leakages. It outlines how stakeholders are increasingly demanding more sustainable practices. Major organizations are now facilitating policies and frameworks to encourage sustainability. The trend evolved from past development theories and is gaining momentum as studies demonstrate tourism's large negative impacts without sustainability. Consumers and businesses are also increasingly adopting sustainable practices in response to growing awareness and demands.
Political instability can significantly impact tourism. The document discusses how war, coups, terrorism and civil unrest can negatively influence tourists' perception of risk at a destination through media coverage. This leads to decreases in tourist arrivals, revenues, and related economic benefits. Examples from countries like China, Fiji, Mexico, Yugoslavia, the Middle East, and North/South Korea demonstrate tourism declines caused by these political events. The conclusion calls for tourism education to incorporate more discussion of international politics and its effects.
‘Athithi Kab Jaonge...Nahi Nahi Atithi Kab Aaonge...Aate Raho Kyoki Hum Us De...scmsnoida5
One of the oldest civilization of the world, one of
the greatest nation of the world, one of the greatest
democracy and obviously no need to speak about
the population. This great nation INDIA has
everything. We have every possible resource but
the one that we are blessed with is ‘MOTHER
NATURE’. A nation that has mountains and
oceans, deserts and monuments, heritage sites
and culture- All ingredients of a pure recipe that
makes up for a great tourism nation. Tourism
will not only build ‘BRAND INDIA’ but it will
create enormous employment opportunity for the
youth of India.
Engendering sustainable socio-spatial environment for tourism activities in t...ijceronline
The document summarizes a study that assessed the potential for knitting together the five states of South-Eastern Nigeria into a unified tourist destination of international significance. It identifies various tourism potentials across the region and evaluates the accessibility between state capitals. The study recommends adopting an Environmental Planning and Management process involving zonal, state, and local forums to coordinate development efforts and achieve a sustainable tourism environment across the region through public-private collaboration. This participatory approach aims to improve infrastructure like roads, airports, utilities and encourage private investment in tourism facilities.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in tourism. It defines tourism as activities, services, and industries that deliver travel experiences, including transportation, accommodations, food and drink, retail, and hospitality. Tourism is defined by several academic sources as the movement and activities of people outside their normal environment for business or leisure. Key factors that enable tourism include attractions, culture, natural resources, facilities, infrastructure, transportation and the motivation and ability of tourists to travel in terms of time and money.
The issue of media representation of immigrants is particularly pertinent today, given the current anti-immigrant sentiment in parts of Europe and the United States. In South Africa, negative attitudes towards foreigners are common and media discursive descriptions of immigrants as illegal, undocumented or a dangerous threat is typical. This study utilises quantitative tools of analysis to explore the media coverage of immigration adopting the RASIM Corpus Linguistics (CL) approach. The rubric – REFUGEE, ASYLUM-SEEKER, IMMIGRANT, MIGRANT is adjusted to RASFIM – REFUGEE, ASYLUM-SEEKER, FOREIGNER, IMMIGRANT, MIGRANT – to more appropriately account for the the specific nuances of representations of immigrants in the South African media. The data, comprising of over 5,000 relevant media articles, was drawn in annual tranches for the period 2011-2015. Our findings identify significant patterns that are consistent with extant literature on media constructions of foreigners as “illegal immigrants.” Other findings relating to “shop” and “trade” references offer evidence of the complex and at times contradictory nature of public discourses on immigration. Media narratives go as far as to suggest that foreign- owned shops are fronts to conceal “drug-dealing” and other “illicit activities.”
Ahmr vol 1 no 3 (september december 2015- Special Issue )Sergio Carciotto
This document discusses two violent xenophobic episodes that occurred in South Africa in 2008 and 2015. There is debate around whether these episodes should truly be considered xenophobic. The article compares the two events, noting both similarities and differences. It suggests that an insightful interpretation is that the violence stemmed not from deeply entrenched xenophobic attitudes, but rather from unmet social and economic expectations among South Africa's urban working class and underclass. Preventing future violence may require addressing feelings of relative deprivation and entitlement.
1) This document contains queries from editors regarding an article submitted to the Journal of Heritage Tourism. The editors note inconsistencies between in-text citations and the reference list, as well as missing references.
2) The article itself examines the impact of World Heritage List status on international visitors to Huangshan, Xidi and Hongcun in China. It categorizes visitors based on their awareness of the sites' World Heritage designations and compares the two groups.
3) Preliminary results suggest World Heritage List status can influence travel decisions and is related to visitors' purposes, activities, and socio-demographic characteristics. However, marketers should emphasize sites' cultural elements to increase the status's influence.
This document provides an overview of tourism, discussing different types of tourist destinations and factors that affect tourism. It describes how tourist destinations can be places of scenic beauty, culture, or conflict. It also discusses the roles of governments, media, international organizations, and travel writers in promoting tourism. Some key points covered include how tourism is changing with the rise of niche tourism like ecotourism and medical tourism. It also examines reasons for the growth of global tourism like advances in technology and increasing disposable income. In addition, it outlines economic impacts of tourism such as job creation and foreign exchange earnings, as well as potential disadvantages like seasonal unemployment and leakage of tourism receipts.
The document provides an overview of tourism and the tourism industry in Mexico. It discusses the history and development of tourism in three stages in Mexico from the 1920s to present day. It also defines different types of tourism, including international and domestic tourism, and describes various forms that tourism can take such as adventure, cultural, ecotourism, religious tourism, and more.
This study compares tourism management in Bhutan and Peru by examining their approaches to tourism, current management practices, and level of host community involvement. The researcher conducted a literature review on tourism impacts and management strategies. They then used a guide to collect qualitative data on Bhutan and Peru from various tourism organization websites. The goal was to analyze the different approaches each country takes and how it impacts sustainability.
Community development and tourism a socio-economic analysis of tourism impac...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of tourism on community development in Bauchi, Nigeria. The study found that tourism-related businesses dominate the local economy in Bauchi, with people from all social classes participating in tourism activities. The community's active involvement helps develop and sustain tourism in the area. Tourism contributes to community development by generating income and jobs for local residents through small businesses and industries related to the tourism sector.
This document discusses sustainable community development in Africa through disaster risk reduction in the tourism industry, using Nigeria as a case study. It defines key concepts like tourism, disasters, and disaster risk management. Tourism is seen as having great potential to reduce poverty in Africa due to its labor intensive nature and ability to create jobs in rural areas. However, concerns over safety from natural and human-caused hazards that cause disasters limit tourism growth. Effective disaster risk management can increase tourist safety and patronage, boosting local economies. The document advocates strategies to manage risks from hazards through prevention, mitigation and coping in order to promote national economic development via tourism.
The Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa (SIHMA) is delighted to present the first 2016 issue of African Human Mobility Review (AHMR) - an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed on-line journal created to encourage and facilitate the study of Human Mobility in Africa. In this issue articles on:
1. Xenophobia, Price Competition and Violence in the Spaza Sector in South Africa
2. Angolan refugees in South Africa: alternatives to permanent repatriation?
3.Francophone transnational students, social exclusion and the challenges of adaptation at a South African University of Technology
4.Occupational Change among Nigerian Immigrants living in the Netherlands
5.No Future for our Children: Challenges faced by foreign minors living in South Africa
Effect of Tourism on Economic Wellbeing of Host Communities in Cross River St...ijtsrd
This study examined the effect of tourism on economic wellbeing of host communities in Cross River State, Nigeria. The study modelled the effect of service, product, hotels, transportation and infrastructural facilities on economic well being of host communities in Cross River State. It is a descriptive survey on a sample of 400 respondents from the host communities. Data obtained for the study were analyzed using percentages, mean, standard deviation and regression analysis. From the result of the regression model it was observed that product, service and infrastructure have positive impact on the on the economic well being of the host communities. This means that if product, service and infrastructure are developed and improved, it will bring about more increase in the economic well being of the host communities. On the other hand, hotels and transportation have a negative impact on the economic wellbeing of the host communities. Thus, increase in hotels and transportation cost will bring about a decline in the economic wellbeing of the host communities. The overall significance of the model also supports the alternate hypothesis that the model has goodness of fit and is statistically significant. In other words, tourism consumption has significant impact on the economic wellbeing of the host communities. Based on the analysis and findings of the study the following recommendations are made Since tourism consumption has become imperative for economies to thrive successfully, it is imperative that government should develop and as well as regulate operators in the tourism destination to step up the quality of product, service and infrastructure provided in the tourist destination. This is because they have been found to have positive impact on the on the economic well being of the host communities. The government should also come up with policy instruments containing measures that will effectively' monitor and evaluate the operations of tourism destinations. This is necessary as this research manifest the fact that hotels and transportation cost negatively affects the host communities. In other words it will bring about a decline in the economic wellbeing of the host communities if not regulated. Anionwu, Carol "Effect of Tourism on Economic Wellbeing of Host Communities in Cross River State, Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd25295.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/business-economics/25295/effect-of-tourism-on-economic-wellbeing-of-host-communities-in-cross-river-state-nigeria/anionwu-carol
This document summarizes the special issue of the African Human Mobility Review focused on migration in West Africa. It provides an introduction to the topics covered in the issue's research papers. The introduction discusses key trends in intra-regional and international migration patterns in West Africa. It notes that while much migration from the region is to destinations within West Africa, there are also significant flows to Europe and more recently Asia. The introduction provides context on the ECOWAS free movement protocol and its role in facilitating intra-regional mobility. It previews the five research papers in the issue, which examine challenges in implementing the ECOWAS protocol, experiences of migrants during the 2011 Libyan crisis, Ghanaian traders' networks in China, cultural ties
Demography is the most important external factor that will shape the future of tourism. In many developed nations this discussion has centred on the rapidly ageing populations and the impact of this phenomena. Governments and populations are facing changes whether it is increased cost of government pensions, the growth of health care costs, the impact of population growth in cities or the emergence of new family and household structures due to delayed family formulation, declining birth rates and growing divorce rates. The direction and composition of demographic trends will significantly shape the future of society and tourism. But it is not all doom and gloom, for the tourism industry, there is massive opportunity as we enter an era of ageless society where age is undefined. Drawing material from 'Tourism and Demography' a new book by Yeoman et al, Drs Yeoman and Smith address the contribution of the book to the literature on tourism and demography through a series of cognitive maps.
An analysis of coffee stains militating sustainable tourism development in af...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes factors hindering sustainable tourism development in Africa. While Africa has many natural and artificial tourist attractions, tourism traffic to the region is low. The study found this is due to an unfavorable tourism environment in Africa characterized by political instability, negative perceptions, poor access, and diseases. These issues have depressed tourism activity. To realize Africa's potential, the study recommends implementing a universal visa regime, revising tourism pricing, enhancing air access, and financially supporting national tourism bodies.
Poverty alleviation and sustainable tourismAMALDASKH
Poverty alleviation through sustainable tourism can play an important role in developing countries. Tourism accounts for a large portion of GDP and jobs in many developing nations. It has comparative advantages over other industries by attracting visitors to rural areas with cultural/natural attractions. As a labor-intensive industry, tourism provides employment for women, youth and small businesses. Developing countries have seen rising tourist arrivals. Sustainable tourism prioritizes environmental/social impacts and channels revenues to conservation and local communities, helping reduce poverty.
A perspective on tourism and new media from central america höckertTurizem
This document discusses tourism development in Nicaragua from the perspective of rural communities. It begins with quotes highlighting the importance of local well-being over tourism industry profits. It then outlines a case study of community-based tourism in San Ramón, Nicaragua, describing an imaginary visit that highlights both benefits and challenges, such as dependency on loans. The document advocates for responsible representation of rural communities in new media and discusses how new media could help promote rural tourism development that benefits locals.
The document discusses urbanization and rural-urban migration in the Philippines. It defines urbanization as the increase in urban population of an area. Rural-urban migration is driven by factors like poverty, lack of opportunities, and inadequate infrastructure in rural areas. This migration places strain on urban housing and resources. The document also outlines the types, causes, impacts and recommendations regarding rural-urban migration in the Philippines.
This document is an introduction to a collection of papers on decentralization and urban development in West Africa. It provides context on urbanization trends in Africa, noting that West Africa in particular is urbanizing rapidly, with over half the population expected to live in cities between 2015-2020. Though urban growth has occurred, economic growth has not always kept pace. The introduction argues that while decentralization has been discussed in Africa for some time, its implications for urban policy and governance have been underexplored topics in both academic and practical terms. The collection aims to further understanding in this area.
This document discusses the trend of sustainable tourism. It describes how unsustainable tourism can negatively impact the environment, local societies and cultures, and economies through issues like resource depletion, cultural commodification, and economic leakages. It outlines how stakeholders are increasingly demanding more sustainable practices. Major organizations are now facilitating policies and frameworks to encourage sustainability. The trend evolved from past development theories and is gaining momentum as studies demonstrate tourism's large negative impacts without sustainability. Consumers and businesses are also increasingly adopting sustainable practices in response to growing awareness and demands.
Political instability can significantly impact tourism. The document discusses how war, coups, terrorism and civil unrest can negatively influence tourists' perception of risk at a destination through media coverage. This leads to decreases in tourist arrivals, revenues, and related economic benefits. Examples from countries like China, Fiji, Mexico, Yugoslavia, the Middle East, and North/South Korea demonstrate tourism declines caused by these political events. The conclusion calls for tourism education to incorporate more discussion of international politics and its effects.
‘Athithi Kab Jaonge...Nahi Nahi Atithi Kab Aaonge...Aate Raho Kyoki Hum Us De...scmsnoida5
One of the oldest civilization of the world, one of
the greatest nation of the world, one of the greatest
democracy and obviously no need to speak about
the population. This great nation INDIA has
everything. We have every possible resource but
the one that we are blessed with is ‘MOTHER
NATURE’. A nation that has mountains and
oceans, deserts and monuments, heritage sites
and culture- All ingredients of a pure recipe that
makes up for a great tourism nation. Tourism
will not only build ‘BRAND INDIA’ but it will
create enormous employment opportunity for the
youth of India.
Engendering sustainable socio-spatial environment for tourism activities in t...ijceronline
The document summarizes a study that assessed the potential for knitting together the five states of South-Eastern Nigeria into a unified tourist destination of international significance. It identifies various tourism potentials across the region and evaluates the accessibility between state capitals. The study recommends adopting an Environmental Planning and Management process involving zonal, state, and local forums to coordinate development efforts and achieve a sustainable tourism environment across the region through public-private collaboration. This participatory approach aims to improve infrastructure like roads, airports, utilities and encourage private investment in tourism facilities.
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in tourism. It defines tourism as activities, services, and industries that deliver travel experiences, including transportation, accommodations, food and drink, retail, and hospitality. Tourism is defined by several academic sources as the movement and activities of people outside their normal environment for business or leisure. Key factors that enable tourism include attractions, culture, natural resources, facilities, infrastructure, transportation and the motivation and ability of tourists to travel in terms of time and money.
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Perspectives on Rural Tourism in Iran
1. Denae Eagen
Dr. Anne Richards
PRWR 7900
11December 2011
Rural Tourism in Iran
As Irancontinues to urbanize rapidly, it also promotes domestic and international tourism,
often to rural areas. Indeed, international and Iranian travel agencies offer rural, nomadic, and
agricultural tours that are gaining a foothold in the tourism industry, and several international
travel agencies offer small group tours that focus on Iranian villages settled outside the major
cities. Cultivating sustainable tourism in nonurban settings requires a balance between progress
and preservation that will yield a positive experience for both indigenous peoples and tourists.
Typically, interactions between tourists and locals are the substance of rural tourism in
Iran, as around the world. Aref, F. and Gill define rural tourism as “any form of tourism that
showcases the rural life, art, culture, and heritage at rural locations, thereby benefiting the local
community economically and socially as well as enabling interaction between the tourists and
the locals for a more enriching tourism experience” (Aref, F., 2009).Tourists do not miss heritage
sites or museums by taking the rougher path; rather, prime tourist sites are included in the tours
although guides often take a different approach to the tour that blends the cultural past and living
present. For instance, tourists are guided through the daily lives of different local communities,
exploring bazaars in Tehran one evening and sleeping beneath tents next to a nomadic tribe the
next. Local artisansinvite tourists to witness handicraft and agricultural processes, from silk
1
2. weaving to herb preparation.Rural tourism can provide a secondary source of funding for an area
losing profitability. Yet rural tourism is often underdeveloped and Iran has limited experience
managing rural tourism due to “insufficient infrastructure and preparation” (Aref, F., 2009). A
number of factors can strengthen the development of rural tourism including legitimate
community power, effective rural cooperatives, and diverse private investments.
Yet these potential sources of strength are restricted by the fact that, currently, rural
tourism is subject to the whim of the Iranian government in terms of both funding and stability.
The Iranian government, despite its generous commitment to developing tourism, acts as sole
arbiter on distribution of resources and investments without consulting the local population
(Aref, A., 2011).The lack of active participation or influence by local community members
hinders the success of rural tourism, and relying on the government alone for funding leaves
villages without recourse if they are not chosen as an investment or if projects funded are
inadequate.
In addition, political upheaval, although often removed from the remote locations of rural
tourisms, has a significant impact on international tourism overall. According to Mohammadi et
al, “The tourism industry of Iran was badly affected by political crises and war, such as the
Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1978 and the imposed Iran-Iraq war” (2010).Baum and O‟Gorman
second this impact, consulting Iran Touring and Tourism Organization data from 2001 that
showed “from immediately after the revolution the number of international tourists fell from
680,000 in 1978 to a low of 9,300 in 1990” (2010).By 1999, Iran claimed an increase in tourism
to “1.3 million international visitors and 32.5 million domestic tourists.” The number of
international visitors increased again to 1.6 million in 2004 (Baum, 2010). Yet that increase in
foreign tourists was likely diminished by a succession of negative media coverage following
2
3. isolated incidents of kidnapping, harassment, and intimidation from 1999 to 2003(Baum, 2010).
Such precise numbers are difficult to locate for 2009, when Iran experienced waves of protests
amid allegations of fraudulent election results, protests which quickly evolved into cries for civil
rights reform deemed The Green Movement. The lack of firm data suggests a gap in research
regarding the effects of the 2009 electoral protests and its aftershockson rural tourism in Iran.
This article aims to explore the influences on rural tourism and how the Green Movement may
have affected both the locations and the perceptions of tourists.
The article will review the significant influences on rural tourism including benefits,
barriers, and the role of rural cooperatives and government investment, as well as aspects of rural
tourism such as tours, attractions, and accommodations for tourists.
Methods
Research on rural tourism in Iran consisted of internet searches using the Google search
engine, Google Scholar, Ebsco Host, and LexisNexis. All four resources allowed me to search by
keyword or keyword phrase and a date range. My searches began with tourism agency websites
offering rural tours in Iran and international government travel warnings, and then branched out
to blogs and articles on personal experiences of travel in rural Iran. Google Scholar and Ebsco
Host provided access to published theses and international conference proceedings on the Iranian
tourism industry. LexisNexis revealed detailed news releases of recent events and government
collaborations with international and domestic investors.
I searched for information under a variety of keywords including: tourism in Iran, travel in
Iran, Iran rural tourism, Iran sustainable tourism, Iran community tourism, Iran rural
cooperatives, Iran tourism development, poverty alleviation through tourism, Iran rural tour, Iran
3
4. tour agency, and Iran nomadic tribes. To clarify the historical and recent context of rural tourism,
my research results were derived from five distinct periods, using the 2009 Iranian election
protests as a significant event marker:
Phase One: 10 years prior to the 2009 Iranian election protests on 6/13/2009
Phase Two: 24-12 months prior, 6/13/2007-6/13/2008
Phase Three: 11-6 months prior, 7/13/2008-11/13/2008
Phase Four: 6 months prior, 12/13/2008-6/12/2009
Phase Five: Iranian Election Protests and 6 months after, 6/13/2009-12/13/2009
Benefits of Rural Tourism
Among the many benefits of rural tourism are opportunities for employment and
alleviation of poverty. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)“remains
firmly convinced that the sale of handcrafts to tourists can foster the continuity of local traditions
and contribute significantly to poverty alleviation, through its ability to create jobs, socio-
economic opportunities, and an enhanced quality of life in local communities” (2006, p.ix).In
addition to higher sales of handicrafts, a regular influx of tourists generates a need for skilled
labor as guides, and as service, transportation, and restaurant personnel. Steady employment
enriches the life of the villages; more inhabitants are able to stay in their local community and
are no longer forced to immigrate to find work.One major tool for rural tourism development are
rural cooperatives, “voluntary business associations formed by people of limited means through
a contributions of share capital that forms the basis of sharing out the profits that accrue from the
business” (Aref, A., 2011). The intent of rural cooperatives are to improve people‟s ability to
participate in community decisions and access to information, “training and markets and the
4
5. other productivity resources for income generation such as land, technology, credit and
information” (Aref, A., 2011).
However, a study by Aref, A. questions the effectiveness of poverty alleviation through
rural cooperatives because the cooperatives rely too heavily on the government for funding and
decision-making (2011). Thus, local residents are disconnected from community goals and
unable to perceive the importance or benefits of rural cooperatives and cannot fully commit to
community projects. The study cited “lack of resources, lack of collaboration culture, lack of
cooperatives leaders‟ knowledge, depend[ence] of cooperatives to government” as important
barriers to poverty alleviation through rural cooperatives, and by rural extension tourism
development.This separation between government and people hinders cooperation and Aref, A.
argues that active participation by residents is necessary in order for them to act as stakeholders
in rural tourism and make progress in improving their social and economic position (2011).
Barriers to Tourism
There are significant barriers to rural tourism that inhibitresidents of villages and cities
from fully realizing the potential of tourism. Reflecting the difficulty of aligning the goals of
local residents and the government, community power remains a barrier to rural development.
Aref, F. defines community power as “the ability to create or resist change regarding community,
influence across a variety of domains or community contexts, ability to act to make or resist
changes that affect the community‟s environment, and autonomy in decision-making
(2011).Community power is particularly important in rural tourism where outside influences can
have a lasting positive or negative impact on a delicate environment. The ability to resist change
as a rural community may be as vital as the ability to enact change.
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6. Egbali et al describe three critical issues of rural tourism:
First, although visitors are attracted to rural areas by their distinctive regional social and
cultural heritage landscape qualities and perceived cleaner environment these very may
be threatened by the impacts of tourism and recreational activity. Second, training for
rural tourism provision is often not available or not taken up to assist improvement in the
quality and appropriateness of rural tourism products. Third rural tourism products can be
relatively isolated and in most cases will benefit from collaboration and networking in
promotion and marketing. (2010).
Community empowerment is vitally important for rural tourism to preserve the livelihood of its
residents while encouraging tourism. A balance between improvements and preservation of the
traditions, environment, and resources yields a constructive experience for both resident and
tourist. Aref, F. offers findings from a study on community power in Shiraz, a hub for rural
tourism in southern Iran, that illustrate the current weak status of community participation. The
“findings show that . . . there is an individual motivation for more collaboration in tourism
development, but there is a low level of converging vision between individuals and local
organizations towards tourism development” (Aref, F., 2011). The results of this study further
iterate the difficulty of rural development when residents are unable to influence government
decisions and unable to effectively preserve tourism attraction.
Additional barriers to rural tourism development include capacity and infrastructure.
Primarilythere is a lack of capacity to house and feed tourists, and existing facilities are not of
sufficient quality to encourage tourists to visit. Lack of acceptable transportation and roads are
obstacles for tourists wishing to visit rural locations (Aref, F., 2009). Because the perceived
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7. potential of a rural area as a tourist destination is a factor in attracting investors and government
support,the Iranian government has made significant efforts to foster international and domestic
tourism and investments in the last several years. With assistance from government departments
and private investors, select villages have been able to upgrade facilities, build new businesses,
and improve the appearance of villages with gardens and parks. Rural cooperatives between
neighboring provinces are a popular means of development for local areas in Iran, especiallyin
improving transportation networks and accessibility between villages and cities.
Rural Cooperatives and Government Investment
While the Iranian government is in certain ways supporting the growth of tourism in the
nation‟s rural areas, the progress is often inefficient and the sources of support can be fickle.
Government goals for tourism and development often fail to consider the needs of locals and
neglect to connect “rural cooperatives with the rural tourism in those cities in which tourism is in
a boom” (Aref, F., 2009). Iran‟s overarching tourism body, the Iran Cultural Heritage,
Handicrafts, and Tourism Organization (ICHHTO), is under government control, and its stability
is susceptible to the political unrest of the area (Baum, 2010). The necessity of blending cultural
traditions with Western presentations to entice investors creates delicate situations, which, if not
handled appropriately, can result in conflict between ICHHTO andIran‟s religious clerics. In
November 2008, deputy for investment affairs Mahdi Jahangiri was forced to resign after clerics
denounced ICHHTO for its presentation of a traditional religious ceremony at its annual
investment conference in which women moved rhythmically around a Qur‟an(BBC,
2008).Significant political events, such as the 2009 Iranian election protests, may also have had
ripple effects on the successes or hardships of rural tourism.
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8. Tours
International and Iranian tour agencies have diverse labels for rural tourism: ecotourism,
agricultural tourism, adventure tourism, nomadic tourism, and so on. Yet the available rural tour
packages follow similar destinations. Trips usually last 15–23 days and include groups of four or
more people. According to Mohammadi et al, the “peak seasons for domestic tourists are usually
during the NowRuz (Iranian New Year) period, spring, summer, and other public holidays.
International tourists visit the area throughout the year and their visits are mainly organized by
tour operators” (2010). Iranian regulations require that foreign visitors are accompanied by a
guide at all times (Peterson, 1998).
The following travel agencies offer rural tours in Iran:
Iran Traveling Lotus
Iran Gasht Tour
Wild Frontiers
Revealing Persia.
Rural tour groups commonly migrate between Tehran, Esfahan, and Shiraz, three major cities
aligned north to south through central Iran. These cities are home to multiple world heritage sites
including Meidan Emam in Esfahan and the Persian Garden and Persepolis near Shiraz
(UNESCO, 2011). Rural tourism hotspots are located in the areas surrounding each city.
Accommodations & Transportation
Rural villages still lack the capacity to accommodate tourists fully and so most tour
groups spend the nights in hotels in Tehran or Shiraz and travel during the daytime. The majority
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9. of rural tour groups spend at least two nights sleeping at a rural destination, often in tents
alongside a nomadic tribe. Tour guides arrange all major transportation for the tour groups,
alleviating the difficulty of arranging personal transportation between cities.
Handicrafts & Agriculture
According to the proceedings of the International Conference on Tourism and Handicraft (2006),
[Iran] has one of the richest, oldest and most diverse handcraft traditions in the world.
Skills have been passed on for generations, stretching way back into ancient Persian
history, with some artifacts having been found dating from the 5th Millennium B.C.
Ceramics, metallurgy, glass, wood, architecture, carpets, tapestries – in all these areas,
the artisans of Iran are justifiably world famous. (p. vii)
The experience of seeing traditional handicraft first-hand encourages tourists to purchase local
goods, stimulating the local economy and often provoking reflection about the local culture,
people, and history. Such basic interchanges of understanding and reciprocation are pivotal to
intercultural acceptance. Positive exchanges with local residents are meaningful for both parties.
Vendors gain skill in interacting with foreign or domestic tourists, increasing the chance that
future sales will also be successful. Tourists immerse themselves in the culture, art, and people
through the experience and have a story and a treasure with which to return home. Because the
handicraft may have lasting beauty and the power to inspire curiosity in those who see it back
home, the tourist has the opportunity to recount the tale of the handicraft‟s origin and acquisition.
Each rural tour package focuses on several aspects of agriculture and handicraft, including one or
more of the following experiences:
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10. Tehran carpets, glass & ceramics
Damavand medical herbs
Firouz Abad herb juice workshops
NourAbad mamasani local herbs
Kashan water rose processing
Lahijan tea plantation and cookies
Lagoon of Anzali fish and fruit market, caviar processing factory.
Nomadic Tribes
The Qashqai tribe is the nomadic group most prevalently featured in rural tours. “The Qashqai
compose a community of settled, semi-settled, and pastoral nomadic households who reside
mainly in the Fars region of southern Iran. They speak Qashqai Turki (Turkish). Most of them
also speak, at least, Persian (Farsi). They are Shia Muslims” (Qashqai.net, 2009).The Qashqai
tribe can be located in Zagros during the summers and further south along the Persian Gulf in the
winter. Tour groups frequently visit the remaining nomadic families in the iconic black goatskin
tents and glean a taste of the nomadic life by trying the foods and witnessing the carpet weaving
and livestock tending that makes up much of the Qashqai daily life. Today many Qashqai have
become settled or semi-settled in Shiraz and surrounding cities. In September 2009, Jini Reddy
of The Guardianexplored rural Iran with the Wild Frontiers tour agency. Reddy offers a
refreshingly positive reflection on her experiences in Iran, particularly her visit with both a
settled Qashqai family and a nomadic Qashqai family. Comparing the domiciles of the two
families, Reddy describes the settled home as “eclectic . . . rooms are lined with ruby red woolen
rugs weaved by the Qashqai, its two bathrooms have western loos and showers, while goats and
chickens live in a garden pen surrounded by a tangle of grapevines, apple and cherry trees”
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11. (2009). Alternatively, Reddy describes her visit to the black tents of the Qashqai, remarking on
the distinctive women “in their colourful headscarves, shirts and skirts over black leggings.
Shyly, they welcomed us into their goatskin tent for sweetened tea and almonds. We gave them a
box of sweets and sprawled on the woven rugs and cushions around a central fire pit” (Reddy,
2009).
Perceptions of Travel in Iran
Such positive and authentic views from travelers who have explored Iran are not
uncommon. An American student visited in 1998, saying, “I never felt threatened or unsafe from
people. It‟s one of the safest countries in the world, more than anywhere in the West” (Peterson).
However, global perceptions are tainted by political unrest and violence. The United States
continues toissue clear travel warnings to avoid entering Iran and Westerners may find it difficult
to obtain visas (U.S. Department of State). The negative perception regarding travel to Iran is
perhaps best seen on forums, where it is important to draw a distinction between general
perception and personal experience. Students seeking public opinions on whether or not it‟s safe
to travel to Iran at thestudentroom.com are met with an overwhelmingly negative response.
Other forums and websites give a milder, but equally deterring, caution for travelers to postpone
trips to Iran until the U.S. Department of State removes its travel warnings.
Non-Western international travelers may have an easier time obtaining visas.
Additionally, they may face less negative sentiment when deciding to travel to Iran. Despite
shaky relations with the United States and other Western countries, the Iranian government is
taking strides to ease mutual travel restrictions between China, South Korea, Lebanon, India,
Pakistan, and Egypt in order to promote tourism.
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12. Effects of 2009 Iranian Election Protests on Rural Tourism
For better or worse, perceptions of Iran have been irrevocably altered by the images and
passionate voices of the Green Movement.Videos of peaceful protests disintegrating into violent
riots after confrontations with police forces and Basij Militia are unquestionable proof of the will
of a people and the chaos created when there is a schism between a people and its government.
Maps of the early protests in June 2009 illustrate large gatherings, police intervention, and
violence. YouTube videos show protests in Shiraz, Esfahan, and Tehran, the primary hubs for
rural tourists. Foreign tourists in Iran at the time would have had difficulty avoiding the presence
of the election protests. The risk of violence was not isolated to people in the throng of
protesters. As evidenced in the death of Neda Adgha-Soltan, a by-stander whowas reportedly
shot while standing outside her car on the fringes of the protesters, there was no clear area of
safetyduring the protests (Chua-Eoan, 2009).
Yet outside of the main cities, where rural tourism predominantly occurs, tourists would
have been less affected by the election protests. Those tourists visiting the nomadic tribes,
historically ambivalent to Iranian politics, would have had little cause for concern. The most
significant impact for tourists comes from the perception of crisis and the fear of future clashes.
The fears are not entirely unfounded. Incidents of intimidation, harassment, and violence
continue to occur sporadically. On December 2, 2011, hundreds of protestors stormed the British
embassy in Tehran, further straining the pressures of foreign tourism (BBC).
Perhaps the most significant impact on rural tourism, however, is the uncertainty between
the Iranian people and the Iranian government. The disconnect between the visions and goals of
both parties echo through the reviews of tourism and the difficulty of developing rural areas. A
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13. lack of communication and willingness to delegate power is having a visible impact on the
success or failure of rural cooperatives and local tourism projects. Until such openness is
achieved, rural tourism in Iran will continue to face challenges and endure a slowed growth.
13
14. Works Cited
Aref, A. (2011). Rural Cooperatives for Poverty Alleviation in Iran. Life Science Journal, 8.
Retrieved from http://www.lifesciencesite.com/lsj/life0802/07_4650life0802_38_41.pdf
Aref, F. (2011, March). Community Power in Process of Tourism Development: A Case Study
of Shiraz, Iran. International Journal of Academic Research, 3. Retrieved from
http://www.ijar.lit.az/pdf/10/2011(10-195).pdf
Aref, F., & Gill S.S. (2009). Rural Tourism Development Through Rural Cooperatives. Nature
and Science. Retrieved from http://sciencepub.net/nature/ns0710/ns0710.pdf#page=71
Baum, T.G., & O‟Gorman, K.D. (2010) Iran or Persia: What‟s in a name, the decline and fall of
a tourism industry? Strathprints Institutional Repository. Retrieved from
http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/8080/
BBC NEWS UK. (2011, December 2). Attack on UK embassy in Iran „had support of the state.‟
Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16010547
BBC Worldwide Monitoring. (2008, November 15). Iran Official Resigns After Cleric Outrage.
Fars News Agency. Retrieved from www.lexisnexis.com
Chua-Eoan, H. (2009, June 21). What the World Didn‟t See in Tehran. Retrieved from
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1906040,00.html
Egbali, N., & Nosrat, A.B., & Ali pour, S.k.S. (2010, September 16). Effects of Positive and
Negative Rural Tourism (Case Study: Rural Semnan Province). Journal of Geography
and Rural Planning, 4. Retrieved from
http://www.academicjournals.org/jgrp/PDF/pdf2011/Feb/Egbali%20et%20al.pdf
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15. Mohammadi, M. & Khalifah, Z., & Hosseini, H. (2010, November). Local People Perceptions
toward Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Kermansah (Iran).
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Mubsy. (2007, April 7). Is It Safe to Travel to Iran? Retrieved from
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Peterson, S. (1998, June 29). For „Trip of a Lifetime,‟ American Try Sunny…Iran? Christian
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Reddy, J. (2009, September 11). On the Road in Rural Iran. The Guardian. Retrieved from
www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/sep/12/iran-middleeast
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http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_5583.html
United nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. (2011). Islamic Republic of
Iran. Retrieved from http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ir
World Tourism Organization. (2006, May 15). Tourism and Handicrafts: A Report on the
International Conference on Tourism and Handicrafts. Retrieved from
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