This document discusses various approaches to quantifying and measuring economic utility and social welfare. It examines how ordinal preferences can be translated into cardinal utility metrics through techniques like indifference curves, willingness to pay analysis, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), and happiness indexes. These cardinal representations allow welfare and decisions to be analyzed using tools from calculus and constrained optimization. However, quantifying utility also raises issues regarding interpersonal comparisons and distributional fairness.