OXFORD lJNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade ma¡k ofOxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries @ Oxford University Press 2013 The moral rights ofthe autho¡ have been asserted First published in zor3 2077 201.6 zo1.s 2014 2oa3 10987654327 AII rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, sto¡ed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate repro$aphics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope ofthe above should be sent to the ELT Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this sarne condition on any acquirer Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Photocopying The Publisher grants permission for the photocopying ofthose pages marked 'photocopiable' according to the following conditions. Individual purchasers may make copies for their own use or for use by classes that they teach. School purchasers may make copies for use by staffand students, but this permission does not extend to additional schools or branches Under no circumstances may any part ofthis book be photocopied for resale rsBN: 978 o 19 454126 8 Printed in China This book is printed on paper fiorn certified and well-rnanaged sources. AC I(NOWLE DGE ME NTS The authors cmd ptblisher are grar,efuI to those who hqve given permksion to reproduce the following extracts and adaptations oJ copyight material: p.77 Extract from Language Delelowent and Language Disorders by Lois Bloom and Margaret Lahey (1978). Macmillan Publishers; p.47 Figure Ílom'Some issues relating to the Monitor Model'by Stephen Krashen, On TESOI (1977). Reprinted by permission ofTESOL International Association; p.49 Extract from 'Constructing an acquisition-based procedure for second language assessment'by Manfred Pienemann, Malcolm Johnston, and Geoff Brindley irt Studies in Second Longuage Acqu$üofl , Volume 10/2, pp.277-a3 1988). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; p.53 Extract Ílom 'speeding up acquisition ofhisfter: Expücit L1/L2 contracts help' itSecond Language Acquisition and the Younger Learner: Child's Play? by Joanna White (2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohn Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia; p.54 Exhact ftom 'Second language instruction does make a diffe¡ence'by Catherine Doughty in Studies in Se.

1. OXFORD
lJNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department ofthe
University of Oxford. It furthers the University's
objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford
is a registered trade ma¡k ofOxford University
Press in the UK and in certain other countries
@ Oxford University Press 2013
The moral rights ofthe autho¡ have been asserted
First published in zor3
2077 201.6 zo1.s 2014 2oa3
10987654327
AII rights reserved. No part ofthis publication
may be reproduced, sto¡ed in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford
University Press, or as expressly permitted by
law, by licence or under terms agreed with the
appropriate repro$aphics rights organization.
Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the
scope ofthe above should be sent to the ELT
Rights Department, Oxford University Press,

2. at the address above
You must not circulate this work in any other
form and you must impose this sarne condition
on any acquirer
Links to third party websites are provided by
Oxford in good faith and for information only.
Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the
materials contained in any third party website
referenced in this work
Photocopying
The Publisher grants permission for the
photocopying ofthose pages marked
'photocopiable' according to the following
conditions. Individual purchasers may make
copies for their own use or for use by classes
that they teach. School purchasers may make
copies for use by staffand students, but this
permission does not extend to additional
schools or branches
Under no circumstances may any part ofthis
book be photocopied for resale
rsBN: 978 o 19 454126 8
Printed in China
This book is printed on paper fiorn certified
and well-rnanaged sources.
AC I(NOWLE DGE ME NTS
The authors cmd ptblisher are grar,efuI to those who hqve

3. given permksion to reproduce the following extracts and
adaptations oJ copyight material: p.77 Extract from
Language Delelowent and Language Disorders by
Lois Bloom and Margaret Lahey (1978). Macmillan
Publishers; p.47 Figure Ílom'Some issues relating
to the Monitor Model'by Stephen Krashen, On
TESOI (1977). Reprinted by permission ofTESOL
International Association; p.49 Extract from
'Constructing an acquisition-based procedure
for second language assessment'by Manfred
Pienemann, Malcolm Johnston, and Geoff Brindley
irt Studies in Second Longuage Acqu$üofl , Volume 10/2,
pp.277-a3 1988). Reproduced by permission of
Cambridge University Press; p.53 Extract Ílom
'speeding up acquisition ofhisfter: Expücit L1/L2
contracts help' itSecond Language Acquisition and
the Younger Learner: Child's Play? by Joanna White
(2008) pp.193-228. With kind permission ofJohn
Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/
Philadelphia; p.54 Exhact ftom 'Second language
instruction does make a diffe¡ence'by Catherine
Doughty in Studies in Second Language Acquisiüon,
Volume 13/4, pp.431-69 (7991. Reproduced by
permission of Carnbridge University Press; p.1 36
Reprinted fr om In t ern ati on al J ournol of E duc aüonal
Research, Volume 37 by Merrill Swain and Sharon
tapkin'Talking it through: two French immersion
learners' response to reformulations' Pp.285-304
(2002)with permission from Elsevier; p.139 Exüact
from 'Corrective feedback and learner uptake'
by Roy Lyster and Leila Ranta in Studies in Second
Longuage Acquisition, Volume 7917 pp.37 -66 (7997).
Reproduced by permission of Cambridge
University Press.

4. Cartoonsw: Sophie Grillet @ Oxford University
Press 1993, 2005, and 2012.
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7. vlll Contents
Individual differences in second language learning
Preview
Research on learner characteristics
Intelligence
Language learning aptitude
Learning styles
Personality
Attitudes and motivation
Motivation in the classroom
Identiry and ethnic group affiliation
Learner beliefs
Individual differences and classroom instruction
Age and second language learning
The critical period: More than just pronunciation?
Intuitions of grammaticality
Rate of learning
Age and second language instruction
Summary
Suggestions for further reading
Explaining second language learning
Preview
The behaviourist perspective
Second language applications: Mimicry and memorization

8. The innatist perspective
Second language applications: Krashen's'Monitor Model'
The cognitive perspective
Information processing
Usage-based learning
The competition model
Language and the brain
Second language applications: Interacting, noticing,
processing, and practising
The sociocultural perspective
Second language applications: Learning by talking
Summary
Suggestions for further reading
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auo 'paruaru

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lue¡¡
l¡a,rrrcaga ueql esn ol lsag rrer{r op or a Er{ oqtll sJal{rrar or
parnqlJ}slp
pu¿ paJepJo l¡durs are lagr 'sJrullatuos 'uolleluarua¡drul laqr ul
8ururc¡l
alrsuetxa JoJ senrunlJoddo qrmt aruof, slEIJalEIu.lvou aql
'sauJllaurog 'uolSar
Jo loor{f,s E ur uorletuaua¡dul a}Blporurul JoJ paglJf,se¡d a.¡e
saqceo:dde
^au
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aJoul
aq illrr'laqr regr plor erE srrr{r"3J 'lSo8epad ¡o 's¡rlslnSuu
'l3o¡oqcfsd ur
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'parnpo¡tur e¡e 8ul
-qreel a8en8ue¡ u8laro3 pup puores roJ qooqrxal pur spoqraur
ldau uaql¡
NOIIfNCIOUINI
Innoduction
In Chapter 2 we look at second language learners' developing
knowledge,
their abiliry to use that knowledge, and how this compares with
Ll learning.
In Chapter 3, we rurn our attention to how individual learner
characteristics

17. may affect success. In Chapter 4, several theories that have
been advanced
to explain second language learning are presented and
discussed. Chapter
5 begins with a comparison of naturd and instructional
environments for
second language learning.'We then examine some different ways
in which
researchers have observed and described teaching and learning
practices in
second language classrooms.
In Chapter 6, we examine six proposals that have been made for
second
language teaching. Examples of research related to each of the
proposals are
presented, leading to a discussion of the evidence available for
assessing their
effectiveness. The chapter ends with a discussion of what
research findings
suggest about the most effective ways to teach and learn a
second language
in the classroom.
In Chapter 7, we will provide a general summary of the book by
looking at
how research can inform our response to some'popular opinions'
about lan-
guage learning and teaching that are introduced below.
A Glossary provides a quick reference for a number of terms
that may be new
or have specific technical meanings in the context of language
acquisition
research. Glossary words are shown in bold letters where they
first appear in

18. the text. For readers who would like to find out more, an
annotated list of
suggestions for further reading is included at the end of each
chapter. The
Bibliography provides full reference information for the
suggested readings
and all the works that are referred to in the text.
'W'e have tried to present the information in a way that does not
assume that
readers are akeady familiar with research methods or theoretical
issues in
second language learning. Examples and case studies are
included through-
out the book to illustrate the research ideas. Many of the
examples are taken
from second language classrooms. le have also included a
number ofactivi-
ties for readers to practise some of the techniques of
observation and analysis
used in the research that we review in this book. At the end of
each chapter
are 'Questions for refection to help readers consolidate and
expand their
understanding of the material.
Before we begin ...
It is probably true, as some have claimed, that most of us teach
as we were
taught or in awaythat matches our ideas and preferences about
howwe learn.
Take a moment to refect on your views about how languages are
learned and
what you think this means about how they should be taught. The
statements
in the activity below summarize some popular opinions about

19. language
'seuo xelduo) eJolaq
seJntrnJls a8en8ue¡ a¡durs qJeel Plnoqs sJeqf,eal | |
'Jaqloue ol uo 3uto3 aJoleq euo qf,ee
¡o sa¡dr,uexa as¡Dad plnoqs sJeuJeel Pu€'eutl e
lp euo selnJ lellleuue"r8 luasa.ld PlnoLls sJeq)€al Ol
'sra¡eads el!}eu ql!^ suotl€sJeluof, ut
ated¡r¡ued ,ftsea uer laqr'e8en8u€l e ,o ernDnJN
ilseq eql Pu€ sPJo^ 000'l
^
oDl sJeuJeal a)uo ó
'aSenBue¡ puof,as
eqt u! spunos lenpr^rpu! aql ¡¡e erunouord
ol alqE eq ol sJeuJeal Jo, l€lluassa s! rl I
'3utpea.t
q8no.rqr sr ,fue¡nqero,r /veu uJ€el ol ,(e¡,r lseq eql ¿
'a8entue¡ m-rg
Jleqt uo4 elueJeFetu! ol anP aJ€ 3)eu sJeuJ€el
e8en8ue¡ puof,as teqt selelslu eql ro lso¡ 9
'3uru;ea¡ ur ssaf,f,ns
,o pooqrle¿!l aql rateelt eql'seuu€J3o-rd ¡ooq:s
ur pe)npoJtut st aten8ue¡ Puofes P JallJeo eql S

20. 'uolle^ltour st uortlslnb¡e a8en8ue¡ Puof,es
u! sse)fns ¡o ;ontpard lusuodLul rsou aql t
'sJeuJeal
a8en8ue¡ poo8 a"re a¡doad rueS¡¡¡aru¡ llq8lU e
'sJoJJe ¡er¡teuue;3 a¡eu
,(aqr ueq,r,r ueJpltql Sunol }¡a.l'¡or ,!¡ensn sluaJed Z
'uolletlru! q8no-rqr l¡ureu PeuJEel a;e sa8en8uel ¡
osovvs
aar8esrp l¡Suorrs-q5
teq^ euos aa-r8esrp-6
leq^ euos aa-r8e-Y
ae.r8e ,!3uo;rs-y5
:uoruldo rnol qlrr* Peletf,osse xoq eql ul
¡ ue Suqreu lq tuaualets q)ea qr!^A aa.l3e nol q)lq/v 01 luelxe
aqt elerlPul
sluoruolels aseql uo uoluldo JnoÍ eAlD Arl^lrcv
'Sulurea¡ a8en8ue¡ Puoias ul ,Goaql Pue q3Jeasal luoJJnf, rnoge
Pear
nol sr punu ul rrJegl or suopf,EeJ rnol pue sluaruel?ls asaqr daal
'uorurdo
gr", qri^ aarSeslp ¡o aa¡8e nol raqtaqr'r rnoqe lun{I 'Surgrear
pue Sulurea¡
uo4Jnpo4uI

21. Introduction
Photocopiable @ Oxford University Press
l2 Learners'errors should be corrected as soon as
they are made in order to prevent the formation
of bad habits.
l3 Teachers should use materials that expose
students only to language structures they have
already been taught.
l4 When learners are allowed to interact freely (for
example, in group or pair activities), they copy
each other's mistakes.
l5 Students learn what they are taught.
ló Teachers should respond to students'errors by
correctly rephrasing what they have said rather
than by explicitly pointing out the error.
l7 Students can learn both language and academic
content (for example, science and history)
simultaneously in classes where the subject
matter is taught in their second language.
l8 Classrooms are good places to learn about
language but not for learning how to use language.
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oP ./roH ¿PIro1( eql Punor¿ l¡re¡u¡s do¡a,rap eSenSur¡ PInp

22. seoc ¿sasod
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23. f,nsrnSur¡ssor:3o
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ss"ll-alPPltu ul
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Language learning in early childhood
Tbef.rst three years: Milestones and
deu e lopmental sequences
One remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the
high degree of
similariry in the early language of children all over the world.
Researchers
have described developmental sequences for many aspects of
first language
acquisition. The earliest vocalizations are simply the
involuntary crying that
babies do when they are hungry or uncomfortable. Soon,
however, we hear
the cooing and gurgling sounds of contented babies, lying in

24. their beds
looking at fascinating shapes and movement around them. Even
though
they have little control over the sounds they make in these early
weeks of
life, infants are able to hear subtle differences between the
sounds of human
languages. Not only do they distinguish the voice of their
mothers from
those of other speakers, they also seem to recognize the
language that was
spoken around their mother before theywere born. Furthermore,
in cleverly
designed experiments, researchers have demonstrated that tiny
babies are
capable ofvery fine auditorydiscrimination. For example, they
can hear the
difference between sounds as similar as pa'and'ba'.
Janet'ü7erker, Patricia Kuhl, and others have used new
technologies that allow
us to see how sensitive infants are to speech sounds. tü7'hat
may seem even
more remarkable is that infants stop making distinctions
between sounds
that are not phonemic in the language that is spoken around
them. For
example, by the time they afe ayear old, babies who will
become speakers of
Arabic stop reacting to the difference between pa' and'ba'which
is not pho-
nemic in Arabic. Babies who regularly hear more than one
language in their
environment continue to respond to these differences for a
longer period
('Werke¡ 'Weikum, and Yoshida 2006) . One important finding

25. is that it is not
enough for babies to hear language sounds from electronic
devices. In order
to learn-or retain-the abiliry to distinguish between sounds, they
need
to interact with a human speaker (Conboy and Kuhl 20II). The
Internet
abounds with remarkable videos of infants reacting to language
sounds.
rMhether they are becoming monolingual or bilingual children,
however,
it will be many months before their own vocalizations begin to
refect the
characteristics ofthe language or languages they hear and longer
still before
they connect language sounds with specific meaning. However,
by the end of
their first year, most babies understand quite a few frequently
repeated words
in the language or languages spoken around them. Theywave
when someone
says 'bye-bye'; they clap when someone says pat-a-cake'; they
eagerly hurry
to the kitchen when 'juice and cookies' are mentioned.
At 12 months, most babies will have begun to produce a word or
two that
everyone recognizes. By the age of two, most children reliably
produce at
least 50 different words and some produce many more. About
this dme, they
begin to combine words into simple sentences such as 'Mommy
juice' and
I

26. I
(
l
I
Í
:
t
? Puz aql salf,rlr?
(lddrg sz furuoyt¡) e¡ndoo
(req slppeq) s- a,rrssessod
(tuam Áqeg) suro; rsed rep8arl
(qooq ozvrr) s- prn¡d
(Suruunr furuo¡lq) &ur aqssat8o¡d luesa¡d
'parpnls fagr saruaqd
-roru rr{t Jo eruos s.l$,oqs (11ooq g.L6l su^&org ruor3
pardepe) .vro¡aq tsIT eql
'aruanbas JEInuls t ur pa;lnbce eJalv sauragdroru ¡ecneruruer8
Vl ñqt PunoJ
laqr (qereg pue 'elg 'ur"py pa¡ec) ue¡P¡gr oerqrJo tuaurdola,rap
a8en8ue¡
aqr3o.,(pnrs purpn¡l8uol e uI 'sruaPnrs PuE san8ea¡or slq PuE
u^org raSo¿
fq rno paur¿f, se,/v serpnrs úvoul-lsaq eI{Uo auo 'qsrÉug u¡
saruagd.roru ¡rr
-neruu¡¿¡8 a¡mb¡e uarpllql .&oq uo Pasnf,oJ sJatlf,JEesar FJs

27. es '<s096I el{r uI
seuer{dJoru IBf, lreuur"Jc
'sreal looqrs eqr ¡run
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(,laa3, se grns)
s¡ern¡d re¡nSarrr Jo asn Darro3 'sunou or s8urpua p.rn¡d ppe
l¡qertar larp
ero;aq 3uo1 ¡ern¡d pue .rt¡n8urs uea urq qsrn8urrslp utr uarPllql
'a¡duexa
JoC 'arun Suoy r roj SurpuersJapun a,rnruSoo suaJPIIr{o ut
luasa¡d uaag a^¿q
r¿qr s¿epl Sulssa¡dxa JoJ sluauela :lrsm8ut¡ 3I{r Jo uorllsrnbce
¡enprr8 aqr
tf,egal ot rr¡eas sa¡uanbas ¡eruaudolartap agl 'saser Jar{ro uI
'arullJo Surpurrs
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l{f,ns sgJs PE
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arrrrluSol s,ueJPIIql
ot palEIeJ eJB uoltlslnbce a8en8uz¡ ur saSels esaql 'lualxa
euros QT.',sa8els,
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surauzd asaql
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saJnrBai lueur
3o ruaudo¡a ep pue acuaS¡au¡a eql ur su¡au¿d a¡qerclpard are
eraqt 's-real
aarr{r tsJg Jleql ur a8en8ut¡ 1o lra,rorslp aqt r¡8nonp ssa¡8o¡d
uaJPIII{3 ry
,'de¡ rnolgo au do.rp or puaratd nol a-reqztr Sulqr

28. luury teqr op asee¡d {pp"C, ue^a ro ,Sutqtaruos paddorp ÍPP"C,
ro üz'roP
¡a3lpprq, ueau rq8¡ru ,qo-qn lpP"C, (uolltnlls eqr uo Surpuedaq
,'ule8r
aplstno oB ol luezrr I, utetu &ur ,aptslno a.lotu, 'a¡dtuexe Jo{
'sPJolv aulgluof,
l¡a,rnrar: uer fagr regr su8rs ,&oqs sefuetues PJod-aaJI{l PUE
-o^l JIaI{I
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aJE uerPIIIir
ler{t saJueluas l¡rea eseql ur ue^a 'afuePl^a aes osp aA
'llqelreura¡ ',ssr1
fgeg, se Sulgr arues eqr u€eru tou seoP fqeq ssu, 'PIIql
Suqeads-qst8uE
uE JoJ'snql'spro,,'r jo rsIT e rsnl ueqr aJou Iueql salelu reqr
dlgsuone¡ar
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e8en8ur¡ arir
Jo JJPJO PJoa al{l slJJUeJ JaPJo PJolv agt '8u¡ssnu a;e
saruaqdrou TEJIleIu
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tual{t azruSora.t
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a,rea¡ laqr
esnef,eg ,:tgdtr8a¡al, pallrf, seuneuros oJE sef,ueluos asaql '(u-
1vop ¡e3 lqeq,
?ooqfl lqr [1taa ut Sututoal a7anSuaT
(
I

29. l
J
Language learning in early childhood
regular past -el(she walked)
third person singular simple present -s (she runs)
auxiliary be (he is coming)
Brown and his colleagues found that a child who had mastered
the gram-
matical morphemes at the bottom of the list had also mastered
those at the
top, but the reverse was not true. Thus, there was evidence for a
'developmen-
tal sequence' or order of acquisition. However, the children did
not acquire
the morphemes at the same age or rate. Eve had mastered nearly
all the mor-
phemes before she was two-and-a-halfyears old, while Sarah
andAdam were
still working on them when they were three-and-a-half or four.
Brownt longitudinal work was confirmed in a cross-sectional
study of 21
children. Jill and Peter de Villiers (1973) found that children
who correctly
used the morphemes that Adam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired
late were also
able to use the ones thatAdam, Eve, and Sarah had acquired
earlier. The chil-
dren mastered the morphemes at different ages, just asAdam,
Eve, and Sarah

30. had done, but the order of their acquisition was very similar.
M-y hypotheses have been advanced to explain why these
grammatical
morphemes are acquired in the observed order. Researchers
have studied the
frequency with which the morphemes occur in parents' speech,
the cognitive
complexity of the meanings represented by each morpheme, and
the difficulty
ofperceiving or pronouncing them. In the end, there has been no
simple satis-
factory explanation for the sequence, and most researchers
agree that the order
is determined by an interaction among a number of different
factors.
To supplement the evidence we have from simply observing
children, some
carefully designed procedures have been developed to …
Overview of L& S Ch. 4
Explaining Second Language LearningBig Idea: How can we
move from L1 acquisition to L2 acquisition using different
language acquisition theories?BehaviorismSecond language
applications: Mimicry and memorizationThe Innatist
perspective: Universal GrammarSecond language applications:
Krashen’s ‘monitor model’Current psychological theories: The
cognitive/developmental perspective
– Information processing

31. – Usage-based learning
– Competition model
– Language and the brainSecond language applications:
Interacting, noticing, and processingThe social-cultural
perspective
-Comprehensible output hypothesis
-Learning by talking
-Collaborative dialogueSecond language applications: Learning
by talking
The Behaviorist Perspective
The Behaviorist Perspective
Based on the idea that language learners mimic language in the
environment and learn by “habit”
Linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis because learners
would have to start with the habits of their L1, and those would
transfer to the L2.
Fails to explain the many errors learners make that are not
based on L1.
Error study indicates that there is a more complex explanation
for L1 influence on L2 development.
*Review of behaviorist perspective
The Innatist Perspective

32. Krashen’s Monitor Model
Krashen’s Monitor Model: The Five Hypotheses
Acquisitioned learning: acquire vs learn
Monitor: learners draw on “acquired” language to engage and
use learned information to “monitor” or edit their language use
Natural order: learning unfolds in a predictable sequence
Comprehensible input: i+1, acquisition occurs when learners are
exposed to language that a step beyond their current level
Affective filter: explains why emotions (anxiety, fear, boredom,
etc) get in the way of some students’ development
The cognitive perspectiveThe study of cognition––how humans
acquire, process, store, and retrieve informationIn contrast to
innatists, cognitive psychologists argue that there is no mental
module devoted to language acquisition. Rather, all learning
and thinking are based on the same cognitive
processes.Learning a first or a second language draws on the
same learning processes; what’s different are the circumstances
of learning and how learners’ prior knowledge of language
shapes their perception of a new language.
Information processingLanguage acquisition is the building up
of knowledge that can eventually be used automatically for
speaking and understanding.New information must be noticed
before it can be learned.There is a limit to how much

33. information a learner can pay attention to.Through experience
and practice, information that was new becomes easier to
process.
Skill learning New information may first be internalized as
declarative knowledge––learner is aware of the information and
can report noticing it.Through practice, declarative knowledge
is proceduralized, and the learner acquires the ability to use the
information appropriately.With further practice, the information
can be accessed automatically. So automatically, in fact, that
the learner forgets having learned it.
RestructuringNot all knowledge seems to follow the declarative-
procedural-automatic path. Learners may practise something for
a while and then appear not to use what they have practised but
rather to recognize the relevance of other knowledge.For
example, after saying I saw or I went, a learner may begin to
use the regular past ending on these irregular verbs (e.g. I seed
or I goed).
Usage-based learningAn approach to understanding learning
that sees learning as the creation of links (connections) between
bits of informationUnlike innatists, connectionists do not
assume that there is a neurological module specifically designed
for SLA. All learning is based on the same processes.Unlike
skill theorists, connectionists do not assume that new
knowledge must first be declarative.

34. Usage-based learning (Cont.) The frequency with which
information is encountered is a strong predictor of how easily it
will be learned. Neurological connections are made between
language and a particular meaning or a situation (e.g. people
usually say Hello when they answer the phone) and between
elements of language itself (e.g. noticing that say always occurs
with I or we/you/they and that says always occurs with
he/she/it).
The competition modelProposed to account for both L1 and L2
learning Through exposure learners come to understand how to
use the ‘cues’ that language uses to signal specific functions
(e.g. word order; animacy).English speakers tend to use word
order; Italian speakers use animacy with a sentence like:Il
giocattolo guarda il bambino. (The toy – is looking at – the
child.)
Language and the brainChallenges to the assumption that
language functions are located in the left hemisphere of the
brain.Research shows activation in both areas of the brain while
language is processed.Differences have been observed between
first and second language learners.Premature to consider
implications of neurolinguistics research for L2 teaching.
Cognitive perspectives applied to second language learning

35. Interaction hypothesis How does input become comprehensible?
Modified interactionComprehension checksClarification
requestsSelf-repetition or paraphrase Revised version of
interaction hypothesisMore emphasis on corrective feedback
Cognitive perspectives applied to second language learning
(Cont.)
Noticing hypothesis
• Nothing is learned unless it is noticed. Importance of
awareness and attention in L2 learning
Input processing
• Learners have difficulty focusing on form and meaning at the
same time.
*
Cognitive perspectives applied to second language learning
(Cont.)
Processability theory
• German L2 acquisition
– Developmental sequences in syntax and morphology are
affected by how easy they were to process.
– Developmental and variational features
– Teachability hypothesis
Cognitive perspectives applied to second language learning
(Cont.)
The role of practice

36. • Practice that characterized audiolingual instruction often
failed to make connections between language forms and their
meanings.
• From a cognitive perspective, practice is not mechanical and
not restricted to production––it is also relevant for
comprehension.
• Practice should be interactive, meaningful, and focus on task-
essential forms.
The sociocultural perspectiveCognitive development arises as a
result of social interaction.Learning occurs through
interaction.Speaking (and writing) mediates thinking.
Difference between ZPD and i+1Interaction versus sociocultural
perspectives
Sociocultural perspectives applied to second language learning
(Cont.)
Learning by talking
-Traditionally, ZPD was restricted to a novice and an expert; the
term has been broadened to include novice–novice interaction.
Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis
-Research investigating how learners co-construct knowledge
while engaged in collaborative dialogue that focuses on form
and meaning at the same time.
Wong Ch 2

37. Overview
Overview of W Ch. 2: SLA Theory, Research and Real-World
Teaching
Second language acquisitionAcquire VS. LearningPredictable
sequences in SLAKnowing a language rule V.S. Use it in
communicative interactionNative-like command of a second
language SLA research and class practice
ConnectionImplicationEffective second language teaching and
learning methods
What is Second Language Acquisition About?
Interested in discovering how people “learn” a language other
than their first language both in school and the everyday world
Not concerned about the best way to teach any particular
concept
Instead, searching for what effect formal instruction has on SLA
the first place.
Questions SLA Researchers Are Interested In
How do learners of a native language incorporate the linguistic
system of another language?
What does the second language look like and what kinds of
errors are made?
How are language rules similar to their L1?
How many factors affect their acquisition?

38. How does fluency develop?
How does sociocultural factors such as motivation or desire to
identify with native speakers affect acquisition?
Accepted Generalizations about SLA
Self-Reflection: Do you agree the following accepted
generalizations about SLA? Explain if you think that they are
good ideas to implement in a SLA classroom based on your
reading.
Adults and adolescents can “acquire” a Second language
Learner creates a systematic interlanguage
Uses predictable sequences that certain structures have to be
acquired before others can be integrated
Practice does not make perfect
Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use
it correctly while communicating
Isolated Explicit Error Correction is Usually Ineffective
Accepted Generalizations about SLA
Learner’s task is enormous because language is tremendously
complex
Learner’s ability to understand language in a meaningful
context exceeds their ability to comprehend decontextualized
language and to produce language of comparable complexity
and accuracy
One cannot achieve Native speaker language command of the
second language in one hour a day format

39. SLA Theory and the Relationship to Real World Teaching
Not an eclectic approach, nor a one size fits all
SLA Theory supports best and effective practices
Many current instructional material do not always reflect SLA
Theory and research
SLA offers realistic expectations about teaching and learning
SLA Theory and the Relationship to Real World Teaching to
Considering Research ReportsThese factors will impact the final
results of any SLA study and should be kept in mind as we
further our own studies in SLA. Age of SubjectsTarget
StructureAssessment MeasuresLevel of LearnersNumber of
Instructional Contact Hours