The document provides various facts about oceans and Antarctica: - Sharks account for fewer than 10 human deaths annually while over 100 million sharks are killed each year for their fins. Polar bears have black skin and white fur that reflects visible light. - Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii is taller than Mount Everest if measured from its base on the ocean floor. The oceans cover most of the Earth's surface and contain nearly all its water. - Each winter, Antarctica gains up to 20 million square km of sea ice, the largest seasonal phenomenon on Earth, which reflects heat and insulates the ocean. Various forms of sea ice develop as temperatures drop.

1. Ocean Facts
Did you know ?
• On average in recent years sharks have accounted for less than ten human deaths annually in all the
wo rld’s se as to fuel the growing demand for shark fins, man has been killing up to 100 million sharks
each year. (The underwater channel)
• Did yo u k now P o lar bears a ctually have black skin? T he polar bear’s hair appears white to us
because the rough inner surfaces of the hollow hairs reflect visible light. Ultraviolet light from the sun
tra ve ls down the co re o f e ach hair whe re it is soaked up a nd stored by the bear’s black skin.
•Many people think that Mount Everest, at 8,848m, is the tallest mountain on Earth. However, Mauna Kea, an inactive
volcano off the island of Hawaii, is actually taller. Although only 4,205m (13,800ft) of Mauna Kea stands above sea level, it
is in fact over 10,000m (6.2 miles) tall if measured from the ocean floor to its summit. (bbc – Blue Planet)
• T he o ceans co ver 71 per ce nt of the Ea rth’s surface a nd co ntain 97 per ce nt o f the Ea rth’s wa ter. Less than 1 per ce nt is
fresh water, and 2-3 per cent is contained in glaciers and ice caps. (bbc – Blue Planet)
• Earth is the only planet in our solar system to have oceans.
• At least 123 freshwater species became extinct during the 20th century. These include 79 invertebrates, 40 fishes, and 4
amphibians. (There may well have been other species that were never identified.)
• At the deepest point in the ocean the pressure is more than 8 tons per square inch, or equivalent to one person trying to
support 50 jumbo jets. (Ocean Planet)
• If all the land in the world was flattened out, the Earth would be a smooth sphere completely covered by a continuous
layer of seawater 2,686 metres deep.
• If the o cean’s to tal salt co ntent we re dried, it wo uld co ver the co ntinents to a depth of 5 feet. (Ocean Planet)
• The deepest known point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench which reaches depths of over 36,000 feet (11,000
meters).oxfam.org.uk
• The 2nd deepest known point in the ocean is the Tonga Trench in the western part of the Pacific Ocean reach depths in
excess of 10,000 metres (32,800 feet).
• The speed of sound in water is 1,435 m/sec – nearly five times faster than the speed of sound in air.
• Ocean water and ice make up almost 98 percent of all the water on Earth.
• Ea ch ye a r, three times a s much rubbish is dumped into the wo rld’s o ceans a s the we ight of fish ca ught.
• The valley glaciers of Greenland produce some 12,000 to 15,000 sizable icebergs every year.
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean, containing more than twice the volume of water as the Atlantic Ocean.
• Hydrothermal vents, fractures in the sea floor that discharge hot seawater laden with hydrogen sulphide, support the
only ecosystem known to run on chemical energy rather than energy from the sun, including mussels, large bivalve clams,
and huge tube worms.
• Sound travels five times faster in water than in air. For example, in 1960, scientists set off depth charges off the coast
of Australia and 2-1/2 hours later the explosion was heard under the water in Bermuda. (ocean98.org)
• 80% of all life on earth is found under the ocean surface. (ocean98.org)

2. • The average depth of all oceans is about 2.3 miles.
• The average temperature of all oceans is about 39 degrees F (3.8 degrees C).
• The oceans provide the biggest source of wild or domestic protein in the world. Each year some 70 to 75 million tons of
fish are caught in the ocean. Fish (fin a nd shell) are the wo rld’s largest single source o f a nimal pro tein, e xceeding
production of beef, sheep, poultry or eggs.
• Algae, the first plants on earth, developed in the sea 3.5 million years ago and give off oxygen as they produce food, as
other plants do. Today, algae produce over half of the oxygen that we breathe. (ocean98.org)
• The largest ocean is the Pacific, followed by the Atlantic and the Indian.
• Mo re tha n half o f the wo rld’s animal groups are fo und o nly in the sea.
• There are more species of fish than mammals, reptiles and birds combined.
• Scie ntists e stimate that 80 percent of all life o n e arth is found under the o cean’s surface.
• Life in the sea developed more than three billion years ago. Land dwellers appeared comparatively re cently – 400 million
years ago.
• Seafood accounts for the largest percentage of human protein consumption – 83 million metric tons/91 million tones
consumed annually.
• The ocean contains the largest biological structure on earth – Australia’s Gre at Barrier Reef.
• Coral reefs support 4000 species of fish, 700 species of coral and thousands of plants and animals. (Project AWARE
Foundation)
• Marine animals have a highly developed system of chemical communication – many featuring receptors which enable
them to detect food or predators from a considerable distance.
• 98 per cent of species found in the oceans live on or in the bottom.
• Seaweed is used in many household items: photographic film, cotton thread, medicines, paint, face creams, soup, and
ice cream.
• Although the different species of sea horses can range in size from less than an inch to over a foot, in most species, the
males and females are strictly monogamous and form a bond by repeating a greeting dance every morning. Sea horses
are unique because it is the male that gives birth to hundreds of live young after 10 days to 6 weeks of brooding them in a
pouch on his belly. seahorse.mcgill.ca
• Tuna are the fastest swimming fish in the ocean. An adult southernbluefin tuna can achieve speed bursts of up to 70
kilometres per hour to 55 miles per hour and may weigh up to 1,500 pounds. Prized for sushi in Japan, bluefins can bring
as much as $20,000 each at U.S. docks.(ocean98.org)
• The oceans contain an estimated 1370 million cubic kilometres of water.
• Albatrosses have been recorded flying at a speed of 115 kilometres per hour.
• Recently it has been proved that some albatrosses circumnavigate the world in forty-six days:
• T o m atch the blue’s tremendous size wo uld take a bout 20 full-grown elephants. The record for the largest creature on
the planet that has ever lived was a female Blue Whale killed off South Georgia in 1923. (sgisland.org)
• The surface of Venus – millions of kilometres away and hidden by clouds of sulphuric acid – has been better mapped
tha n the Ea rth’s sea bed.
• It’s be en e stimated that the deep sea m ay contain as m any as 10 million species that have not yet been described or
named.
• Six out of every 10 humans live in coastal regions.

3. • The blue whale is the largest animal that has ever lived. Feeding on euphausiids, small shrimp-like species, blue whales
grow to a length of 40 meters (131 feet) and a weight of 94,000 kg (103 tons). At birth, blue whale calves reach 24 feet
long. (ocean98.org)
• After turtle hatchlings emerge from their nests, the only time a sea turtle returns to land is for the female to lay her
eggs. Once male sea turtles emerge from their nests and scamper down the beach as hatchlings, they never again return
to land. (NMFS Biological Opinion)
• An estimated 10,000 m arine species a re transported in ships’ ballast wa ter betwe en bio-geographic regions at any given
moment worldwide.
• C ommercia l wha ling during the last ce ntury decimated m ost of the wo rld’s wha le population. Estimates suggest that
between 1925, when the first whaling factory ship was introduced, and 1975, more than 1.5 million whales were killed.
Whalers hunted one whale population after another, moving from species to species as populations declined from
exploitation. After repeated requests from the world community, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) agreed to a
moratorium on commercial whaling that came into effect in 1986.
• Several types of reef fish, such as snappers and groupers, are protogynous hermaphrodites, which means that are born
as females and change sex, to become males, later in life. Therefore, during their life span of anywhere between 25 and
50 years, each fish has the opportunity to be both a male and a female. (fisheries.org)
Antarctica
• Antarctica is the 5th biggest co ntinent a nd 10% o f the e arth’s land a rea.
• Anta rctica ’s to tal area is 14 million km_. In summer, there is another 2.5 million km_ o f sea ice , which incre ases to 19
million km_ in winter, more than doubling the size of Antarctica!
• Only 2% of the land is not covered in ice.
• Ice slowly builds up over millions of years at the rate of 50 to 900 mm/year. There are about 24 000 000 km_ of ice
altogether.
• Anta rctic ice which a t its thickest re aches 5 km in depth, comprises a lmost 70% o f the e arth’s fres h water. If it all
melted, sea levels would rise between 50 and 60 m.
• Antarctic glaciers are giant rivers of ice that flow slowly towards the sea.
• Due to its ice cap Antarctica is the highest continent, averaging 2300 m above sea level.
• The highest peak is Vinson Massif at 4900 m.
• Antarctica has the lowest recorded temperature; -90°C at Vostock in 1983. Inland, temperatures range from -70°C in
winter to -35°C in summer. Corresponding figures for coastal regions are -30°C and 0°C.
• Antarctica is so cold because up to 80% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space by ice and snow. The
other 20% is largely absorbed by the atmosphere or reflected by clouds.
• Antarctica is the windiest place on earth with gusts up to 327 km/hr having been recorded.
• Antarctica is the driest place on earth. In some places like the Dry Valleys, it has not rained for thousands of years.
• 270 million years ago, Antarctica was part of Gondwanaland and probably covered with tundra, marsh and forests,
explaining why coal and petrified wood can still be found today. There are also likely to be reserves of oil.
• Anta rctica is the least k nown o f the e arth’s la nd masses; fewe r tha n 200 000 people have ever been there.
Anta rctica is the wo rld’s finest labora tory. Scientists from all over the world come to study, among others, such things as
the organisms that live in this unspoiled ecosystem, the consequences of climate change and clues to the origins of the
universe.
Sea Ice
FORMATION: Every year the sea ice in Antarctica increases and decreases in a dramatic, ancient cycle. As much as 7.7
million square miles (20 million square kilometers) of ice forms every winter. The formation is the greatest seasonal
phenomenon on Earth and it may double the size of Antarctica each winter.
KRILL: In the winter vast swarms of krill feed on the algae that grow under the sea ice. Researchers are studying this in
detail on this voyage.
CLIMATE: Antarctic sea ice has a huge effect on world climates. It reflects solar heat back into space, making Antarctic air
colder, while reducing heat loss from the water below the ice.
Forms of Sea Ice
GREASE ICE: Grease ice forms as winter approaches, when the sea begins to cool. Ice crystals form in plates, giving the
water an oily sheen.
PANCAKE ICE: As the temperature lowers, the grease ice connects and forms a crust, which is then broken up by winds
or waves into pancake ice—separate floating disks.
PACK ICE: Eventually the pancake ice disks crowd together and thicken. Waves break the mass into pack ice.
ICEBERGS: Icebergs calve off from ice shelves that float along the continent shores.

4. Types of Icebergs
Tabular - A flat-topped iceberg. Most show horizonal banding. Usually width is greater than 5 times height.
Domed - An iceberg which is smooth and rounded on top.
Pinnacled - An iceberg with a central spire, or pyramid, may have additional spires.
Wedged - An iceberg with flat surfaces steep on one side and gradually sloped to the water on the other forming a wedge
shape.
Drydocked - An iceberg which is eroded such that a U-shaped slot is formed near, or at, water level with two or more
pinnacles or columns.
Blocky - A flat-topped iceberg with steep sides.
There is little doubt that the planet is warming. Over the last century the average temperature has climbed about 1 degree
Fahrenheit (0.6 of a degree Celsius) around the world.
The spring ice thaw in the Northern Hemisphere occurs 9 days earlier than it did 150 years ago, and the fall freeze now
typically starts 10 days later.
The 1990s was the warmest decade since the mid-1800s, when record-keeping started. The hottest years recorded: 1998,
2002, 2003, 2001, and 1997.
• The multinational Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) report recently concluded that in Alaska, western Canada,
and eastern Russia, average temperatures have increased as much as 4 to 7 degrees Fahrenheit (3 to 4 degrees Celsius)
in the pa st 50 years. The rise is nearly twice the global a verage. In Barrow, Ala ska (the U.S.’s northernmost city) avera ge
temperatures are up over 4 degrees Fahrenheit (2.5 to 3 degrees Celsius) in 30 years.
T he United Na tions’ Intergovernmenta l P anel on Climate C hange (IPCC) pro jects that global temperatures will rise an
a dditional 3 to10 degrees Fahrenheit (1.6 to 5.5 degre es Celsius) by century’s e nd.
• Over the last million years the Earth has fluctuated between colder and warmer periods. The shifts have occurred in
roughly 100,000-year interva ls thought to be regulated by sunlight. Ea rth’s sunlight quota depends upon its orbit and
celestial orientation.
But changes have also occurred more rapidly in the past—and scientists hope that these changes can tell us more about
the current state of climate change. During the last ice age, approximately 70,000 to 11,500 years ago, ice covered much
of North America and Europe—yet sudden, sometimes drastic, climate changes occurred during the period. Greenland ice
co re s indica te o ne spike in which the area’s surface temperature increased by 15 degrees Fahrenheit (9 degrees Celsius) in
just 10 years.
• Where do scientists find clues to past climate change? The tale is told in remnant materials like glacial ice and moraines,
pollen-rich mud, stalagmites, the rings of corals and trees, and ocean sediments that yield the shells of microscopic
organisms. Human history yields clues as well, through records like ancient writings and inscriptions, gardening and
vintner records, and the logs of historic ships.
• R ising temperatures have a dramatic impact on Arctic ice , which serves a s a k ind o f “air co nditioner” a t the to p of the
world. Since 1978 Arctic sea ice area has shrunk by some 9 percent per decade, and thinned as well. Over the very long
te rm , Gre enland’s massive ice sheet holds e nough melt wa te r to ra ise sea level by a bout 23 feet (about 7 meters). ACIA
climate models project significant melting of the sheet throughout the 21st century.
Va st quantities o f fresh wa te r are tied up in the wo rld’s m any melting gla ciers. When Montana’s Glacier Na tional P ark wa s
created in 1910 it held some 150 glaciers. Now fewer than 30, greatly shrunken glaciers, remain. Tropical glaciers are in
e ve n more tro uble. T he le gendary snows o f T anzania’s Mo unt Kilimanjaro 19,340 -foot (5,895-meter) peak have melted by
some 80 percent since 1912 and could be gone by 2020.
• Sea levels have risen and fallen many times o ver the Earth’s long geologica l history. Avera ge global sea level has risen
by 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20cm) over the past century according to the IPCC.
T he IPCC’s 2001 re port proje cts that sea level co uld rise betwe en 4 a nd 35 inch es (10 to 89cm) by century’s end. Such
rises could have major effects for coastal dwellers. A 1.5-foot (50-centimeter) sea level rise in flat coastal areas would
cause a typical coastline retreat of 150 feet (50 meters).
Worldwide some 100 million people live within 3 feet (1 meter) of mean sea level. Rises of just 4 inches (10 centimeters)
could promote flooding in many South Sea islands, while in the U.S. Florida and Louisiana are at risk. The Indian Ocean
nation of Maldives has a maximum elevation of only 8 feet (2.5 meters). Construction of a sea wall around the capital,
Male, was driven by vulnerability to the rising tides.
• T he o cean’s circulation system, known a s the ocean conveyor belt, modera tes global temperature s by m oving tro pical
heat around the planet. Global warming could alter the balance of this system, via an influx of freshwater from melting ice
caps for example, creating unforeseen and possibly fast-paced change.
Climate models suggest that global warming could cause more frequent extreme weather conditions. Intense hurricanes
and storm surges could threaten coastal communities, while heat waves, fires and drought could also become more
common.
• Since the 1860s, increased industrialization and shrinking forests have helped raise the atmosphere’s CO2 level by
almost 100 parts per million—and Northern Hemisphere temperatures have followed suit. Increases in temperatures and
greenhouse gasses have been even sharper since the 1950s.
Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide also contain heat and help
k e e p Ea rth’s temperate climate balanced in the co ld vo id of space. Human activities, burning fossil fuels and clearing
forests, have greatly increased concentrations by producing these gases faster than plants and oceans can soak them up.
The gases linger in the atmosphere for years, meaning that even a complete halt in emissions would not immediately stop
the warming trend they promote.
• In the Arctic the impacts of a warming climate are being felt already. Coastal Indigenous communities report shorter
periods of sea ice, which fails to temper ocean storms and their destructive coastal erosion. Increased snow and ice melt
have caused higher rivers while thawing permafrost has wreaked havoc with road s and other infrastructure. Some

5. communities have had to move from historic coastline locations.
Sea ice loss is devastating for species that have adapted to the environment, such as polar bears and ringed seals in the
Arctic and Antarctic penguins.
• Studies show that many European plants now flower a week earlier than they did in the 1950s and also lose their leaves
5 days later.
Biologists report that many birds and frogs are breeding earlier in the season. An analysis of 35 nonmigratory butterfly
species showed that two-thirds now range 2 to 150 miles (3.5 to 240 kilometers) farther north than they did a few decades
ago.
• By 2050, rising temperatures exacerbated by human-induced belches of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
could send more than a million of Ea rth’s land-dwelling plants and animals down the road to extinction, according to a
recent study.
• C o ra l re efs wo rldwide are “bleaching”. losing k ey algae a nd re sident o rganisms, a s wa te r tempera tures rise a bove 85
degrees Fahrenheit (29.5 degrees Celsius) through periods of calm, sunny weather. Scientists worry that rapid climate
change could inhibit the ability of many species to adapt within complex and interdependent ecosystems.
• The effects of a warming globe may not be entirely negative. Heating costs could decline for those in colder climates,
while vast marginal agricultural areas in northern latitudes might become more viable. Arctic shipping and resource
extraction operations could also benefit—summer sea ice breakup in Hudson Bay already occurs two to three weeks earlier
than it did half a century ago. (national geographic)
Australia’s marine environment
• Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Australia has rights and responsibilities over some 16 million
km2 of ocean – more than twice the area of the Australian continent.
• Austra lia’s unique m arine enviro nments co ntain: the wo rld’s largest areas and highest species diversity o f tropica l a nd
temperate seagrasses; some of the largest areas of coral reefs; the highest diversity of mangrove species; exceptional
levels of biodiversity for a wide range of marine invertebrates; and high levels of endemism in our temperate and sub-
Antarctic waters.
• More than 1500 new species have been discovered in Australian waters in the past 10 years.
• Australia is home to more than half of the shark and ray species in the world.
• Austra lia’s marine environments are under increas -ing pressure from threats such as unsustainable fishing; introduced
marine pests and diseases; unsustainable tourism and recreation; climate change; pollution and sedimentation; and some
forms of mining.
• 80 per cent of Australians live and work within 50 kilometres of the coastline.
• The Great Barrier Reef extends for 2000 kilometres and is visible from the Moon.
• An estimated 3.36 million Australians, aged 5 years or older, went recreational fishing at least once during the year
2001-2002, representing a national recreational fishing participation rate of 19.5%.
• Between 200 and 400 introduced marine species, including the Northern Pacific seastar, European shore crab and
Japanese kelp, are believed to inhabit Australian waters.
• A ne w intro duced species becomes established every three to six months in Australia’s busy Port P hillip Bay in Victo ria.
• Be twe e n 1997 a nd 1999, Port P hillip Bay’s No rthern P acific seastar population incre ased from negligible to 30 m illion and
is now estimated at around 100 million.
• In 2002 the Great Barrier Reef experienced a mass bleaching event that was more severe than the event of 1998,
making the bleaching event of 2002 the worst ever recorded for the GBR.
• Australia has one of the largest marine jurisdictions in the world: an area more than twice that of our land mass.
•An enormous range of economic and recreational opportunities exist, while the oceans around Australia play a major role
in controlling world and regional climate.

6. •Ex te nding from the tro pics to the Antarctic, o nly a bout 20 per ce nt o f Austra lia’s seafloor has been physica lly mapped
(CSIRO – Oceans department)
The 5 oceans.
Pacific Ocean:
T he P acific O cean is the largest o f the wo rld’s five o ceans
Location: the body of water between the Southern Ocean, Asia, Australia and the western hemisphere
Area: 155.6 million square km, or about 15 times the size of the US. The Pacific Ocean covers about 28 per cent of the
global surface – larger than the total land area of the world
Terrain: the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the East Pacific Rise, while the western Pacific is dissected
by deep tre nches, including the Mariana T rench, which is the wo rld’s deepest place
Deepest point: Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench – 11,022m
Atlantic Ocean:
T he Atla ntic Ocean is the second la rgest o f the wo rld’s five oce ans (after the Pacific O cean, but la rger than the Indian
Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean)
Location: the body of water between Africa, Europe, the Southern Ocean, and the western hemisphere
Area: 76.8 million square km, or just under 6.5 times the size of the US
Terrain: the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south underwater mountain range
stretching down the entire Atlantic basin
Deepest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench – 8,605m
Indian Ocean:
The Indian Ocean remains the third largest o f the wo rld’s five oceans (after the P acific O cean a nd Atla ntic Ocean, but
larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean)
Location: the body of water between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia, and Australia Area: 68.6 million square km or about
5.5 times the size of the US
Terrain: the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge,

7. the Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge and Ninetyeast Ridge
Deepest point: Java Trench – 7,258m
Southern Ocean:
The Southern Ocean is the fourth-largest o f the wo rld’s five oceans
Location: body of water between 60 degrees south latitude and Antarctica
Area: 20.3 million sq km, or slightly more than twice the size of the US
Terrain: the Southern Ocean is deep, 4,000-5,000m over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water. The
Anta rctic C ircumpolar C urre nt (21,000km in length) moves perpetually eastwa rd. It is the wo rld’s largest ocean current,
transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second – 100 times the flow o f a ll the wo rld’s rive rs
Deepest point: 7,235m at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench
Arctic Ocean:
T he Arctic O ce an remains the smallest of the wo rld’s five o ceans
Location: body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle
Area: 14.1 million square km, or slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Terrain: the ocean floor is about 50 per cent continental shelf (the highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a
central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera and Lomonosov Ridge)
Deepest point: Fram Basin – 4,665m

8. A Global Conveyor Belt:
Then immense system of deep ocean currents distributes heat throughout the globe. Unlike surface currents such as the
Gulf Stream, which a re driven by winds a nd the Ea rth’s ro tation, this “ocean co nveyor belt” is powe red by co ld, salty wa ter
sinking, and deep water rising to replace it. In addition to transporting heat, this cycle also carries oxygen down to deep-dwelling
animals and brings sunken nutrients up from the depths. (www.amnh.org)
Marine preservation.
• The living marine environment is like a chain with many links – if one is broken, an entire species may disappear. Every
species plays an important role in maintaining healthy ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity weakens the entire natural
system.
• Ne a rly 58% o f the wo rld’s re efs are a t risk from huma n impacts such a s destructive fishing impacts, pollution, a nd
coastal development, and many have already been degraded beyond recovery. Coral Reef Task Force, 2000.
• Since the 1960s, more than one million kilograms of cyanide have been injected onto coral reefs to stun and capture
ornamental fish in the Philippines destined for live aquarium hobbyists in North America and Europe. Demand for the live
food fish trade from Asian countries is further intensifying the use of cyanide on reefs. Poison and profits
• On some shallow Indo-Pacific reefs, 70-90% of the corals died as a result of the largest ever-recorded bleaching event,
believed to be caused by abnormally high ocean temperatures, in 1998. Coral Reef Task Force, 2000.
• Hundreds of millions of tonnes of toxic chemicals, sewage, industrial waste, agricultural run-off and oil are dumped in the
oceans every year – and up to 80 per cent originate on land.
• Marine fisheries throughout the world catch over 80 million tonnes of fish every year.
• Every day ships throughout the world throw 5.5 million items of waste overboard.
• T hre e times more rubbish is dumped into the wo rld’s o ceans as the weight of fish caught annually. spinneypress.com.au
• Seahorse populations in Indo-Pacific countries have declined by 25 to 75% over the past five years largely due to habitat
loss and overfishing. Coral Reef Task Force, 2000.
• From 1993-1998, cruise ships were involved in 87 confirmed cases of illegal discharges of oil, garbage and hazardous
wastes and paid more than $30 million in fines. Cruise ship pollution includes sewage (a typical one-week trip generates

9. 210,000 gallons of sewage), gray water (1,000,000 gallons), hazardous wastes (dry cleaning and photo processing waste),
solid waste (8 tons), and oily bilge water. The Blue Water Network.
• The Pacific Northwest killer whale faces an 81% chance of extinction in the next 300 years. Salmon population declines,
a major prey item of the killer whale, are believed to be primary threat to the killer whale. Seaweb.
GhostNet’s.
• In 1978 a 3500 meter section of lost driftnet was found floating in the North Pacific. 1500 meters of the net was
recovered and contained the rest remains out their.
• A 75 meter section of driftnet recently caught more than 150 rotten salmon, 99 seabirds (including albatrosses, tufted
puffins, shearwaters and northern fulmars) & other assorted fish.
• In 1985, a Japanese drifnet vessel recovered four sections of lost net which were 30 to 86 meters long. All sections were
found to have live and dead animals entangled, including yellowtail, pomfret, two hammerhead sharks, three blue sharks,
an ocean sunfish and a fur seal.
• In the Sea of Cortez, in Mexico, it is commonplace for manta rays to die after becoming entangled in ghostnets.
• In the 1980′s it wa s e stimated that a pproximately 30,000 northern fur seals die e ach ye ar after becoming e ntangled in
marine debris, which consisted mainly of lost or abandoned fishing gear.
In the Wider Caribbean Region, tens of thousands of sea turtles die each year after becoming entangled in active or
abandoned fishing gear.
• During 2001, a multi-agency effort consisting of 3 ships and 18 divers removed nearly 70 tons of debris during 270 ship
days at sea. clearing only two atolls in the 1200-mile Hawaiian Archipelago.
• In March and April, 2005 arial surveys over the subtropical convergence zone in the north Pacific showed around 2,000
individual pieces of debris were detected in three overflights of specific areas. These pieces included over 100 nets or
pieces of net. One of these was 200-300 m of drift net with floats intact. A number were balls of net up to 10 m across.
• According to the WWF, an estimated 600km of ghostnets exist in Hong Kong. This translates into one ghostnet per
150km of the sea around Hong Kong.
• During 2002 to 2003, an estimated 1,096 tones of marine life was killed by ghostnets in Hong Kong!
• In 2005, Approximately 40 voluntary staff members joined the WWF at Ho Hai Wan Center and helped remove a total of
2 tonnes of ghostnets from the sea. Through their efforts, at least 133 marine creatures, including 60 crabs, 21 sea
cucumbers, sea stars, shrimps, etc., were saved.
Bycatch.
• 65,000-80,000 whales, dolphins, seals and other marine mammals perish through dirty fishing methods each year.
• Each year 20 million tonnes of fish, seabirds, marine mammals and other ocean life are killed unnecessarily by
indiscriminate fishing practices.
• In the U.S. shrimp fishery of the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic, the amount of bycatch is equal to the storage
capacity of 50,000 10-ton garbage trucks. Congressional Record.

10. • In 1994, the Alaska fishing fleet dumped a staggering 750 million pounds of bycatch, more than was caught by the entire
Ne w Engla nd fishing fleet in e ach ye ar from 1994 to 1999. NMFS’ Fisheries.
• The American Fisheries Society recently identified 82 fish species as vulnerable, threatened, or endangered in North
American waters, and 22 species as vulnerable, threatened, or endangered globally. Among this list of severely depleted
spe cies are some of the wo rld’s most prized food and game fish, including several species o f shark , skates, sturgeons,
groupers, Atlantic halibut, Atlantic salmon, and Pacific rockfish. Earlier this year, NMFS proposed its first-ever listing of a
marine fish species—the smalltooth sawfish—in response to a petition to list the fish as endangered under the Endangered
Species Act. This “living fossil,” having first a ppeared in the o ceans nearly 60 m illio n years ago, has been nearly
extirpated throughout its range in the North and South Atlantic, and is now confined to a small region in the shallow
coastal waters of Florida. Bycatch is believed to be the main culprit in the sawfish’s demise.fisheries.org
Freediving.
• The record for the deepest free dive is held by Jacques Mayol. He dove to an astounding depth of 86 m without any
breathing equipment.
Attacking Sharks.
• Over 375 shark species have been identified, but only about a dozen are considered particularly dangerous. Three
species are responsible for most human attacks: great white (Carcharodon carcharias), tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier), and bull
(Carcharhinus leucas) sharks.
• Of the 375 or so shark species, about 80% grow to less than 1.6 m and are unable to hurt people or rarely encounter
people.
• T he m edia can have a vora cious a ppetite for “shark bites man” stories. T he summer o f 2001, for e xample, saw a n
explosion of shark-attack hype a nd wa s e ven heralded o n the co ver of T ime magazine as the “Summer o f the Shark.” Y et
2001 was statistically average: The year saw 76 shark attacks and 5 fatalities worldwide, compared to 85 attacks and 12
fatalities in 2000.
• More people die from bee stings than from shark attacks.
• More people die from coconuts falling on their heads than from shark attacks.

11. • The largest shark is the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), which can grow to 60 feet (20 meters) long. The gentle giant
eats tiny plankton.
• Sharks are known as eating machines. But because many species are cold-blooded, some sharks eat only about 2
pe rce nt of their body we ight each day. T hat’s a bit less than humans typica lly e at.
• The United States averages just 16 shark attacks each year and slightly less than one shark-attack fatality every two
years. Meanwhile, in the coastal U.S. states alone, lightning strikes and kills more than 41 people each year.
• By 2017, 20 species of shark could be commercially extinct 100 million sharks a re slaughtered each year.
• While sharks kill fewer than 20 people a year, their own numbers suffer greatly at human hands. Between 20 and 100
million sharks die each year due to fishing.
• A m a jo r ca use o f shark m ortality is “finning,” a process in which fishers kill sharks solely to remove their fins. Fins can
sell for U.S. $400 per kilogram (U.S. $880 per pound) or more.
Sharks.
• For more than 400 million years sharks have dominated the oceans, evolving long before dinosaurs walked the earth .
• Shark fins are amongst the most valuable items taken from the sea. Consumer demand has prompted a massive surge in
its demise.
• There are approximately 390 different species of shark
• Cartilage – like our noses and ears – makes up the skeleton of the shark.
• The bull shark is the only shark that can live in both fresh and salt water.
• More people are struck by lightening each year than are attacked by sharks
• Only seven species of shark are known to have ever attacked humans.
• Sharks can only swim forwards.
• Smell is so important to a shark that two thirds of its brain is devoted to processing scent
information
• Whale sharks can grow up to 50 feet in length and weigh 20 tonnes.
• A huge oily liver gives sharks almost neutral buoyancy.
• Sharks may have up to 3,000 teeth at any one time.
• Mako sharks have been recorded at speeds of 43mph – making them the fastest

12. • Hong Kong imports shark fins from 125 countries and exports them to 75 countries. (Shark and Marine Conservation)
• Sharks do not sleep. Rather, they experience alternating periods of activity and rest.
Polar bears.
• Polar bears are the largest meat-eating animals on land!
• Polar bears have more problems with overheating than they do with cold. Even in very cold weather, they quickly
overheat when they try to run.
• Polar bears have two layers of fur for further protection from the cold.
• T he polar bear’s compact e ars a nd small ta il a lso help prevent heat lo ss.
• Polar bears know how to pack on the fat: A single bear can consume 100 pounds of blubber at one sitting.
• A po la r bear’s body temperature is 98.6°, which is a verage for m ammals.
• A thick layer of blubber (up to 4.5 inches thick) provides polar bears with such excellent insulation that their body
temperature and metabolic rate remain the same even at -34°F.
• When curled up in a ball, polar bears sometimes cover their muzzles — which radiate heat — with one of their thickly
furred paws.

13. • Summer Range
• Winter Range
• Denning Range
• Polar bears inhabit the shifting outer fringes of floating sea ice, which covers more of the Arctic and surrounding regions
in winter than in summer. Females dig maternity dens along coastal shores in winter. (www.amnh.org)
Colossal Squid.

14. • Colossal squid are only known from a few specimens, estimates put its maximum size at 12 to 14 metres. It is the
la rge st k nown squid species a nd the wo rld’s largest invertebrate. It is believed to have the largest eyes in the animal
kingdom.
• It is believed that colossal squid hunt large fish, such as toothfish, and other squid.
• Analysis of sperm whale stomachs suggests the colossal squid makes up three quarters of the diet of large sperm whales
and it is likely there are large numbers of them in Antarctic waters
Rerata laut kdalaman 4000m
Tides are driven by the gravitational force of the moon and sun. Tides are characterized by water
moving up and down over a long period of time.
When used in association with water, the term "current" describes the motion of the water.
Oceanic currents are driven by several factors. One is the rise and fall of the tides. Tides create a
current in the oceans, near the shore, and in bays and estuaries along the coast. These are called
"tidal currents." Tidal currents are the only type of currents that change in a very regular pattern
and can be predicted for future dates.
A second factor that drives ocean currents is wind. Winds drive currents that are at or near the
ocean's surface. These currents are generally measured in meters per second or in knots (1 knot =
1.85 kilometers per hour or 1.15 miles per hour). Winds drive currents near coastal areas on a
localized scale and in the open ocean on a global scale.
A third factor that drives currents is thermohaline circulation - a process driven by density
differences in water due to temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) in different parts of the
ocean. Currents driven by thermohaline circulation occur at both deep and shallow ocean levels
and move much slower than tidal or surface currents.
Mengapa samudra sulit beku :
1) Salt. The high concentration of salt in ocean water lowers its freezing point from 32° F (0° C)
to 28° F (-2° C). As a result, the ambient temperature must reach a lower point in order to freeze
the ocean than to freeze freshwater lakes. This freezing-point depression effect is the same
reason we throw salt on icy sidewalks in the winter. The salt lowers the freezing point of the ice
below the ambient temperature and it melts. Note that if the ambient temperature is lower than
28° F (-2° C), the ocean water would be ice if this were the only effect involved. Such is not the
case, so there must be other effects involved.
2) Ocean currents. The gravitational pull of the moon, earth’s spinning motion, and thermal
convection combine to create large-scale flows of ocean water known as ocean currents. This
constant motion of the ocean water helps keep the water molecules from freezing into the
somewhat stationary state of ice crystals. More significantly, the ocean currents continuously
pump warm water from the equatorial regions to the colder ocean regions.

15. 3) High volume. The larger the volume of water, the more heat has to be removed in order to
freeze it. A teaspoon of water placed in the freezer will become completely solid long before a
gallon jug of water. More accurately, it is the surface-area to volume ratio for a given external
temperature that determines the rate of heat loss and therefore the speed of freezing. Because the
heat must be lost through its surface, a small shallow puddle with a large surface will freeze
quicker than a deep lake. The immense volume and depth of the oceans keeps them from
freezing too quickly, thereby allowing the heating mechanisms to have a larger effect.
4) Earth’s inte rnal heating. As miners are well aware, the earth gets hotter and not colder as
you dig straight down, despite the fact that you are getting farther away from the warm sunlight.
The reason for this is that the earth has its own internal heat source which is driven primarily by
the nuclear decay of elements inside earth’s mantle. The earth’s internal heat is most evident
when lava flows and hot springs poke through the surface. Because earth’s insulating crust is
much thinner under the oceans than under the continents, most of the earth’s internal heat
escapes into the oceans. Although the temperature of the air at an ocean’s surface may be
freezing, the temperature of the water deep in the ocean is significantly warmer due to internal
heating.
This combination of salt, ocean currents, high volume, and internal heating keeps most of the
ocean in liquid form even during cold winters.
Taka Ito, a researcher and oceanographer in the Atmospheric Science Department at Colorado State
University, demonstrates global circulation of wind and how the spin of the earth affects the wind. Using
a spinning water tank with warm and cold water, he replicates the impacts on wind affected by the cold
North Pole and the warm equator.
An explorer from Norway named Fridtjof Nansen froze his ship into the Arctic sea ice in 1893.
He did this on purpose. He thought that trapped in sea ice, which moves with ocean currents, he
would get to the North Pole eventually. For three years, Nansen and his ship drifted through the
Arctic. He didn’t make it to the Pole. But he did have lots of time to make observations of the
environment. One of his observations was that the ice was not moving in the same direction as
the wind. It was moving consistently to the right of the wind direction. This phenomenon would
later become known as Ekman transport.
As wind blows across the ocean, it moves water because of friction at the ocean surface. Because
the Earth rotates, surface water moves to the right of the wind direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left of the wind direction in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis
effect.
The speed and direction of the moving water changes with depth. Ocean water at the surface
moves at an angle to the wind, and the water under the surface water turns a bit more, and the
water below that turns even more. This makes a spiral of moving water 100 to 150 meters (330
to 500 ft) deep called an Ekman spiral. The average direction of all this turning water is about a
right angle from the wind direction. This average is Ekman transport.

16. The Ekman spiral and Ekman transport are named for Swedish scientist V. Walfrid Ekman who
first described the spiral in 1905. To help him make a mathematical model of these movements,
Ekman used the observations that Fridtjof Nansen made while frozen into the Arctic sea ice.
An Ekman spiral (A) is a rotating column of water that
forms when water moves at an angle to the wind direction due to the Coriolis Effect. The net effect of
the rotating water (B) is movement at right angle to the wind direction. The example shown above is for
the Northern Hemisphere. The water turns to the left instead of right in the Southern Hemisphere.
Click on image for full size

17. NOAA