The purpose of this study is to explore how the viewers’ previous training is related to their aesthetic viewing in various interactions with the form and the context, in relation to apparel design. Berlyne’s two types of exploratory behavior, diversive and specific, provided a theoretical framework to this study. Twenty female subjects (mean age=21, SD=1.089) participated. Twenty model images, posed by a male and a female model, were shown on an eye-tracker screen for 10 seconds each. The findings of this study verified Berlyne’s concepts of visual exploration. One of the different findings from Berlyne’s theory was that the untrained viewers’ visual attention tended to be more significantly focused on peripheral areas of visual interest, compared to the trained viewers, while there was no significant difference on the central, foremost areas of visual interest between the two groups. The overall aesthetic viewing patterns were also identified.
A Conceptual Model for Ontology Based LearningIJORCS
Utilizing learning features by many fields like education, artificial intelligence, and multi-agent systems, leads to generation of various definitions for this concept. In this article, these field’s significant definitions for learning will be presented, and their key concepts in each field will be described. Using the mentioned features in different learning definitions, ontology will get presented for the concept of learning. In the ontology, the main ontological concepts and their relations have been represented. Also a conceptual model for learning based on presented ontology will be proposed by means of model and modeling description. Then concepts of presented definitions are going to be shown in proposed model and after that, the model’s functionality will be discuss. Twelve main characteristics have been used to describe the proposed model’s functionality. Utilizing learning ontology to improve the proposed conceptual model can be used also as a guide to model learning and also can be useful in different learning models’ comparison. So that the key concepts which can be used for considered learning model will be determined. Furthermore, an example based on proposed ontology and definition features is explained.
na cookies merupakan (brand) Merek dagang dari sebuah Perusahaan kue kering yang telah berdiri sejak tahun 1997. nama Ina cookies muncul berkat kepiawaian seorang wanita bernama Rr Ina Wiyandini Dalam Menciptakan dan mengkreasikan kue kering untuk hari raya . Awalnya kue kring hanya berkutat pada nastar, Kastengels daan putri salju saja. Namun ibu ina kemudian melakukan inovasi baru untuk menambah jenis kue kering, Dengan memberikan toping coklat atau menggunakan bahan tradisional seperti tahu, tempe, dan jamur yang kemudian di olah menjadi kue kering. ina cookies merupakan The most creative cookies sesuai dengan semboyannya
A Conceptual Model for Ontology Based LearningIJORCS
Utilizing learning features by many fields like education, artificial intelligence, and multi-agent systems, leads to generation of various definitions for this concept. In this article, these field’s significant definitions for learning will be presented, and their key concepts in each field will be described. Using the mentioned features in different learning definitions, ontology will get presented for the concept of learning. In the ontology, the main ontological concepts and their relations have been represented. Also a conceptual model for learning based on presented ontology will be proposed by means of model and modeling description. Then concepts of presented definitions are going to be shown in proposed model and after that, the model’s functionality will be discuss. Twelve main characteristics have been used to describe the proposed model’s functionality. Utilizing learning ontology to improve the proposed conceptual model can be used also as a guide to model learning and also can be useful in different learning models’ comparison. So that the key concepts which can be used for considered learning model will be determined. Furthermore, an example based on proposed ontology and definition features is explained.
na cookies merupakan (brand) Merek dagang dari sebuah Perusahaan kue kering yang telah berdiri sejak tahun 1997. nama Ina cookies muncul berkat kepiawaian seorang wanita bernama Rr Ina Wiyandini Dalam Menciptakan dan mengkreasikan kue kering untuk hari raya . Awalnya kue kring hanya berkutat pada nastar, Kastengels daan putri salju saja. Namun ibu ina kemudian melakukan inovasi baru untuk menambah jenis kue kering, Dengan memberikan toping coklat atau menggunakan bahan tradisional seperti tahu, tempe, dan jamur yang kemudian di olah menjadi kue kering. ina cookies merupakan The most creative cookies sesuai dengan semboyannya
Final Research Paper Based on the article by Giebels, El., Taylor, P.J. “Interaction Patterns in Crisis Negotiation: Persuasive Arguments and Cultural Differences
It includes definition, functions, nature and characteristics of teacher and teaching.
It also describe Domains of learning to understand the behaviour modification of the learner.
A Survey on Various Learning Styles Used in E-Learning SystemEditor IJMTER
Personalized E-learning seeks to provide each individual learner with the right and
sufficient content they need according to learners level of knowledge, behavior and profile. The
performance of the learners can be enhanced by posting the suitable E-learning contents to the learners
based on their learning styles. Hence, it is very essential to have a clear knowledge about various
learning styles in order to predict the learning styles of different learners in E-learning environments.
However, predicting the learning styles needs complete knowledge about the learners past and present
characteristics. The core objective of this survey paper is to outline the working of the existing learning
style models and the metrics used to evaluate them. Based on the existing models, this paper identifies
Felder–Silverman learning style model as the appropriate model for E-learning so that it can enrich the
performance of the E-learning system.
Final Research Paper Based on the article by Giebels, El., Taylor, P.J. “Interaction Patterns in Crisis Negotiation: Persuasive Arguments and Cultural Differences
It includes definition, functions, nature and characteristics of teacher and teaching.
It also describe Domains of learning to understand the behaviour modification of the learner.
A Survey on Various Learning Styles Used in E-Learning SystemEditor IJMTER
Personalized E-learning seeks to provide each individual learner with the right and
sufficient content they need according to learners level of knowledge, behavior and profile. The
performance of the learners can be enhanced by posting the suitable E-learning contents to the learners
based on their learning styles. Hence, it is very essential to have a clear knowledge about various
learning styles in order to predict the learning styles of different learners in E-learning environments.
However, predicting the learning styles needs complete knowledge about the learners past and present
characteristics. The core objective of this survey paper is to outline the working of the existing learning
style models and the metrics used to evaluate them. Based on the existing models, this paper identifies
Felder–Silverman learning style model as the appropriate model for E-learning so that it can enrich the
performance of the E-learning system.
Implementing Mental Models: Extending Insight and Whole Person LearningRobert Robinson
This paper was presented at the 2013 ABSEL Conference in Oklahoma City, OK. It was awarded the best student paper award for the conference.
Abstract:
We extend the concept of insight learning from Hoover, Mitchell, and Wu (2012), a form of experiential education that utilizes a process of multi-dimensional whole person learning (Hoover, 2007). The insight learning process seeks to engage students more fully in the learning process with the goal of changing or elevating mental frames. We include a further illustration of insight learning in the form of a simulation exercise that can be utilized to introduce concepts of a particular mental model (Transaction Cognition Theory) to students; this model has been tied to improving performance in a firm. We also inform the whole person learning model and the insight learning model by considering the importance of the order of the insight learning process in helping students to achieve the goal of changing existing mental frames.
Week 2 Discussion Learning Contract· Analyze two learning gaps .docxjessiehampson
Week 2 Discussion: Learning Contract
· Analyze two learning gaps that you have with the concepts of this course.
. Post a brief analysis of your 2 learning gaps to the discussion board.
. Write a brief learning contract addressing how you will address these learning gaps by the end of the course.
Read: Self-Directed Learning: Learning Contracts: https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/tips-students/self-directed-learning/self-directed-learning-learning-contracts
23
Chapter 4
The Andragogical Process Model for Learning
Introduction
The andragogical model is a process model, in contrast to the content models employed by most traditional educators. The difference is this: in traditional education the instructor (teacher or trainer or curriculum committee) decides in advance what knowledge or skill needs to be transmitted, arranges this body of content into logical units, selects the most efficient means for transmitting this content (lectures, readings, laboratory exercises, films, tapes, etc.), and then develops a plan for presenting these content units in some sort of sequence. This is a content model (or design). The andragogical instructor (teacher, facilitator, consultant, change agent) prepares in advance a set of procedures for involving the learners and other relevant parties in a process involving these elements: (1) preparing the learner; (2) establishing a climate conducive to learning; (3) creating a mechanism for mutual planning; (4) diagnosing the needs for learning; (5) formulating program objectives (which is content) that will satisfy these needs; (6) designing a pattern of learning experiences; (7) conducting these learning experiences with suitable techniques and materials; and (8) evaluating the learning outcomes and rediagnosing learning needs. This is a process model. The difference is not that one deals with content and the other does not; the difference is that the content model is concerned with transmitting information and skills, whereas the process model is concerned with providing procedures and resources for helping learners acquire information and skills. A comparison of these two models and their underlying assumptions is presented in Table 4.1 in which the content model is conceived as being pedagogical and the process model as being andragogical.
Table 4.1 Process elements of andragogy
Preparing the Learner
It was not until 1995 (Knowles, 1995) that it became apparent that the preparation of the learner step needed to be added as a separate step to the process model. Previously the process model had consisted of only seven steps, all of which will be discussed in this chapter. It became apparent that an important aspect of program design flowed from the adult educational models that assumed a high degree of responsibility for learning to be taken by the learner. Especially in the andragogical and learning projects models, the entire systems are built around ...
Blignaut Visual Span And Other Parameters For The Generation Of HeatmapsKalle
Although heat maps are commonly provided by eye-tracking and visualization tools, they have some disadvantages and caution must be taken when using them to draw conclusions on eye tracking results. It is motivated here that visual span is an essential component of visualizations of eye-tracking data and an algorithm is proposed to allow the analyst to set the visual span as a parameter prior to generation of a heat map.
Although the ideas are not novel, the algorithm also indicates how transparency of the heat map can be achieved and how the color gradient can be generated to represent the probability for an object to be observed within the defined visual span. The optional addition of contour lines provides a way to visualize separate intervals in the continuous color map.
Zhang Eye Movement As An Interaction Mechanism For Relevance Feedback In A Co...Kalle
Relevance feedback (RF) mechanisms are widely adopted in Content-Based Image Retrieval (CBIR) systems to improve image retrieval performance. However, there exist some intrinsic problems: (1) the semantic gap between high-level concepts and low-level features and (2) the subjectivity of human perception of visual contents. The primary focus of this paper is to evaluate the possibility of inferring the relevance of images based on eye movement data. In total, 882 images from 101 categories are viewed by 10 subjects to test the usefulness of implicit RF, where the relevance of each image is known beforehand. A set of measures based on fixations are thoroughly evaluated which include fixation duration, fixation count, and the number of revisits. Finally, the paper proposes a decision tree to predict the user’s input during the image searching tasks. The prediction precision of the decision tree is over 87%, which spreads light on a promising integration of natural eye movement into CBIR systems in the future.
Yamamoto Development Of Eye Tracking Pen Display Based On Stereo Bright Pupil...Kalle
The intuitive user interfaces of PCs and PDAs, such as pen display and touch panel, have become widely used in recent times. In this study, we have developed an eye-tracking pen display based on the stereo bright pupil technique. First, the bright pupil camera was developed by examining the arrangement of cameras and LEDs for pen display. Next, the gaze estimation method was proposed for the stereo bright pupil camera, which enables one point calibration. Then, the prototype of the eyetracking pen display was developed. The accuracy of the system was approximately 0.7° on average, which is sufficient for human interaction support. We also developed an eye-tracking tabletop as an application of the proposed stereo bright pupil technique.
Wastlund What You See Is Where You Go Testing A Gaze Driven Power Wheelchair ...Kalle
Individuals with severe multiple disabilities have little or no opportunity to express their own wishes, make choices and move independently. Because of this, the objective of this work has been to develop a prototype for a gaze-driven device to manoeuvre powered wheelchairs or other moving platforms. The prototype has the same capabilities as a normal powered wheelchair, with two exceptions. Firstly, the prototype is controlled by eye movements instead of by a normal joystick. Secondly, the prototype is equipped with a sensor that stops all motion when the machine approaches an obstacle. The prototype has been evaluated in a preliminary clinical test with two users. Both users clearly communicated that they appreciated and had mastered the ability to control a powered wheelchair with their eye movements.
Vinnikov Contingency Evaluation Of Gaze Contingent Displays For Real Time Vis...Kalle
The visual field is the area of space that can be seen when an observer fixates a given point. Many visual capabilities vary with position in the visual field and many diseases result in changes in the visual field. With current technology, it is possible to build very complex real-time visual field simulations that employ gaze-contingent displays. Nevertheless, there are still no established techniques to evaluate such systems. We have developed a method to evaluate a system’s contingency by employing visual blind spot localization as well as foveal fixation. During the experiment, gaze-contingent and static conditions were compared. There was a strong correlation between predicted results and gaze-contingent trials. This evaluation method can also be used with patient populations and for the evaluation of gaze-contingent display systems, when there is need to evaluate a visual field outside of the foveal region.
Urbina Pies With Ey Es The Limits Of Hierarchical Pie Menus In Gaze ControlKalle
Pie menus offer several features which are advantageous especially for gaze control. Although the optimal number of slices per pie
and of depth layers has already been established for manual control, these values may differ in gaze control due to differences in spatial accuracy and congitive processing. Therefore, we investigated the layout limits for hierarchical pie menu in gaze control. Our user study indicates that providing six slices in multiple depth layers guarantees fast and accurate selections. Moreover, we compared two different methods of selecting a slice. Novices performed well with both, but selecting via selection borders produced better performance for experts than the standard dwell time selection.
Urbina Alternatives To Single Character Entry And Dwell Time Selection On Eye...Kalle
Eye typing could provide motor disabled people a reliable method of communication given that the text entry speed of current interfaces can be increased to allow for fluent communication. There are two reasons for the relatively slow text entry: dwell time selection requires waiting a certain time, and single character entry limits the maximum entry speed. We adopted a typing interface based on hierarchical pie menus, pEYEwrite [Urbina and Huckauf 2007] and included bigram text entry with one single pie iteration. Therefore, we introduced three different bigram building strategies.
Moreover, we combined dwell time selection with selection by borders, providing an alternative selection method and extra functionality. In a longitudinal study we compared participants performance during character-by-character text entry with bigram entry and with
text entry with bigrams derived by word prediction. Data showed large advantages of the new entry methods over single character text entry in speed and accuracy. Participants preferred selecting by
borders, which allowed them faster selections than the dwell time method.
Tien Measuring Situation Awareness Of Surgeons In Laparoscopic TrainingKalle
The study of surgeons’ eye movements is an innovative way of assessing skill and situation awareness, in that a comparison of eye movement strategies between expert surgeons and novices may show differences that can be used in training. Our preliminary study compared eye movements of 4 experts and
4 novices performing a simulated gall bladder removal task on a
dummy patient with an audible heartbeat and simulated vital signs displayed on a secondary monitor. We used a head-mounted Locarna PT-Mini eyetracker to record fixation locations during the operation. The results showed that novices concentrated so hard on the surgical
display that they were hardly able to look at the patient’s vital signs, even when heart rate audibly changed during the procedure. In comparison, experts glanced occasionally at the vitals monitor, thus being able to observe the patient condition.
Takemura Estimating 3 D Point Of Regard And Visualizing Gaze Trajectories Und...Kalle
The portability of an eye tracking system encourages us to develop a technique for estimating 3D point-of-regard. Unlike conventional methods, which estimate the position in the 2D image coordinates of the mounted camera, such a technique can represent richer gaze information of the human moving in the larger area. In this paper, we propose a method for estimating the 3D point-of-regard and a visualization technique of gaze trajectories under natural head movements for the head-mounted device. We employ visual SLAM technique to estimate head configuration and extract environmental information. Even in cases where the head moves dynamically, the proposed method could obtain 3D point-of-regard. Additionally, gaze trajectories are appropriately overlaid on the scene camera image.
Stevenson Eye Tracking With The Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser OphthalmoscopeKalle
Recent advances in high magnification retinal imaging have allowed for visualization of individual retinal photoreceptors, but these systems also suffer from distortions due to fixational eye motion. Algorithms developed to remove these distortions have the added benefit of providing arc second level resolution of the eye movements that produce them. The system also allows for visualization of targets on the retina, allowing for absolute retinal position measures to the level of individual cones. This paper will describe the process used to remove the eye movement artifacts and present analysis of their spectral characteristics. We find a roughly 1/f amplitude spectrum similar to that reported by Findlay (1971) with no evidence for a distinct
tremor component.
Stellmach Advanced Gaze Visualizations For Three Dimensional Virtual Environm...Kalle
Gaze visualizations represent an effective way for gaining fast insights into eye tracking data. Current approaches do not adequately support eye tracking studies for three-dimensional (3D) virtual environments. Hence, we propose a set of advanced gaze visualization techniques for supporting gaze behavior analysis in such environments. Similar to commonly used gaze visualizations for twodimensional
stimuli (e.g., images and websites), we contribute advanced 3D scan paths and 3D attentional maps. In addition, we introduce a models of interest timeline depicting viewed models, which can be used for displaying scan paths in a selected time segment. A prototype toolkit is also discussed which combines an implementation of our proposed techniques. Their potential for facilitating eye tracking studies in virtual environments was supported by a user study among eye tracking and visualization experts.
Skovsgaard Small Target Selection With Gaze AloneKalle
Accessing the smallest targets in mainstream interfaces using gaze
alone is difficult, but interface tools that effectively increase the size of selectable objects can help. In this paper, we propose a conceptual framework to organize existing tools and guide the development of new tools. We designed a discrete zoom tool and conducted a proof-of-concept experiment to test the potential of the framework and the tool. Our tool was as fast as and more accurate than the currently available two-step magnification tool. Our framework shows potential to guide the design, development, and testing of zoom tools to facilitate the accessibility of mainstream
interfaces for gaze users.
San Agustin Evaluation Of A Low Cost Open Source Gaze TrackerKalle
This paper presents a low-cost gaze tracking system that is based on a webcam mounted close to the user’s eye. The performance of the gaze tracker was evaluated in an eye-typing task using two different typing applications. Participants could type between 3.56 and 6.78 words per minute, depending on the typing system used. A pilot study to assess the usability of the system was also carried out in the home of a user with severe motor impairments. The
user successfully typed on a wall-projected interface using his eye movements.
Ryan Match Moving For Area Based Analysis Of Eye Movements In Natural TasksKalle
Analysis of recordings made by a wearable eye tracker is complicated by video stream synchronization, pupil coordinate mapping, eye movement analysis, and tracking of dynamic Areas Of Interest (AOIs) within the scene. In this paper a semi-automatic system is developed to help automate these processes. Synchronization is accomplished
via side by side video playback control. A deformable eye template and calibration dot marker allow reliable initialization via simple drag and drop as well as a user-friendly way to correct the algorithm when it fails. Specifically, drift may be corrected by nudging the detected pupil center to the appropriate coordinates. In a case study, the impact of surrogate nature views on physiological health and perceived well-being is examined via analysis of gaze over images of nature. A match-moving methodology was developed to track AOIs for this particular application but is applicable toward similar future studies.
Rosengrant Gaze Scribing In Physics Problem SolvingKalle
Eye-tracking has been widely used for research purposes in fields such as linguistics and marketing. However, there are many possibilities of how eye-trackers could be used in other disciplines like physics. A part of physics education research deals with the differences between novices and experts, specifi-cally how each group solves problems. Though there has been a great deal of research about these differences there has been no research that focuses on noticing exactly where experts and no-vices look while solving the problems. Thus, to complement the past research, I have created a new technique called gaze scrib-ing. Subjects wear a head mounted eye-tracker while solving electrical circuit problems on a graphics monitor. I monitor both scan patterns of the subjects and combine that with videotapes of their work while solving the problems. This new technique has yielded new information and elaborated on previous studies.
Qvarfordt Understanding The Benefits Of Gaze Enhanced Visual SearchKalle
In certain applications such as radiology and imagery analysis, it is important to minimize errors. In this paper we evaluate a structured inspection method that uses eye tracking information as a feedback mechanism to the image inspector. Our two-phase method starts with a free viewing phase during which gaze data is collected. During the next phase, we either segment the image, mask previously seen areas of the image, or combine the two techniques, and repeat the search. We compare the different methods
proposed for the second search phase by evaluating the inspection method using true positive and false negative rates, and subjective workload. Results show that gaze-blocked configurations reduced the subjective workload, and that gaze-blocking without segmentation showed the largest increase in true positive identifications and the largest decrease in false negative identifications of previously unseen objects.
Prats Interpretation Of Geometric Shapes An Eye Movement StudyKalle
This paper describes a study that seeks to explore the correlation between eye movements and the interpretation of geometric shapes. This study is intended to inform the development of an eye tracking interface for computational tools to support and enhance the natural interaction required in creative design. A common criticism of computational design tools is that they do not enable manipulation of designed shapes according to all perceived features. Instead the manipulations afforded are limited by formal structures of shapes. This research examines the potential for eye movement data to be used to recognise and make available for manipulation the perceived features in shapes. The objective of this study was to analyse eye movement data with the intention of recognising moments in which an interpretation of shape is made. Results suggest that fixation duration and saccade amplitude prove to be consistent indicators of shape interpretation.
Porta Ce Cursor A Contextual Eye Cursor For General Pointing In Windows Envir...Kalle
Eye gaze interaction for disabled people is often dealt with by designing ad-hoc interfaces, in which the big size of their elements compensates for both the inaccuracy of eye trackers and the instability of the human eye. Unless solutions for reliable eye cursor control are employed, gaze pointing in ordinary graphical operating environments is a very difficult task. In this paper we present an eye-driven cursor for MS Windows which behaves differently according to the “context”. When the user’s gaze is perceived within the desktop or a folder, the cursor can be discretely shifted from one icon to another. Within an application window or where there are no icons, on the contrary, the cursor can be continuously and precisely moved. Shifts in the four directions (up, down, left, right) occur through dedicated buttons. To increase user awareness of the currently pointed spot on the screen while continuously moving the cursor, a replica of the spot is provided within the active direction button, resulting in improved pointing performance.
Pontillo Semanti Code Using Content Similarity And Database Driven Matching T...Kalle
Laboratory eyetrackers, constrained to a fixed display and static (or accurately tracked) observer, facilitate automated analysis of fixation data. Development of wearable eyetrackers has extended environments and tasks that can be studied at the expense of automated analysis. Wearable eyetrackers provide 2D point-of-regard (POR) in scene-camera coordinates, but the researcher is typically interested in some high-level semantic property (e.g., object identity, region, or material) surrounding individual fixation points. The synthesis of POR into fixations and semantic information remains a labor-intensive manual task, limiting the application of wearable eyetracking.
We describe a system that segments POR videos into fixations and allows users to train a database-driven, object-recognition system. A correctly trained library results in a very accurate and semi-automated translation of raw POR data into a sequence of objects, regions or materials.
Palinko Estimating Cognitive Load Using Remote Eye Tracking In A Driving Simu...Kalle
We report on the results of a study in which pairs of subjects were involved in spoken dialogues and one of the subjects also operated a simulated vehicle. We estimated the driver’s cognitive load based on pupil size measurements from a remote eye tracker. We compared the cognitive load estimates based on the physiological pupillometric data and driving performance data. The physiological and performance measures show high correspondence suggesting that remote eye tracking might provide reliable driver cognitive load estimation, especially in simulators. We also introduced a new pupillometric cognitive load measure that shows promise in tracking cognitive load changes on time scales of several seconds.
2. diversive exploration. On the other hand, high-densities of fixa- Likert scale. The categories involved 1) hair/eye color, 2) skin
tions and long gaze duration are likely to reflect specific explora- texture/color, 3) clothing color/fabric pattern, 4) image back-
tion. As proposed in a study by Nodine, et al. [1993], this study ground, and 5) accessories. The total duration of each experiment,
assumes that the short gaze duration that seeks out attractive, nov- including the questionnaire completion and the actual eye-
el visual interests, which is diversive exploration (e.g., fixations tracking experiments was approximately 20 minutes.
with less than 300-msec gaze duration), is related to untrained
viewers, and the prolonged gaze duration (e.g., fixations with 4 Results
greater than 400-msec gaze durations) that searches meaning and
significance to the overall visual image tends to be linked to
Factor analysis was employed to determine the variables that ca-
trained viewers.
tegorize the subjects’ answers to the questions in the pre-viewing
questionnaire. The analysis identified the four background factors
that included knowledge (e.g., I consider myself knowledgeable
about art and aesthetics), enjoyment (e.g., I like to observe and
evaluate others’ appearance), technology (e.g., I am comfortable
with using a new technology), and necessity (e.g., I shop clothing
based on necessity). In order to determine the relationship be-
tween training and the background factors, regression analysis
was performed. The number of courses taken (indicator of train-
ing) was significantly related to a particular factor, “enjoyment” at
95% confidence level (F=6.111, p=.024). That is, the more
courses the subjects have taken, the more they tend to enjoy the
circumstances of aesthetic viewing. The different level of training
did not show strong relationships with other background factors.
In order to determine the relationship between subjective human
perception and objective eye-tracking data, the ratings of the five
categories in the post-viewing questionnaire and sum of fixation
duration (total gaze duration) on each areas of interest (AOI) were
compared. For example, in image 1, the subjects rated the catego-
ries of the visual interests in the order of clothing color/fabric
pattern (n=18, mean=5.28, SD=1.195), hair/eye color (n=12,
mean=4.92, SD=1.325), skin (n=8, mean=5.00, SD=1.512), back-
ground (n=4, mean=5.75, SD=1.500). For eye-tracking data anal-
ysis, the five areas of interest (AOIs) were identified: AOI1
(background), AOI2 (face/hair), AOI3 (clothing), AOI4 (skin),
and AOI5 (shoes). Total gaze durations on AOIs were ranked
from the longest to the shortest as such: clothing > skin >
Figure 1. Model images used for the experiments face/hair > background > shoes. In the particular image (Image 1),
although the order of skin and background in eye-tracking data
was reversed, compared to the subjects’ ratings in the question-
3 Methodology naire, the overall order of the visual interests remained similar. A
parallel trend was also found in the rest of the images. This means
Twenty female subjects participated in this study. Average age that the subjects’ self-evaluation on their visual attention was
range was 21 (SD=1.089) and the number of art and design- compatible with eye-tracking data.
related courses taken was 0-15 (mean=6.4, SD=4.044). Twenty
model images that contain four original photos and four manipu- AOI Description Mean Total Fixation Std. Deviation
lated photos per original were used for the experiment (Figure 1). Duration (msec)
Four original photos, posed by a male and a female model, de- AOI1 Background 739.2632 725.25588
picted images with two different ensembles of apparel for each AOI2 Face/Hair 878.0000 1,037.30942
gender. Using computer-aided design (CAD) software, the origi- AOI3 Clothing 1,754.4210 1,533.93702
nal photos were manipulated in accessories, clothing colors, fabric AOI4 Skin 929.8421 751,32308
patterns, hair colors, and backgrounds. Each of the images was AOI5 Shoes 61.4737 84.72529
shown on a 17-inch color eye-tracker (ASL D6) computer screen
for 10 seconds. Figure 2. Total Fixation Duration of AOIs in Image 1
Two questionnaires were administered. Prior to the experiment, Regression analysis was used to find the relationship between the
participants filled out a questionnaire that asked their background subjects’ training level and their aesthetic viewing patterns. When
information such as age, gender, comfort level with technology a model with fewer visual interests was presented on a plain
use and familiarity with art/aesthetics/design, and interest in appa- background such as Image 2 (Figure 2), the more trained the sub-
rel shopping. During the actual experiment, a series of twenty ject was, the lower interfixation distance, that is, the more densi-
images were shown on a computer screen. Immediately after ties of fixations were found in AOI1 (background). That is, when
viewing each image, in another questionnaire, the subjects were a simple context was given, the trained group tends to examine
asked to rate the five categories of visual interests that drew their the wider areas on the image. On the other hand, the peripheral
attention while viewing the image on the computer screen. The areas such as shoes (AOI5) showed a significant difference be-
categories of possible visual interests were rated, using the 7-point tween the trained and untrained group: the less trained, the more
154
3. fixations and the longer scanning time (F=6.993, p=.016) around there was no significant difference on the central, foremost areas
the shoes area. This means that when the image is more compli- of visual interest between the two groups. On the other hand, the
cated, while the trained group tends to scan the entire image, the trained viewers’ interfixation duration, namely scanning time, was
untrained group tends to look at particular areas. The same pattern much longer than the untrained viewers, which indicates that the
is also found on the images with a male model. For instance in trained viewers spend more time exploring the relationships
image 19 (refer to Figure 1), with the male model image wearing among the design elements on the image. The overall aesthetic
a shirt with a complex pattern appearing on a complicated street viewing pattern suggests that in aesthetic viewing, people tend to
background, significantly more fixations were found on the shirt examine others' appearance largely in a vertical direction, while
among the untrained, in comparison with the trained group involving various sub-paths of viewing to discern the relation-
(F=4.116, p=0.38). ships of the forms. These findings imply that aesthetic training for
apparel design students is highly desirable, in order not just to
In this study we also discovered several key findings in overall teach them to appreciate others’ appearances in a systematic way,
viewing patterns: 1) if an image contains visual interest on the but more importantly to design products that can maximize con-
model's clothing, the viewer is likely to look at the clothing first sumers’ satisfaction by comprehending their diverse needs in the
and then move to the face. 2) If an image has more complexity on ever-competitive apparel manufacturing market.
the background, the viewer's viewing path tends to encompass
wider areas on the image, because of the viewer's continuous eye 6 References
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