This survey-design study examined the relationship between degree of news media viewing and state anxiety levels, as well as the potentially moderating role that optimism may play in that relationship. As an independent researcher I was responsible for every aspect of this
study, under the supervision of my faculty advisor, Professor Joseph Trunzo PhD. I conceptualized the area of study, conducted a thorough literature review of existing relevant academic material, and created a research question and hypotheses. I then applied for and obtained approval from both Bryant’s Honors Program and Institutional Review Board. Using similar past studies as a reference, I created the survey format. I then recruited participants through communication with various departments and organizations on Bryant’s campus. I analyzed the data using SPSS software to determine Pearson’s correlation coefficients between several variables, as well as partial correlations when accounting for the optimism variable. I then wrote a paper on the study in addition to giving 2 presentations.
Credibility, reputation, identity, and image may be irreparably damaged from negative campaigning. This study provides useful insights for political advisors and the communications
industry to consider.
Focusing on credibility and trust, as key elements is critical to evaluating negative campaign messages. At the very least this study offers insights into the transference of attitudes and actions regarding negative comparative statements supporting existing research on Learning Theory.
Self-Construal, Media Use and Dreams between Canadians of Differing Cultural ...jgackenb
Gahr, S. & Gackenbach, J.I. (2014, June). Self-Construal, Media Use and Dreams between Canadians of Differing Cultural Backgrounds. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the International Association for the Study of Dreams, Berkley, CA. Abstract published in the International Journal of Dream Research, http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/IJoDR/issue/view/1703.
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION1MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSIO.docxandreecapon
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION 1
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION 6
Media’s influence on aggression
Research Methods | PSY302 A01
Dr. Yvonne Bustamante
Argosy University
Tony Williams
9 May 2015
Media’s influence on aggression
Aggressiveness can be caused by media. Anderson et al (2003: p4), explain that the effects of violent media have much been consecutively demonstrated. On the other hand, other scholars (Freedman, 2002; Olson, 2004: p28) explain that media violence research field has been mismanaged, and that they show weak and inconsistent results. Besides, they exhibit poor measures of aggression. H1: The media influences the violence or aggression of adolescents and young adults due to ignorance of the measures that should be taken to avoid the same. Research shows that fictional television and film violence contribute to increase in aggression and violence in young viewers.
Aggressiveness may be measured as short term or long term.an example of a short term behavior is mimicry. On the other hand, a person that does behavior out of their conscious awareness experiences a long term effect of aggressiveness since the long term one is linked to the brain.
In this essay, I shall look at how media influences aggression of the youth and children. Some notable changes in the recent are the advent and saturation of mass media. In this century media like radio, television, and internet and others like movies, videos, video games, and computer networks have assumed central roles in our daily lives. Exposure to violence on media increases the risk of violent behavior on the viewer’s part. The highest percent of youths who are aggressive and exhibit antisocial behavior do not grow up to become violent. Still, research has shown that aggressive children may grow up to be aggressive adults and aggressive adults were as aggressive while young.
First, television and films is the threshold of aggressiveness and violence in youths and children. Violent content is more prominent to these prominent media in our modern life.George and Helm (1991) came up to a conclusion after research that children in the United States spend an average of between three and four hours per day viewing television. This is a high percentage compared to the time they would use in other useful activities. Josephson assigned 396 kids to watch either a violent or a nonviolent film before they played a game of floor hockey in school to create an example of violent behavior in young children. The outcome was that they were aggressive while playing hockey (Josephson, 1987: p53). This example shows that exposing violent material to young people increases their chances of behaving violently afterwards.
Similar effects of aggressiveness are observed among older adolescents and young adults. Violent clips make them more aggressive compared to the nonviolent clips (Jones, 1995: p69). An experiment testing the agg ...
Credibility, reputation, identity, and image may be irreparably damaged from negative campaigning. This study provides useful insights for political advisors and the communications
industry to consider.
Focusing on credibility and trust, as key elements is critical to evaluating negative campaign messages. At the very least this study offers insights into the transference of attitudes and actions regarding negative comparative statements supporting existing research on Learning Theory.
Self-Construal, Media Use and Dreams between Canadians of Differing Cultural ...jgackenb
Gahr, S. & Gackenbach, J.I. (2014, June). Self-Construal, Media Use and Dreams between Canadians of Differing Cultural Backgrounds. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the International Association for the Study of Dreams, Berkley, CA. Abstract published in the International Journal of Dream Research, http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/IJoDR/issue/view/1703.
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION1MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSIO.docxandreecapon
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION 1
MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON AGGRESSION 6
Media’s influence on aggression
Research Methods | PSY302 A01
Dr. Yvonne Bustamante
Argosy University
Tony Williams
9 May 2015
Media’s influence on aggression
Aggressiveness can be caused by media. Anderson et al (2003: p4), explain that the effects of violent media have much been consecutively demonstrated. On the other hand, other scholars (Freedman, 2002; Olson, 2004: p28) explain that media violence research field has been mismanaged, and that they show weak and inconsistent results. Besides, they exhibit poor measures of aggression. H1: The media influences the violence or aggression of adolescents and young adults due to ignorance of the measures that should be taken to avoid the same. Research shows that fictional television and film violence contribute to increase in aggression and violence in young viewers.
Aggressiveness may be measured as short term or long term.an example of a short term behavior is mimicry. On the other hand, a person that does behavior out of their conscious awareness experiences a long term effect of aggressiveness since the long term one is linked to the brain.
In this essay, I shall look at how media influences aggression of the youth and children. Some notable changes in the recent are the advent and saturation of mass media. In this century media like radio, television, and internet and others like movies, videos, video games, and computer networks have assumed central roles in our daily lives. Exposure to violence on media increases the risk of violent behavior on the viewer’s part. The highest percent of youths who are aggressive and exhibit antisocial behavior do not grow up to become violent. Still, research has shown that aggressive children may grow up to be aggressive adults and aggressive adults were as aggressive while young.
First, television and films is the threshold of aggressiveness and violence in youths and children. Violent content is more prominent to these prominent media in our modern life.George and Helm (1991) came up to a conclusion after research that children in the United States spend an average of between three and four hours per day viewing television. This is a high percentage compared to the time they would use in other useful activities. Josephson assigned 396 kids to watch either a violent or a nonviolent film before they played a game of floor hockey in school to create an example of violent behavior in young children. The outcome was that they were aggressive while playing hockey (Josephson, 1987: p53). This example shows that exposing violent material to young people increases their chances of behaving violently afterwards.
Similar effects of aggressiveness are observed among older adolescents and young adults. Violent clips make them more aggressive compared to the nonviolent clips (Jones, 1995: p69). An experiment testing the agg ...
1Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitud.docxdrennanmicah
1
Developmental Predictors of Violent Extremist Attitudes – A test of General Strain
Theory*
Amy Nivette
Griffith University
Manuel Eisner
University of Cambridge
Denis Ribeaud
ETH Zurich
2
ABSTRACT
Objectives: This study examines the influence of collective strain on support for violent
extremism among an ethnically and religiously mixed sample of Swiss adolescents. This
study explores two claims derived from General Strain Theory: (1) exposure to collective
strain is associated with higher support for violent extremism and (2) the effect of
collective strain is conditional on perceptions of moral and legal constraints.
Methods: This study examines the effects of collective strain using data from two waves
of the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children and Youth. This study uses
ordinary least squares procedures to regress violent extremist attitudes at age 17 on strain,
moral and legal constraints, and control variables measured at ages 15-17. Conditional
effects were examined using an interaction term for collective strain and moral
disengagement and legal cynicism, respectively.
Results: The results show that vicarious collective strain does not have a direct effect on
violent extremist attitudes once other variables are controlled. However, the degree to
which individuals neutralize moral and legal constraints amplifies the impact of collective
strain on violent extremist attitudes.
Conclusions: This study shows that those who already espouse justifications for violence
and rule-breaking are more vulnerable to extremist violent pathways, particularly when
exposed to conditions of collective social and economic strife, conflict, and repression.
3
Research on violent extremism has produced a wide array of risk factors in psychological,
social, and political domains (Bhui, Warfa, and Jones 2014; Borum 2011a, 2011b;
Dalgaard-Nielsen 2010; Gill, Horgan, and Deckert 2014; LaFree and Ackerman 2009;
McGilloway, Ghosh, and Bhui 2015). These include psychological characteristics (e.g. low
self-control), social context features (e.g. alienation) and political processes (e.g. exclusion
from politics). LaFree and Ackerman (2009) argue that part of the difficulty in
synthesizing information on extremist violence is due to the breadth of attitudinal,
behavioral, and group-based outcomes examined under one conceptual umbrella. In
addition, studies differ in their analytical approach, including for instance analyses of risk
factors using survey samples and individual interviews (Doosje, Loseman, and van den
Bos 2013; Goli and Rezaei 2010; Pauwels and De Waele 2014), or retrospective life
history analyses of known terrorists (Gill et al. 2014). As a result of this diversity in
theoretical domains, outcomes, and analytical approaches, empirical findings on the
causes and correlates of violent extremist beliefs and behaviors are unders.
Research on the Effects of Media ViolenceWhether or not exposure.docxdebishakespeare
Research on the Effects of Media Violence
Whether or not exposure to media violence causes increased levels of aggression and violence in young people is the perennial question of media effects research. Some experts, like University of Michigan professor L. Rowell Huesmann, argue that fifty years of evidence show "that exposure to media violence causes children to behave more aggressively and affects them as adults years later." Others, like Jonathan Freedman of the University of Toronto, maintain that "the scientific evidence simply does not show that watching violence either produces violence in people, or desensitizes them to it."
Many Studies, Many Conclusions
Andrea Martinez at the University of Ottawa conducted a comprehensive review of the scientific literature for the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) in 1994. She concluded that the lack of consensus about media effects reflects three "grey areas" or constraints contained in the research itself.
First, media violence is notoriously hard to define and measure. Some experts who track violence in television programming, such as George Gerbner of Temple University, define violence as the act (or threat) of injuring or killing someone, independent of the method used or the surrounding context. Accordingly, Gerber includes cartoon violence in his data-set. But others, such as University of Laval professors Guy Paquette and Jacques de Guise, specifically exclude cartoon violence from their research because of its comical and unrealistic presentation.
Second, researchers disagree over the type of relationship the data supports. Some argue that exposure to media violence causes aggression. Others say that the two are associated, but that there is no causal connection. (That both, for instance, may be caused by some third factor.) And others say the data supports the conclusion that there is no relationship between the two at all.
Third, even those who agree that there is a connection between media violence and aggression disagree about how the one effects the other. Some say that the mechanism is a psychological one, rooted in the ways we learn. For example, Huesmann argues that children develop "cognitive scripts" that guide their own behaviour by imitating the actions of media heroes. As they watch violent shows, children learn to internalize scripts that use violence as an appropriate method of problem-solving.
Other researchers argue that it is the physiological effects of media violence that cause aggressive behaviour. Exposure to violent imagery is linked to increased heart rate, faster respiration and higher blood pressure. Some think that this simulated "fight-or-flight" response predisposes people to act aggressively in the real world.
Still others focus on the ways in which media violence primes or cues pre-existing aggressive thoughts and feelings. They argue that an individual’s desire to strike out is justified by media images in which both ...
Mass Shootings
JUST300-06
Leslie Garcia
December 3, 2018
STEP 1:
Cabrera, J. F., & Kwon, R. (2018). Income Inequality, Household Income, and Mass Shooting in the United States. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 294.
The authors hypothesized that there is a positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings. Furthermore, these authors also hypothesize that mass shootings vary based on regional locations. The authors of these articles aimed at extending the previous research that finds stronger evidence regarding the positive relations between income inequality and mass shootings. Authors of the study employed previous research that finds a strong positive relationship between income inequality and mass shootings through examining the impact of the family's income and the association between inequality and income. In order to perform the analysis regarding the effects of the family’s income and the interaction between inequality and income, authors compiled data from 3,144 nations from 1990 to 2015. The outcome of this study indicates that even though the income inequality and income alone are the predictors of the mass shootings, the impacts of mass shootings are stronger when combining via interaction. The results also show the highest number of shootings are those that combine both high levels of inequality and high levels of income. To handle the epidemic issue of mass shootings, it is important to have a clear understanding of how to tackle the rise in inequality and unstable environments which leads to the existence of inequality.This study is important since it gives some of the reasons why there are high incidences of a mass shooting in some regions as compared to others. Therefore, it gives a direct solution to ensure that there is equal distribution of resources and equal employment opportunities to ensure that the issue of mass shootings is dealt with. This study also indicates that effective solutions to mass shootings need to involve the understanding of the main causes of mass shootings
Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2017). The Mental Health Consequences of Mass Shootings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 18 (1), 62-82.
The authors of this study hypothesized that mass shooting leads to adverse psychological outcomes among the survivors and the members of the community affected. Another hypothesis is that there is little knowledge regarding the adverse psychological impacts of mass shootings on the exposed individuals. A total of 49 peer-reviewed articles which consisted of 27 independent samples following 15 mass shooting cases were used. The author's employed peer-reviewed research methods to select samples. The key findings of the study are that mass shootings are associated with various adverse psychological impacts in the survivors as well as the members of the affected families. Risk factors for the negative psychological outcome include demographic and the pre-incident features related t.
Junxian KuangLaura SinaiENG099101572018In the essay O.docxtawnyataylor528
Junxian Kuang
Laura Sinai
ENG099/101
5/7/2018
In the essay “On Being a Cripple”, Nancy Mairs shares her experiences, attitudes towards life as a multiple sclerosis patient. First, she claims that the diseases she has faced are brain tumor and MS, and those diseases literally changed her fate. The relationships of her family member and the attitude of Nancy’s mother have affected by MS. Also, she writes about her identities in society, her friends who have the same physical issue, thoughts from disabled parents’ children, and her desire to travel. MS affected Nancy Mairs’s family member as well as her thoughts.
Subjective Socioeconomic Status Causes Aggression: A Test of the Theory
of Social Deprivation
Tobias Greitemeyer and Christina Sagioglou
University of Innsbruck
Seven studies (overall N � 3690) addressed the relation between people’s subjective socioeconomic
status (SES) and their aggression levels. Based on relative deprivation theory, we proposed that people
low in subjective SES would feel at a disadvantage, which in turn would elicit aggressive responses. In
3 correlational studies, subjective SES was negatively related to trait aggression. Importantly, this
relation held when controlling for measures that are related to 1 or both subjective SES and trait
aggression, such as the dark tetrad and the Big Five. Four experimental studies then demonstrated that
participants in a low status condition were more aggressive than were participants in a high status
condition. Compared with a medium-SES condition, participants of low subjective SES were more
aggressive rather than participants of high subjective SES being less aggressive. Moreover, low SES
increased aggressive behavior toward targets that were the source for participants’ experience of
disadvantage but also toward neutral targets. Sequential mediation analyses suggest that the experience
of disadvantage underlies the effect of subjective SES on aggressive affect, whereas aggressive affect was
the proximal determinant of aggressive behavior. Taken together, the present research found compre-
hensive support for key predictions derived from the theory of relative deprivation of how the perception
of low SES is related to the person’s judgments, emotional reactions, and actions.
Keywords: aggression, relative deprivation, social class, socioeconomic status
In most Western societies, wealth inequality is at its historic
height. For example, in the United States, the richest 1% possesses
more than 40% of the country’s wealth (Wolff, 2012). In Germany,
the biggest economy in the European Union, the median household
in the top 20% of the income class has 74 times more wealth than
the bottom 20% (European Central Bank, 2013). Although there is
widespread consensus among citizens that wealth inequality
should be reduced (Kiatpongsan & Norton, 2014; Norton & Ari-
ely, 2011), the wealth gap is actually increasing. For example, in
the United States, in 2012 the top 0.1% (including ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Assignment Media Violence and DesensitizationDesensitization is.docxhoward4little59962
Assignment: Media Violence and Desensitization
Desensitization is a well-documented consequence of years-long exposure to media violence. From early exposure, children—especially boys—learn that aggression pays off (Bushman, Gollwitzer, & Cruz, 2015). Aggression—especially if it means you “win” the game, “defeat” the adversary, or “force” a resolution to a conflict—earns the aggressor attention, praise, respect, reverence, adoration, money, and power. These are the rewards that often accompany aggression portrayed by the film industry (e.g.,
Die Hard
,
Die Hard 2
,
Die Hard With a Vengeance
,
Live Free or Die Hard
,
A Good Day to Die Hard
), making it more likely that the aggressive behavior will persist. The number of films in this series is evidence of their popularity. From classical conditioning theory, we learn that bad behavior paired with rewards can make the bad behavior desirable; moreover, the prevalence of violence in the media, over time, normalizes it. Studies show that when exposed to violent films daily over a week’s time, participants rate films as less violent with each film viewed (Dexter, Penrod, Linz, & Saunders, 2006). This is evidence of desensitization.
Desensitized people tend not to acknowledge the effects of media violence, because they don't see that there's a problem. However, a growing body of research finds that desensitized individuals downplay or tend not to acknowledge egregious harm done to others; because a steady diet of violent media
normalizes
violent behavior, injury suffered by people in real life does not seem like cause for concern (Vossen, Piotrowski, & Valkenburg, 2016). That's the nature of desensitization, and that is indeed a problem.
Convinced there is no harm in violent media consumption—that their behavioral tendencies will not have been influenced by it—desensitized consumers probably would not be interested in changing their media viewing habits (Funk, Baldacci, Pasold, & Baumgardner, 2004).
For this Assignment, you will examine the concept of desensitization, methods used to increase the desirability of violence, and ways for parents to reduce aggression exhibited by their children.
References:
Bushman, B. J., Gollwitzer, M., & Cruz, C. (2015). There is broad consensus: Media researchers agree that violent media increases aggression in children, and pediatricians and parents agree.
Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4
(3), 200—214.
Dexter, H. R., Penrod, S., Linz, D., & Saunders, D. (2006). Attributing responsibility to female victims after exposure to sexually violent films.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27
(24)
,
2149–2171.
Funk, J. B., Baldacci, H. B., Pasold, T., & Baumgardner, J. (2004). Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: Is there desensitization?
Journal of Adolescence, 27
(1), 23–39.
Vossen, H. G. M., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2016). The Longitudinal relationship between media violence and emp.
Running Head VIOLENCE 1Violence in the Media3Vi.docxagnesdcarey33086
Running Head: VIOLENCE
1
Violence in the Media
3
Violence in the Media
Michelle Jose
Argosy University
March 19, 2015
Detailed Outline
a) Introduction
i.
Research Question: What is the relationship between level of exposure to the media and level of aggression in children between the ages 8-18?
ii.
Implications: There have been accounted for instances of fierce animosity amongst the adolescent credited to TV chivalry and villainy.
iii.
Hypothesis: There is a positive correlation to between level of exporsure to media and level of aggression in children between the ages of 8-18.
b) Literature Review
i. Chomsky, Noam & Herman, Edward (1988, 2002), stated that Assembling Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon", as the most persuasive wellspring of social power, the media has a remarkable power in molding observations, state of mind, and practices.
ii. Durham, M. & Kellner, D. (2001), Media and Cultural Studies. UK: Blackwell Publishing. This publication has been studied in depth for years. It studies and analyzes the indicators of forceful conduct incorporate maxims, enthusiastic separation, and uninvolved forceful direct and in addition open presentations of roughness.
iii. In the article by Gauntlet, D. (2005). Moving Experiences: Media Effects and Beyond. London: John Libby and other social therapists have affirmed that there is in fact a relationship between brutal media and forceful propensities, particularly in children.
c)
Methodology is Probability Sampling
d)
Conclusion
Violence in the Media
The agreement is currently consistent that presentation to roughness in the media makes a brutal inclination in children (Chomsky, 2002). Investigators have associated media mercilessness to the improvement of mighty thoughts, emotions and behavior amongst people. How do the media sway hostility among young people? Late studies exhibit that young people who spent a huge part of their times playing severe gimmick amusements, review harsh films or introduced to distinctive signs of savage media normally add to a modified mental inclination to copy the behavior of their clear VIP great cases.
Writing Review
In the expressions of prestigious researcher Karl Marx, the media is the true wellspring of social power in the general public. Resounding the same, later sociologists agree that individuals have a tendency to venerate and love media identities, particularly the anecdotal film characters (Durham & Kellner, 2001). This sort of recognition has made the media exceptionally powerful in the development of musings, characters, and conduct. A percentage of the pointers of this impact incorporate copycat conduct in manifestation of dialect, mentality, and discernments. This can be seen in many research studies and in current media as well.
Social investigator Maya Clair elucidates that savage media effects extend from the transient to the whole deal inferring that presentation to media unpleasantn.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Lateral Ventricles.pdf very easy good diagrams comprehensive
Optimism as a Mediating Factor in the Relationship between Anxiety and News Media Exposure in College Students
1. Runninghead:ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Optimism as a Mediating Factor in the Relationship between
Anxiety and News Media Exposure in College Students
Danielle Hoyt
Bryant University
Applied Psychology Department and Honors Program
2. ANXIETY,NEWSMEDIA EXPOSUREAND OPTIMISM
Abstract
Recently, media research has focused on young people to determine what effect violent
media images may have on aggressive behavior, but little research has investigated the kind of
psychological distress similar images may cause. What emotional impact does increased
exposure to negative and even violent news coverage have on young adults? In this study, the
relationship between such news media and anxiety levels is examined, as well as the possible
mediating role that an optimistic life orientation may play in that relationship. It is hypothesized
that the degree to which these individuals follow news media will positively correlate with their
state anxiety levels, but when accounting for an optimistic worldview, this effect will be
minimized or eliminated. A survey was administered to a sample of 278 undergraduate students
attending Bryant University that measured their anxiety levels, life orientation in terms of
optimism, and news media viewing habits. The results showed no significant correlation between
news media viewing and state anxiety, and therefore also could not support any mediating role of
optimism either. Limitations and mitigating factors regarding this study as well as possible
avenues for future research are discussed.
3. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Optimism as a Mediating Factor in the Relationship between Anxiety and News Media Exposure
in College Students
Violent imagery and childhood aggression
In the late 1900s and early 2000s, the theory that violent imagery in video games and
children’s television programming leads to increased aggression in America’s youth was a topic
of high contention and controversy. During this period, many studies were conducted to discern
what link may exist, if any, between exposure to such media and childhood aggression. In one
such study, nine-year-old boys were exposed to one of two films, one containing violent imagery
and the other without such imagery (Josephson, 1987). The children then played a game of floor
hockey together, in which physically aggressive behavior was measured (Josephson, 1987).
Additionally, some conditions included a cue from the film, a walkie talkie, that was carried by
the referees in order to determine if such visual cues could impact the aggression level as well
(Josephson, 1987). A higher level of physically assaultive behavior was seen from those who had
viewed the violent film than those who had not in all conditions, and this effect was even
pronounced in the conditions containing the visual cue (Josephson, 1987). This suggests that not
only are youths’ actions affected by the images in the media they consume, these actions can be
prompted by cues in the real world that are associated with the media content.
Other similar studies extended the measurement of aggression from exclusively physical
assaults to other forms of aggression, including verbal expressions and body language. These
studies again found that children who had viewed the violent films scored significantly higher on
the aggression scales than those who had not (Bjorkgvist, 1985); (Anderson et al., 2003).
Additionally, the same positive correlation was found between viewing violent films and
aggression in emotions and thoughts as well as outward behaviors (Anderson et al., 2003). Some
studies also examined not only if there was a relationship between violent imagery and
4. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
aggression, but the intensity of such a relationship. It was seen that effect sizes were larger for
milder forms of aggression, such as aggressive thoughts or body language, but the effect sizes for
more severe forms, such as physical assault, were still statistically significant (r = .13 to .32
respectively) (Anderson et al., 2003). This indicates that not only are physical assaults and other
forms of more severe aggression linked to consumption of media containing violent imagery,
milder forms of aggression such as thoughts and emotions may be even more sensitive to the
influence of violence in media.
Violent imagery and negative psychological outcomes
Considering the findings that violent media images were positively correlated with forms
of aggression including thoughts and emotions, exposure to such images could potentially
influence other psychological outcomes as well. Several studies have examined the relationships
violence in media may have with psychological issues and negative outcomes, including anger,
fear, worry, general anxiety, symptoms of anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), dissociation, and depression. Many of
these studies use the television news medium as the instrument of exposure to violent imagery.
As seen in the studies above, violent media has been shown to be positively correlated
with aggressive emotions such as anger. Other studies have noted that additional negative
emotions such as sadness and fear are also increased with exposure to violence, specifically in
the television news medium (Hashemi, 2014). The same positive correlation has been seen
between such exposure and various psychological problems, including heightened anxiety and
depression levels (McNaughton-Cassill, 2001). An interesting additional factor in these
situations was the condition of intent. When the violence was seen as intentional rather than
accidental, the effect the violent images had on negative emotions was exacerbated (Hashemi,
5. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
2014). These findings indicate that the influence of violent images is not exclusive to the domain
of aggression, but extends to a wide range of psychological outcomes. Additionally, these studies
show how this influence is seen in the genre of non-fiction news and not just the category of
fictional television programming or video games.
Terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001
Following the terrorist attacks on September 11th, 2001, there was a surge in interest in
the American research community regarding the effects of television news exposure on mental
and emotional outcomes. In 2002 Schlenger et al. found that the amount of time an individual
spent viewing television news coverage of the terrorist attacks on September 11th and the few
days afterward was positively correlated with a measure of broad distress levels, which included
anxiety measures. However, the effect of this news consumption was not limited to low levels of
anxiety or distress. The same study also found that the viewing of television news coverage of
the attacks was also significantly correlated to PTSD symptom levels, an outcome that held true
for people of varying ages, sexes, and ethnicities (Schlenger et al., 2002).
Another study took that PTSD correlation one step further. Instead of simply looking at
the level of the symptomology, Putnam (2002) examined actual diagnoses of PTSD and
depression following the terrorist attacks. Accounting for personal attachment to the attacks,
such as having a lost a loved one, Putnam (2002) found that the incidence of both PTSD and
depression were positively correlated with exposure to traumatic television news images in the
coverage of the attacks.
Effect of news as a medium
6. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Several of the studies mentioned above have shown that the correlations between violent
imagery and a variety of psychological outcomes hold true for the television news medium.
However, they do not examine whether or how the news medium itself impacts those
relationships. A study conducted by Van der Molen & Bushman in 2008 looked at stories about
violent threats, and how reactions varied with the different presentations of such threats. For this
study, violent threats included stories about war, murder, and house fires. In all conditions with
such violence, both fright and worry levels were seen to increase (Van der Molen & Bushman,
2008). These stories were presented in one of two ways: on television news programming or on
television programming clearly meant to be fictional (Van der Molen & Bushman, 2008). More
worry and fear were measured in the conditions where the violence was presented as news
programming as opposed to fiction, and more intense worry and fear reactions were also
associated with the news conditions (Van der Molen & Bushman, 2008). These findings are
interesting because not only does violence alone seem to have an impact on psychological
distress, but the news medium itself may exacerbate that effect.
Supporting factors and mitigating factors
In 2013, the Pew Research Center conducted an analysis of the content of local news
morning and late night broadcasts. They compared the current content of such broadcasts to that
of the broadcasts in 2005, and this comparison can be seen in a bar graph infographic in
Appendix A. They found that the amount of time spent on each topic was fairly consistent over
time. Approximately one third of all news media content and time during these broadcasts is
spent on stories regarding crime, accidents, bizarre events, and disasters, many of which contain
violent imagery. A mere five percent of content and time (as of 2013) is given to human interest
7. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
stories, which generally contain more positive content and are accompanied by more positive
images (Pew Research Center, 2013).
Not only is there a significant portion of news content dedicated to the reporting of
violent, negative events, but these events are becoming increasingly common. As can be seen in
Appendix B, the incidence of public mass shootings has drastically increased in recent years
(Cohen, Azrael, & Miller, 2014). Cohen et al found that the average number of days in between
public mass shootings from 1980 through 2010 was 200 days, but in the late months of 2011 that
rate changed dramatically (2014). Between late 2011 through 2014, the average number of days
between incidents was just 64 days (Cohen et al., 2014). These incidents were defined
specifically as public mass shootings, which excludes gang related activities and incidents within
private homes as these categories are qualitatively different. In addition to these events becoming
a more frequent occurrence, they are also becoming increasingly violent and deadly. The average
number of deaths and wounds per incident has risen from 6 deaths and 5 or fewer wounded in the
1980s to 7 deaths and 6 or more wounded between 2010 to 2013 (Shastry, 2015). These findings
that violent incidents are becoming more common and more deadly are relevant to the current
study because the more violence there is in the world, the more violence news coverage will
depict. This makes the potential relationship between news media viewing and anxiety an ever
more relevant issue.
Despite the increasing violence and the news media’s coverage of it, there are some
societal changes that may work to mitigate the possible effects of the violent news images. One
such factor is the invention and rise in popularity of the internet. Because news information is
now available through the internet in addition to traditional news media, the way individuals
engage with news media may be different than ever before. People can now individually tailor
8. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
their news coverage experiences, allowing them to control what kind of news they are exposed
to. Tewksbury (2003) found that individuals who follow traditional news media are exposed to a
broader range of news topics and content than those who follow news through the internet. The
internet news followers are far more likely to focus their news intake on areas that are of specific
interest to them personally (Tewksbury, 2003). This is an interesting consideration for this study,
particularly because it focuses on college students, a population known for its use of technology.
Individuals who may have been negatively affected by violent news content when following
traditional news media may be able to avoid that exposure while still engaging in a high degree
of news exposure in other areas. In a 2015 study on internet news exposure, Roche, Pickett &
Gertz found a difference between exposure to traditional news media and internet news sources
with relation to anxiety regarding potential victimization. As with other similar studies, a
positive correlation was found between news exposure via traditional media, such as television,
radio, and print, and victimization anxiety (Roche et al., 2015). However, no relationship was
found to exist between such anxiety and exposure to news content through the internet (Roche et
al., 2015). This suggests that the ability to tailor one’s news experiences does in fact play a role
in how that news exposure may affect one’s psychological well-being.
Population Considerations
There are additional considerations that need to be taken into account regarding the
specific population this study focuses on: college students. The mitigating factors mentioned
above are especially salient for this population. Beyond simply being known for their use of
technology and engagement with the internet, college students have been shown to engage in
different and unique patterns of news media consumption than is traditional. Diddi & LaRose
(2006) found that although college students do still obtain news information from traditional
9. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
sources such as newspapers and television news programming, they also additionally gather
information from comedy news as well as internet news sources.
However, there are other factors that may actually exacerbate any negative effects for this
age group. For example, in the same study the students were also seen to engage with news
media to gratify their needs for surveillance and escapism, suggesting that these individuals
desire to be increasingly aware of their surroundings, both immediate and global (Diddi &
LaRose, 2006). It was also found that an increased need for surveillance and the prevalence of
negative news media content were correlated with a lowered sense of security (Diddi & LaRose,
2006). This lowered sense of security may bolster feelings of anxiety.
Additionally, today’s society is more globally connected than ever before, partially due to
the advent and widespread use of social media platforms such as Twitter. As of 2013, 89% of
people aged 18-29 used at least one social media platform on a regular basis, as can be seen in
Appendix C (Griffin, 2015). A study in 2014 used Twitter to examine peoples’ anxiety levels
regarding the Ebola outbreak. Even though Americans’ personal risk was actually quite low,
Fung et al. found that people in the United States were highly anxious about the Ebola outbreaks
and their risk of infection (2014). Despite the fact that the disease was highly contained and the
risk to this population was negligible, there were still far more tweets regarding the outbreak and
related worries from the United States than in countries with ongoing epidemics (Fung et al.,
2014). It is interesting and pertinent to think about the implications “this influx of immediate,
global information may have” (Fung et al., 2015) in such a globally connected society.
Along with the widespread use of social media platforms and the internet in general, the
use of various mobile devices has also increased. Intensity of reactions such as anxiety have been
10. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
seen to vary among different interface proximities. The interface proximity of a device is the
“spatial, temporal, and psychological distance between the media platform interface and the
user” (Xie & Newhagen, 2014, p 393), in other words, how psychologically close that interface
is to the person. A desktop computer would be psychologically further away than a laptop, which
in turn is further away than a handheld device such as a smartphone. In 2014, Xie & Newhagen
conducted a study on anxiety in college students regarding crime alerts they received on devices
with varying interface proximities. They found that interface proximity was positively correlated
with increased anxiety levels, meaning that those students who received a crime alert on their
cell phone were more anxious than those who had received the same alert on their desktop
computer (Xie & Newhagen, 2014). This effect was not only seen immediately upon receipt of
the crime alert, but also held true several days later (Xie & Newhagen, 2014). These findings
may indicate that as the use of social media apps on smartphones to gain news information
increases, the effects that violent news images may have could be supported by the close
interface proximity of those devices.
Optimism as a protecting trait/mediating factor
Although there are several factors that may support the negative impact of violence in the
news media, there are also other factors that may play a more positive role. One such factor that
several studies have examined as having the potential to protect individuals against negative
psychological outcomes is an optimistic worldview. Dispositional optimism has been seen to
have a negative correlation with general anxiety, meaning that more optimistic people tend to
experience less anxiety (Yu et al., 2015). Such optimism also appears to help protect against
adverse psychological outcomes in the face of stressful events (Weinberg et al., 2015). When
women who had been exposed to a particular missile and rocket fire incident were examined for
11. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
dissociative experiences and GAD, it was seen that those who scored more highly in optimism
were less likely to have had those negative mental health outcomes than those with lower levels
of optimism (Weinberg et al., 2015).
Optimism has also been seen to play a moderating and mediating role in relationships that
involve anxiety. In a study that found a strong positive correlation between race-related stress
and cognitive anxiety levels, optimism was seen to act as a moderator of that relationship (Lee,
Neblett & Jackson, 2015). The effects that race-related stress may have had on levels of
cognitive anxiety were muted in instances of highly optimistic individuals (Lee et al., 2015).
Rumination, or the “tendency to repetitively think about the causes of one’s negative emotional
experience” (Selby, 2010), also seems to have a positive correlation with anxiety levels (Yu et
al., 2015). Again, dispositional optimism appears to mediate this relationship between
rumination and anxiety (Yu et al., 2015). These findings of optimism affecting correlational
relationships between negative factors and anxiety may point to optimism being a protective
factor. Dispositional optimism may support resiliency in terms of anxiety when faced with
factors that otherwise may have a negative effect on anxiety levels.
Conclusion
Although much research has been focused on the effects violent imagery in media such as
television and video games on aggression and other psychological outcomes, little research has
specifically looked into similar effects that news mediums may have. Thus, with the aim of
discovering whether there is any relationship between the news media viewing habits and state
anxiety level of college students, the following research hypothesis was formulated:
12. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
H1: The degree to which the subjects follow news media via television, print,
radio, social media and internet mediums will positively correlate with their
state anxiety levels.
This hypothesis was formed on the basis of prior research indicating that exposure to violent
imagery in other mediums has a positive correlation with multiple negative outcomes such as
depression, PTSD symptomology, and aggression.
Furthermore, a secondary hypothesis was formulated with the aim of discovering whether
optimism acts as a mediating factor in the relationship between news media viewing habits and
state anxiety level of college students.
H2: Optimism will mediate the above hypothesized positive correlation
betweennewsmedia exposure and state anxiety levels such that the correlation
will be minimized or eliminated in the case of an optimistic worldview.
In order for this second hypothesis to hold true, two further supporting hypotheses must also hold
true.
H3: Optimism will negatively correlate with the subjects’ state anxiety levels.
H4: The degree to which subjects follow news media will be positively
correlated with optimism levels.
Prior research in this field has supported the theory that optimism serves as a protective factor
against many negative psychological outcomes, mediating the effects of negative external
influences on individuals’ mental states. These findings are the basis of the secondary hypothesis
and the supporting hypotheses (H3 and H4).
13. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Methods
Participant Characteristics
The participants were a sample of the undergraduate students at Bryant University. Their
ages ranged from 18 to 23 years old, and the mean age of the participants was 20 years old
(standard deviation = 1.6). Additional details regarding the makeup of the sample are described
in the results section.
Materials
The main material needed for this study was a survey, which can be seen in Appendix D.
The survey includes background questions regarding basic demographics and prior exposure to
violence, a self-report measure of news media viewing habits, both sections of the Spielberger
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (SSTAI), and the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R).
A self-report measure of news media viewing habits was used because this is the way
other similar psychological studies have measured this variable. The format of the question
replicates that of the same measure in the McNaughton-Cassill study in 2011, with the addition
of the internet/social media news medium.
Although the research questions and hypotheses proposed by this study look specifically
at state anxiety, the trait section of the SSTAI was administered as well so that the trait anxiety
could be controlled for. The SSTAI was chosen as the measure of state and trait anxiety because
it has been highly validated and is widely used in other psychological studies. The trait section of
this measure has a test-retest reliability ranging from .73 to .86, which indicates stability over
time. The Cronbach’s alpha for the trait section ranges from .83 to .92 and that of the state
section ranges from .86 to .92, which demonstrate high internal reliability before both sections of
14. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
the measure. Both inventories have also been thoroughly validated as well. The trait section
correlates highly with other measures of trait anxiety such as the IPAT and the TMAS measures,
indicating that the trait inventory does measure trait anxiety. Scores on the state section are
statistically significantly higher when administered in stressful situations than in normal
situations. As it is expected that state anxiety increases with the stressfulness of the surroundings,
this demonstrates the construct validity of the state anxiety inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch,
Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983).
The LOT-R was administered to measure the life orientation of participants on an
optimism-pessimism spectrum. The Cronbach’s alpha of the LOT-R has been consistently found
to be .81, showing its highly consistent internal reliability (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994).
This measure has also been highly validated and is widely used within the psychological
community as a measure of optimism.
Also needed to conduct this survey was the SPSS statistical software that was used to run
statistical analyses of the data gathered in the survey.
Procedure
A survey was administered to the sample group of 278 undergraduate students of Bryant
University via the anonymous online survey tool Qualtrics. This survey was used to gather data
regarding participants’ basic demographics, previous exposure to violence, time spent engaged
with various news media, trait anxiety level, state anxiety level, and optimistic-pessimistic life
orientation. Statistical analyses were then performed using the data gathered in the survey to
determine what relationship exists, if any, between time spent engaged with news via various
15. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
media and state anxiety levels, as well as what role an optimistic life orientation may play in that
relationship.
Results
The participants were recruited and the survey was administered to them between
October 5th, 2016 and November 1st, 2016. A total of 278 individuals were recruited, and all 278
completed the study in its entirety. As such, there is no missing data.
A series of statistical analyses of the survey data were run through the SPSS software.
The results of the descriptive statistics showing the composition of the sample are shown in
Appendix E. The first set of analyses used a Pearson Correlation with the alpha level set at 0.05
to examine the correlations between the major variables of this study, and the results of these
analyses can be seen in Appendix F. The final set of statistical analyses used partial correlations,
controlling for the variable of optimism in order to look at the potential mediating role of
optimism, and the results of this can be seen in Appendix G.
Descriptive Statistics
In terms of gender, the sample was slightly skewed, with just under two-thirds (64%) of
the participants being female. The racial distribution was similarly concentrated in one area, with
83.8% identifying as white, and small percentages identifying as Asian (7.6%), African
American (4.3%) or other (4.3%). Because the sample is made of undergraduate students, the
participants’ ages ranged from 18-23 years old. The mean age of the group was 20.1 with a
standard deviation of 1.37. In terms of religious beliefs the participants varied slightly more, with
51.4% of the sample identifying as Catholic, and the other approximately half of the sample
made up of other religious beliefs (21.6%), atheist (15.5%), Protestant (8.3%), Jewish (2.5%),
and Muslim (0.7%). The socioeconomic backgrounds of the participants were centralized in the
16. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
middle class (36.3%) and upper middle class (44.2%), with the extremes of below poverty line,
working class, and upper class making up a combined total of 19.4% of the sample. At Bryant
University the majors are split into two colleges, and the distribution of participants between
these two colleges was fairly even with the College of Business majors making up 57.9% of the
sample and the College of Arts and Sciences majors accounting for the other 42.1%. The college
class distribution was less balanced, with freshmen accounting for the smallest portion of the
sample (11.9%), seniors accounting for the largest portion (41%), and sophomores (24.8%) and
juniors (22.3%) make up the remainder of the sample.
The participants’ prior exposure to violence outside of news media was also measured.
46.8% of the sample reported having witnessed a violent act or multiple violent acts first hand.
30.2% reported either being a victim of violence themselves, or personally knowing someone
who was a victim. Of those, over a third (34.5%) had a close family member who was the victim
of violence. Exposure to a community level crisis situation such as a natural disaster or terrorist
attack was slightly lower, at 22.7% of the sample. There was a high level of physically
aggressive sport participation, with nearly half of the sample (45.3%) participating in one or
more sports that include physical aggression such as hockey or football.
Inferential Statistics – Pearson’s Correlations and Partial Correlations
From the table of Pearson’s Correlations, there are three values directly related to the
hypotheses of this study. The first is the r-value for the correlation between total news
consumption and state anxiety, which is -.04. This value does not show the significant positive
correlation hypothesized, thus the results cannot support hypothesis 1. The results also show no
significant correlation between optimism and total news viewing (r= -.053), thus hypothesis 3
also cannot be supported. The Pearson’s correlation did reveal a statistically significant negative
17. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
correlation between state anxiety and optimism (r =-.538), which does lend support for
hypothesis 4.
A partial correlation statistical analysis was also run controlling for the variable of
optimism. Because hypotheses 1, 3, and 4 would all have to be supported in order for optimism
to play a mediating role, no partial correlation was expected between state anxiety and total news
viewing. The results showed no statistical significance to the partial correlation (r= -.05), and
thus hypothesis 3 also could not be supported by the results.
Discussion
The results of the Pearson’s and partial correlational analyses do not support either of the
two main hypotheses in this study (H1 and H2). There are several reasons why the results of this
study differ from those found in other similar studies.
The first possible limitation in this study is the homogeneity of this sample. There was
little diversity in terms of basic demographics such as ethnicity and religion. Therefore the
findings of this study may not be applicable to the population at large. Similarly, students at
Bryant University may not be representative of the college student population in general. The
university recruits mainly from the New England region, making it more likely for students to
have similar backgrounds. They are also known primarily as a business school and are thus more
likely to attract like-minded individuals.
The format of the survey also offers several limitations. The survey was administered
anonymously online in order to reach a large number of potential participants. Although using
this method increased the number of people able to participate in the study, there are several
drawbacks to the researcher not being nearby when a survey is administered. The first is that
18. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
there is no way for the researcher to explain questions to participants that they were confused by,
which could lead to misinformation being provided by the participant. Although the researcher’s
contact information was given in the consent form, none of the participants reached out with
questions. The online survey format also leaves no way to identify whether or not participants
rushed through questions. In general this could lead to inaccuracy in the data, but is of particular
concern in this study due to the slight difference between the measures of state anxiety and trait
anxiety. The directions for the two measures are very similar, but have slightly different
wording. Because state anxiety (and not trait anxiety) is a primary variable of interest in this
study, it is important that the data gathered from this measure be accurate. Additionally, many of
the individuals participated in order to receive extra credit in a college course and thus may have
wanted to complete the survey as quickly as possible. This may have led to minimal attention
being paid to the questions and possible inaccuracy in the data gathered. A third limitation of an
online survey format is lack of control over the setting in which the survey was administered.
Because state anxiety is inherently affected by the surroundings in which the measure is
administered, the setting in which participants took the measure may have influenced the results.
There are also several mitigating factors outside of the study design itself that could have
affected the outcomes. The first is the inherent difficulty in studying the variable of news media
viewing. This study used a self-report measure to gather data on how much participants were
engaged with news content via various media. This is the method other similar reputable studies
have used, but it does have its limitations. This method counts on the participants’ ability to
accurately recount their average news media viewing habits in general as well as specifically
divide it into the four mediums listed. The other option for measuring this variable would be a
journaling approach in which participants are asked to keep a journal and record their news
19. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
media viewing habits over a period of time. However, this method could innately bias the results
because the act of keeping a record may make them think about the news more in depth or in a
different way than they normally would, which could affect the results of the study.
It is also possible that lasting changes in mental states, such as anxiety or depressive
symptomology, only occur in extreme cases. Several of the studies in the literature review that
saw such lasting changes as occurrence of anxiety and mood disorder symptoms or diagnoses
dealt with the aftermath of the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks on America. This is not
only an extreme event, but was also a major historical event and catastrophe. It is not something
that is typically seen in the daily news, and is qualitatively different from other news coverage.
Because it differs fundamentally from other news coverage, findings of studies surrounding news
media viewing at this time may not be applicable to other types of news media viewing.
Another factor possibly affecting the results of this study is the invention and rise in
popularity of the internet, especially in the population examined in this study. Following news
coverage via the internet or social media mediums allows viewers to use selective exposure. This
permits individuals to have a high level of engagement with news media, but select not to view
news stories that are disturbing or that cause them anxiety. Previous similar studies such as the
McNaughton-Cassill (2001) study looked at news viewing via the television, radio, and print
news mediums, but did not have to account for the viewing of news content via the internet. The
Tewksbury study in 2003 found that individuals who follow traditional news media are exposed
to a broader range of news topics and content than those who follow news through the internet.
Another study conducted by Roche et al. in 2015 found a positive correlation between viewers’
exposure to traditional news media, such as television news, and anxiety regarding potential for
victimization, but did not find any correlation between news exposure via the internet and such
20. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
anxiety. Both of these studies support the theory that engaging with news via the internet allows
for selective exposure that permits avoidance of disturbing or stressful news content.
The population under examination in this study differs from those examined in similar
previous studies. It is possible that the findings of other studies cannot be extrapolated to this
generation due to differences in how they consume and process news media content.
It is also possible that the effect violent images and messages such as those included in
news coverage only have a short term effect on state anxiety and not a more generalized effect
such as that hypothesized in the current study. Many of the studies in the literature review
(Josephson, 1987; Bjorkgvist, 1985, Anderson et al, 2003; Hashemi, 2014) use a format of
exposure to violence in some medium with a test of anxiety or other psychological change within
a relatively short time frame. An avenue for future research would be to look into the possibility
of the relationships hypothesized in this study being of a short-term nature by showing
participants news coverage and then administering a measure of state anxiety.
21. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
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23. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Shastry, A. (2015, August 6). Mass public shootings becoming more common, more deadly. The
Washington Times.
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24. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendices
Appendix A – Content of Local Newscasts Infographic
Pew Research Center. (2013). Percentage of Newshole for Morning and Late Night Broadcasts.
Retrieved from http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2013/special-reports-landing-page/the-changing-tv-news-
landscape/13-edited-packages-decrease-from-2005-to-2012/
25. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendix B – Frequency of Public Mass Shootings
Cohen, A.; Azrael, D. & Miller, M. (October 15, 2014). Rate of Mass Shootings Has Tripled
Since 2011, Harvard Research Shows. Mother Jones.
26. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendix C – Social Media Usage
Griffin, R. (2015, July 21). Social media is changing how college students dealwith mental health, for betteror
worse. The Huffington Post.
27. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendix D – Survey
Demographics
1. What is your age?
_________
2. With what gender do you identify?
a. Male
b. Female
3. What race do you identify as?
a. White
b. Black or African American
c. American Indian or Alaska Native
d. Asian
e. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
f. Some other race
4. Do you consider yourself to be of Hispanic origin?
a. Yes
b. No
5. What is your religious preference?
a. Atheist
b. Catholic
c. Jewish
d. Muslim
e. Protestant
f. Other
6. What is your class?
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
7. Are you an international student?
a. No
b. Yes. Please specify your home country ________________
8. Is your major/concentration in the:
a. College of Business. Please specify ____________
b. College of Arts and Sciences. Please specify __________
9. Would you classify the area in which you grew up as:
a. Below the poverty line (Annual income of $23,000 for a family of four)
b. Working class (employed in blue-collar industries, paid by the hour)
c. Middle class (lower-level, white-collar workers. Household income falls between $32,500 and
$60,000)
28. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
d. Upper-middle class (employed in high-level, white-collar positions.Household income is
above $100,00)
e. Upper class (Household income is more than $150,000)
10. Have you ever witnessed a violent act or acts first hand? (eg war, assaults, fights etc)
a. Yes/no
11. Have you ever been the victim of violence?
a. Yes/no
12. Have any of your family members or friends been the victim of violence?
a. No
b. Yes
i. Please specify their relation to you (parent, friend, etc) _____________
13. Have you personally experienced a community level crisis situation (eg natural disaster,
terrorist attack, etc)?
14. Do you currently or have you previously played a physically aggressive sport? (Eg
football, hockey, rugby etc)
a. Yes/no
15. Which of the following music genre(s) do you listen to most frequently?
a. Alternative
b. Country
c. Dance (includes House, Dubstep, Techno)
d. Hip-Hop/Rap
e. Pop
f. R&B
g. Rock
16. In an average week during your childhood through high school, how many hours did you
spend playing video games that contain violent imagery?
_________
17. In an average week now, how many hours do you spend playing video games that contain
violent imagery?
_________
18. In an average week during your childhood through high school, how many hours did you
spend watching television programming (excluding news media) or movies that contain
violent imagery?
_________
19. In an average week now, how many hours do you spend watching television
programming (excluding news media) or movies that contain violent imagery?
_________
20. Approximately how many hours per week do you spend:
a. Watching television news sources? __________hours/week
b. Listening to radio news programming? __________hours/week
c. Reading print news materials? __________hours/week
d. Engaging with news sources on the internet and/or social media?
__________hours/week
29. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
STAI Self-Evaluation Questionnaire Form X-1 (Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory)
A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read
each statement and then circle the appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate
how you feel right now, that is, at this moment. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not
spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer which seems to describe your
present feelings best.
Notatall
Somewhat
Moderately
So
VeryMuch
So
1. I feel calm 1 2 3 4
2. I feel secure 1 2 3 4
3. I am tense 1 2 3 4
4. I am regretful 1 2 3 4
5. I feel at ease 1 2 3 4
6. I feel upset 1 2 3 4
7. I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes 1 2 3 4
8. I feel rested 1 2 3 4
9. I feel anxious 1 2 3 4
10. I feel comfortable 1 2 3 4
11. I feel self-confident 1 2 3 4
12. I feel nervous 1 2 3 4
13. I am jittery 1 2 3 4
14. I feel “high strung” 1 2 3 4
15. I am relaxed 1 2 3 4
16. I feel content 1 2 3 4
17. I am worried 1 2 3 4
18. I feel over-excited and “rattled 1 2 3 4
19. I feel joyful 1 2 3 4
20. I feel pleasant 1 2 3 4
30. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
STAI Self-Evaluation Questionnaire Form X-2 (Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory)
A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read
each statement and then circle the appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate
how you generally feel. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on
any one statement but give the answer which seems to describe how you generally feel.
Almost
Never
Sometimes
Often
Almost
Always
1. I feel pleasant 1 2 3 4
2. I tire quickly 1 2 3 4
3. I feel like crying 1 2 3 4
4. I wish I could be as happy as others seem to be 1 2 3 4
5. I am losing out on things because I can’t make up my mind
soon enough
1 2 3 4
6. I feel rested 1 2 3 4
7. I am “calm, cool, and collected” 1 2 3 4
8. I feel that difficulties are piling up so that I cannot overcome
them
1 2 3 4
9. I worry too much over something that really doesn’t matter 1 2 3 4
10. I am happy 1 2 3 4
11. I am inclined to take things hard 1 2 3 4
12. I lack self-confidence 1 2 3 4
13. I feel secure 1 2 3 4
14. I try to avoid facing a crisis or difficulty 1 2 3 4
15. I feel blue 1 2 3 4
16. I am content 1 2 3 4
17. Some unimportant thought runs through my mind and bothers
me
1 2 3 4
18. I take disappointments so keenly that I can’t put them out of my
mind
1 2 3 4
19. I am a steady person 1 2 3 4
20. I get in a state of tension or turmoil as I think over my recent
concerns and interests
1 2 3 4
31. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Life Orientation Test-Revised
Please be as honest and accurate as you can throughout. Try not to let your response to one
statement influence your responses to other statements. There are no "correct" or "incorrect"
answers. Answer according to your own feelings, rather than how you think "most people"
would answer.
A = I agree a lot
B = I agree a little
C = I neither agree nor disagree
D = I disagree a little
E = I disagree a lot
1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best. ____
2. It's easy for me to relax. ____
3. If something can go wrong for me, it will. ____
4. I'm always optimistic about my future. ____
5. I enjoy my friends a lot. ____
6. It's important for me to keep busy. ____
7. I hardly ever expect things to go my way. ____
8. I don't get upset too easily. ____
9. I rarely count on good things happening to me. ____
10. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad. ____
32. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendix E – Descriptive Statistics
Table E-1
College Class Distribution of Sample
Frequency Percent
Freshman 33 11.9
Sophomore 69 24.8
Junior 62 22.3
Senior 114 41.0
Table E-2
Racial/Ethnic Composition of Sample
Frequency Percent
White 233 83.8
African American 12 4.3
Asian 21 7.6
Other 12 4.3
Table E-3
Religious Beliefs Composition of Sample
Frequency Percent
Atheist 43 15.5
Catholic 143 51.4
Jewish 7 2.5
Muslim 2 0.7
Protestant 23 8.3
Other 60 21.6
Table E-4
Socioeconomic Status Composition of Sample
34. ANXIETY,NEWSEXPOSURE ANDOPTIMISM
Appendix G – Partial Correlations
Partial Correlations of State Anxiety, Trait Anxiety, and Total News by Optimism
Control Variables Total News State Anxiety Trait Anxiety
Optimism Total News Correlation
Sig. (2-t)
1 -.050
.404
.009
.880
State Anxiety Correlation
Sig. (2-t)
-.050
.404
1 .607
.000
Trait Anxiety Correlation
Sig. (2-t)
.009
.880
.607
.000
1