Mass ShootingsJUST300-06.docx

Mass Shootings
JUST300-06
Leslie Garcia
December 3, 2018
STEP 1:
Cabrera, J. F., & Kwon, R. (2018). Income Inequality,
Household Income, and Mass Shooting in the United States.
Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 294.
The authors hypothesized that there is a positive relationship
between income inequality and mass shootings. Furthermore,
these authors also hypothesize that mass shootings vary based
on regional locations. The authors of these articles aimed at
extending the previous research that finds stronger evidence
regarding the positive relations between income inequality and

mass shootings. Authors of the study employed previous
research that finds a strong positive relationship between
income inequality and mass shootings through examining the
impact of the family's income and the association between
inequality and income. In order to perform the analysis
regarding the effects of the family’s income and the interaction
between inequality and income, authors compiled data from
3,144 nations from 1990 to 2015. The outcome of this study
indicates that even though the income inequality and income
alone are the predictors of the mass shootings, the impacts of
mass shootings are stronger when combining via interaction.
The results also show the highest number of shootings are those
that combine both high levels of inequality and high levels of
income. To handle the epidemic issue of mass shootings, it is
important to have a clear understanding of how to tackle the rise
in inequality and unstable environments which leads to the
existence of inequality.This study is important since it gives
some of the reasons why there are high incidences of a mass
shooting in some regions as compared to others. Therefore, it
gives a direct solution to ensure that there is equal distribution
of resources and equal employment opportunities to ensure that
the issue of mass shootings is dealt with. This study also
indicates that effective solutions to mass shootings need to
involve the understanding of the main causes of mass shootings
Lowe, S. R., & Galea, S. (2017). The Mental Health
Consequences of Mass Shootings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse ,
18 (1), 62-82.
The authors of this study hypothesized that mass shooting leads
to adverse psychological outcomes among the survivors and the
members of the community affected. Another hypothesis is that
there is little knowledge regarding the adverse psychological
impacts of mass shootings on the exposed individuals. A total of
49 peer-reviewed articles which consisted of 27 independent
samples following 15 mass shooting cases were used. The
author's employed peer-reviewed research methods to select
samples. The key findings of the study are that mass shootings

are associated with various adverse psychological impacts in the
survivors as well as the members of the affected families. Risk
factors for the negative psychological outcome include
demographic and the pre-incident features related to the female
gender and the pre-incident emotional symptoms; exposure and
limited psychosocial resources, for example, the mental control
challenges and reduced social help.This study is important for
this particular topic since it helps in revealing how individuals
are psychologically affected following mass shootings. Based
on this study, mass shootings are resulting in increased fear and
reduction In the perception of security for the individuals who
have been exposed to mass shootings. This study is also
important since it shows that there are risk and protective
factors, for example, the demographic features, the pre-event
trauma exposure and functioning, exposure to the incidence, and
psychosocial resources. Therefore, to help the victims of mass
shootings, it is essential to understand the importance of post-
incident intervention to help in reducing the mental health
effects caused by mass shootings.
Perera, I. M., & Sisti, D. A. (2019). Mass Shootings and
Psychiatric Deinstitutionalization, Here and Abroad. American
Journal of Public Health, 109 (3), S176-S177.
The hypothesis of this article is that America’s mental health
system requires significant repair. Deinstitutionalization
contributes to the increase in cases of mass shootings in the
United States . The authors aimed at looking at the issue of
mass shootings and psychiatric deinstitutionalization in the
United States and other parts of the world, therefore, authors
targeted some of the reported cases and individuals who have
been involved in the mass shootings in the United States and
other parts of the world. Therefore, the research work was based
on looking at some of the past studies and the authors employed
a statistical descriptive approach to perform this study. The
findings of the study reveal that the American mental health
system requires repair. There is a need to increase psychiatric

hospital ability to help in ensuring that people with serious
mental issues are helped. While comparing this article to the
first article, it is clear that it is not only the income and
inequalities that increase mass shootings but also the mental
deinstitutionalization. This study clearly shows that it is
important to assess the mental well-being of the individuals
suspected to be at high risk of being involved in the mass
shootings to prevent the future increase in the number of deaths.
It recommends that re-opening of the psychiatric institutions
can help in the prevention of mass shootings.
Ping-I, L., Fei, L., Barzman, D., & Hossain, M. (2018). What
Have We Learned From the Time Trend of Mass Shootings in
the U.S.? Plos One, 13 (10).
The first hypothesis by the authors is that the higher online
media coverage density following the mass shootings incidence
is linked to the shorter interval between the incident and the
next one. Gun law permissiveness can influence gun ownership
and shooting rate hence it is considered as a confounder.
Authors of this article selected 100 mass shootings from Mother
Jones; a website that occurred from January 1982 to May 2018.
The authors of this article utilized the Poisson Model for the
state-specific incidence count with over covariate impacts to
determine the effects of state-level gun possession rate on the
mass shootings. The key outcome of this study shows that the
incidences of mass shootings continue to increase. There are
also several state-level variables that are believed to be
influencing the incidences of mass shootings. This study is
crucial since it shows some of the contributory factors to the
increase in the incidences of mass shootings. It also shows that
population-level aspects such as severe psychological illness,
poverty, and gun law tolerance are influencing the rates of the
mass shooting at the state level.

Santaella-Tenorio, J., Cerda, M., Villaveces, A., & Galea, S.
(2016). What Do We Know About the Association Between
Firearm Legislation and Firearm-Related Injuries?
Epidemiological Reviews, 38 (1), 140-157.
The hypothesis of the authors of this article is that firearms are
contributing to a substantial percentage of the external causes of
death, injuries, and disability in the entire world. Absence in
the clarity on the effectiveness of the interventions leads to
more problems when it comes to the development of policy.
Authors of this article used around 130 past studies published
from 1950 to 2014 in 10 nations. Authors reviewed studies that
explored the links between the firearm-related laws and firearm
homicides, suicides, and unintentional injuries or deaths. The
key findings from this study are that firearms are contributing
to a considerable percentage of factors that lead to deaths,
injuries, and disability. Laws that are set to help in the
regulation of firearms have been adopted to reduce the problems
associated with firearm use. There is a lack of clarity regarding
effective interventions and this still continues to cause more
issues in developing policy. Based on the outcome of this study,
the implementation of laws aimed at restricting firearms has
helped to reduced firearm deaths in some nations.This study is
important since it shows how the existence of laws that limit the
number or types of people being allowed to own firearms is
helping in the reduction of deaths related to the use of firearms.
Therefore, the issue of mass shootings can also be handled or
addressed by setting the rule to control the possession of
firearms by individuals.
Step 2 : Creating Hypotheses and Operationalizing Variables:
1. Incidents with a higher count for total victims injured or

killed will have more media coverage than incidents with lower
counts for total victims injured or killed (Muschert, 2007)
Direction is positive
2. Dependent variable- media coverage
3. For inquiry into a school shooting. The Independent variables
included; Students injured Teachers injured, Staff/admin
injured, Officers injured
4. Null hypothesis - The author hypothesized that the total
number of victims injured or killed will have no effect on media
coverage for an incident.
5. Incidents involving a female offender will receive more
media coverage than incidents involving a male offender.
(Pritchard & Hughes 1997) Direction is positive
6. Dependent variable- media coverage
7. Independent variables- Offender sex
8. Null hypothesis- The author’s hypothesized that offender
gender will have no effect on media coverage for an incident.
Step 3: Sampling
Probability
1. Incidents with a higher count for total victims injured or
killed will have more media coverage than incidents with lower
counts for total victims injured or killed (Muschert, 2007)
Direction is positive
2. The paper presents a case of school shooting. Target
populations is students
3. To obtain a sample frame, a list of registered students was

obtained hence list frame.
4. The drawback to this sample frame is that some students must
have changed school when the incident happened. To overcome
the drawback, the list must be current
5. Random sampling – it is less complicated compared to other
methods (Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991)
6. With several random samples from the same population, it is
observed that the random sample is typically representative of
the population hence it can be generalised.
Non- probability
1. The author’s hypothesized that offender gender will have no
effect on media coverage for an incident
2. For case processing of offenders of school shootings. Target
population is offenders
3. Non-sampling error, particularly under-coverage of important
population sub-groups
4. Random sampling- the sample represent the target population
5. It is easy to generalise with random sampling once the
researcher has made several samples from the same population.
6. There are no ethical concerns for this study, as the findings
of the study have no direct effect on the offenders of the school
shooting incidents. However, since the study involve media,
there is a possibility of public backlash (Scharrer et al,2003).
In-depth interviewing
1. Your second hypothesis.
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. X
6. X
7. Interview schedule:

a. What do you believe should be done to prevent Mass
Shootings?
b. X
c. X
d. X
e. X
8. X
Step Four ~ Survey Design:
The purpose of this step is to apply your knowledge about
constructing survey questions to your chosen topic.
Note that the questions constructed for this assignment are to be
closed-ended survey questions and are to be your own creation,
NOT taken from another source!
You must continue to use the SAME two hypotheses you created
earlier.
(1) List your first directional hypothesis and create five related
survey questions.
(2) List your second directional hypothesis and create five
related survey questions.
You must create questions with verbal response options.
You may use two verbal type Likert scale questions such as
“Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree”
out of the ten questions.
You may use up to two frequency questions “None, 1-3, 4-6, 7

or more” out of all ten questions.
You may use answer choices such as “Always, Sometimes,
Rarely, Never” twice out of the ten questions.
Each question should have four or five choices. You may use
“Other _____________________” as the fifth choice where
appropriate.
You cannot use:
1. Demographic questions for this assignment (age, sex,
ethnicity, income, education level, number of children, sexual
orientation, religious preference, etc.)
2. Yes/no questions
3. Numeric type Likert scale questions (On a Scale from 1 to
10,)
4. Repeat survey questions for parts 1 and 2 of this assignment
5. Repeat response choices for more than two questions out of
all ten questions.
Each survey question is worth 5 points.
Step 4 is worth a maximum of 50 points or 13% of your final
grade.

Place Your Title Here
JUST300-06
Your Name
December 3, 2018
Reuter, T. R., Newcomb, M. E., Whitton, S. W., & Mustanski,
B. (2017). Intimate partner violence victimization in LGBT
young adults: Demographic differences and associations with
health behaviors. Psychology of Violence, 7(1), 101-109.
The authors hypothesized that female identifying racial minority
members of the LGBT+ community were more likely to
experience intimate partner violence (IPV) than their male-
identifying white counterparts. Furthermore, they hypothesized
that IPV would be associated with certain health habits, such as
high usage of alcohol and marijuana. The study drew from a
sample of 172 ethnically diverse members of the LGBT+
community in the Chicago area. Each participant first was
prompted to complete a demographic form, then was asked a
series of questions designed to assess if the interviewee was
physically abused by, forced to participate in sex acts with, or
verbally abused by an intimate partner. Furthermore,
participants were prompted to fill out the HIV Risk Assessment

of Sexual Partnerships to determine mental health symptoms
and sexual risk taking. Finally, the study collected self-reports
of marijuana and alcohol use among participants. Each
participant then received a 4-year and 5-year follow up
interview. The results confirmed results found in previous
studies of heterosexual relationships: that female, male-to
female transgender, and African American participants were at
the highest risk of victimization. The only difference in IPV
between sexual minorities in the study were that lesbian
partnerships were more likely to perpetrate IPV. Furthermore,
the study found that victims of IPV in the study were at higher
risk of developing depression and anxiety, which was again in
line with previous studies. While IPV was not the cause of
current anxiety, upon a follow up investigation one year later,
IPV was the cause of increased anxiety among those
interviewed. Finally, the study also found that there was a
correlation with sexual risk taking (such as unprotected sex) and
IPV.
series of questions designed to assess if the interviewee was

IPV.
Creating Hypotheses and Operationalizing Variables
1. The authors hypothesized that female identifying racial
minority members of the LGBT+ community were more likely
to experience intimate partner violence (IPV) than their male-
identifying white counterparts. The direction is positive.
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. The authors hypothesized that IPV would be associated with
certain health habits, such as high usage of alcohol and
marijuana.
6. X
7. X
8. X
Sampling
Probability

1. The authors hypothesized that female identifying racial
minority members of the LGBT+ community were more likely
to experience intimate partner violence (IPV) than their male-
identifying white counterparts. The direction is positive.
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. X
6. X
Non-probability
1. The authors hypothesized that IPV would be associated with
marijuana.
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. X
6. X
Survey Design
identifying white counterparts.
1. How many times have you been the victim Intimate Partner
Violence?
a. 1 to 2
b. 3 to 4
c. 5 to 6
d. 7 or more
2. What kind of injuries have you suffered?

a. Bruises
b. Severe sprains
c. Broken bones
d. Internal injuries
e. Other ____________________________________________
Remaining 3 questions.
The authors hypothesized that IPV would be associated with
marijuana.
Five questions.
In-depth interviewing
1. Your second hypothesis.
2. X
3. X
4. X
5. X
6. X
7. Interview schedule:
a. What do you believe should be done to prevent IPV?
b. X
c. X
d. X
e. X
8. X
Methodology Project:
This project will be completed in steps with several due dates
throughout the semester in order to facilitate understanding of

the process involved in a research project. For this project, you
will be responsible for writing an annotated bibliography,
creating hypotheses, operationalizing variables, creating survey
questions, and creating an interview guide for your chosen
topic.
All steps of the project must abide by the following guidelines:
· Project must have a cover sheet with title, name, and date of
submission.
· Pages must be numbered.
· Written in Times New Roman 12-point font, double spaced,
with one inch margins on all sides (NOTE: default in word is
1.25).
· Spell-check and grammar-check the document prior to
submission.
· Proofread the document prior to submission.
· Cite sources using the APA format.
The entire project is worth a maximum of 200 points or 50% of
your final grade!
Step One ~ Annotated Bibliography:
When searching for sources, you must find relevant academic
journal/periodical articles. This means you cannot use popular
magazines, newspaper articles, or other non-academic sources!
You also cannot use books for this assignment.
Scholarly journal article
Non-scholarly sources
content
original research or comprehensive review of existing research
general information, typically current events, broad overview of
the topic
format
structured article with abstract, literature review, methodology,
conclusion, and bibliography

no structured format
audience
professionals/students in a particular field of study
general public
authors
scholars or experts in the field; articles are signed and
credentials are provided
hired journalists or professional writers
evidence
thorough bibliography or "cited references" provided
No bibliography; research/reports may be mentioned in the
article
purpose
inform of scholarly/scientific research
to entertain or inform general public
examples
Criminology; Criminology & Public Policy; Social Problems;
Criminal Justice Review
Time; Newsweek; Sports Illustrated; Rolling Stone; National
Geographic
It will be useful for you to search for articles using a
computerized search program such as EbscoHost or Sociofile,
both of which can be accessed through the MSU library’s
database section using the instructions provided below. When in
doubt, the library reference section personnel can usually be of
assistance. You want to be careful in relying on your favorite
search engine (such as google) to find academic sources, unless
you are using a search engine oriented toward scholarly work
(such as http://scholar.google.com/).
How to Access the MSU Databases to Find Scholarly Articles
(1) Go to the MSU homepage (www.montclair.edu) and under

“Menu” click on “Library.”
(2) Click on “databases” on the right.
(3) On the right click on “Academic Search Complete.”
(4) You will be prompted to enter your username and
password.
(5) You will now see the Ebsco search window. There are a
variety of different fields on this screen in which you will have
to enter information (all of the information below must be
entered BEFORE you hit “search”):
· In the “find” window at the top, you enter search words that
relate to your topic
· Put a checkmark beside the “full text” box
· Put a checkmark beside the “scholarly (peer reviewed)
journal” box
· Under “publication type” highlight “periodical”
· For the published date enter “2014” to the “2019” (you cannot
use articles that are more than FIVE years old!)
· Hit “search”
(6) You can print the entire article by clicking on “pdf full
text” under the title of the article. Use the article title to give
you hints about its relation to your topic. Once you open the
full text article, read the abstract to get a better idea of whether
or not the article fits with your chosen topic.
Note that for this project you will need five sources. All articles
must meet the following criterion or will receive a grade of 0/10
for that specific annotation:
· The researchers must conduct PRIMARY research ~ this
means the authors have conducted a research project of their
own and collected primary data, rather than discussing the
findings of another author/authors, or analyzed the data of
another author/authors (referred to as “secondary” research)
· Must be peer-reviewed, scholarly sources
· Must have been written in 2014 or more recently
· Articles must meet ALL of the above criterion or you will earn

a 0/10 for that annotation!
Have you located primary research?
Did the author do his/her own research and data collection? If
YES, this would be a primary source.
Is the researcher summarizing a study someone else did? If
YES, it is NOT a primary source.
Is the researcher analyzing someone else's statistics? If YES, it
is NOT a primary source.
Does the article talk about where and how THIS
researcher/author collected his/her data? If YES, this would be
a primary source.
Is the researcher simply summarizing theories about your
chosen topic? Is YES, it is NOT a primary source.
Is there a section called “methods” that describes how the
researcher found participants and collected data? If YES, this is
usually a primary source.
Are you still confused? If YES, you can show the professor
printed copies of articles that you believe to be primary sources
at least one week prior to the due date of the annotated
bibliography!What is an annotated bibliography?
An annotated bibliography is a list of citations (in this case to
journal articles), with each citation followed by a brief (200-
300 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the
annotation).
What is the purpose of an annotated bibliography?
For this class, the purposes of the annotated bibliography are:
· a review of the methodological findings in primary research
articles
· to explore the subject for further research (i.e. your
methodology project)

· to evaluate why the article is a worthwhile one to read and
how it will contribute to your understanding of the topic at hand
Your objective is that anyone who reads your annotated
bibliography will know the hypotheses and major findings for
each scholarly article selected and will know whether this
article makes a substantial contribution to the literature on the
topic.
The process
Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a
variety of intellectual skills, including the ability to conduct
academic research, and the ability to analyze and clearly
articulate the main purposes/findings of a source in
approximately one page.
Step One ~ Annotated Bibliographies
Here are the steps involved in conducting an annotated
bibliography:
· Locate and record citations to periodicals/journals that may
contain useful information.
· Briefly examine and review the articles (note: there is no need
to read the “literature review” section, as you are ONLY to
discuss the hypotheses and findings of the current article).
· Cite the articles using proper APA citation style.
· Write a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme
and findings of the article. Include only directly significant
information and write in an efficient manner. Each annotation
should be one paragraph of approximately 200-300 words in

length!
· There is no need to provide in-text citations for an annotation,
however DO NOT PLAGIARIZE! All thoughts must be
sufficiently paraphrased!
· You MUST address the bolded questions below in each
annotation:
· Identify TWO of the author's hypotheses. Must be stated in
proper hypothesis format, with one independent and one
dependent variable. Both the introduction and the conclusion
can help you with this task. Ask yourself: what is the main point
of the article? What ideas/evidence are used to support the
author’s position?
· Identify the population the author is studying. What is the age
range of the individuals involved? Where are they located?
What is their gender? Race? Income?
· Identify the method(s) used to investigate the problem(s). A
survey? What type of survey? Phone survey? Mail survey? An
experiment? Participant observation? Is this type of research
descriptive, exploratory, explanatory? How were participants
recruited for this study? Here you should explain the
methodology of the study. Pay attention to the opening
sentence(s) of each paragraph, where authors often state
concisely their main point.
· Identify the major findings of the research. Look for
paragraphs that summarize the argument ~ this may be included
in the “discussion” or “findings” of the article. This should be
the main focus of your annotation!
What does the annotated bibliography look like?
You write and arrange the bibliographic entries (citations) just
as you would any other bibliography. In APA style, this means
alphabetically by the author’s last name. You skip one line and
then proceed with the annotation.
Step 1 is worth a maximum of 50 points (10 points per

annotation) or 13% of your final grade.
Here is an example (note that your assignment must be double-
spaced):
series of questions designed to asses if the interviewee was

IPV.
Step Two ~ Creating Hypotheses and Operationalizing
Variables:
The purpose of this step is to create two hypotheses for your
project and to delineate the operationalization of variables. You
are to use the information gathered from your annotated
bibliography to complete the remaining steps of the
methodology project. If you operationalize your variable(s) in
the exact same way as elaborated in one of your sources, you
must include the appropriate citation.
Complete each of the steps below:
(1) State a directional hypothesis using two variables. (2
points) Indicate if the direction of association is positive or
negative. (1 point)
(2) What is the independent variable? (0.5 points)
Operationalize the independent variable (2 points).
(3) What is the dependent variable? (0.5 points)
Operationalize the dependent variable (2 points).
(4) State the null hypothesis (2 points).
(5) State a different, but related, directional hypothesis using
two variables. (2 points) Indicate if the direction of association
is positive or negative. (1 point)
(6) What is the independent variable? (0.5 points)
Operationalize the independent variable. (2 points)
(7) What is the dependent variable? (0.5 points)
Operationalize the dependent variable. (2 points)
(8) State the null hypothesis (2 points).

grade.
Step Three ~ Sampling:
This portion of the project is designed to assess your
understanding of sampling in both quantitative and qualitative
projects, that is probability and non-probability sampling. You
are to use the SAME two hypotheses you developed for Step 2
of the project.
Complete each of the steps below assuming you have been
instructed to use a probability sampling technique to explore
your hypothesis:
(1) Provide a directional hypothesis. (3 points).
(2) Specifically, who is your population of interest? (3 points)
(3) How would you obtain a sampling frame? (3 points)
(4) What are the disadvantages to your source(s) of a sampling
frame? (2 points) How would you overcome these drawbacks?
(2 points)
(5) What type of sampling method would you use? (2 points)
Why? (2 points)
(6) How far would you be able to generalize using the
sampling method chosen? (3 points)
Complete each of the steps below assuming you have been
instructed to use a non-probability sampling technique to
explore your hypothesis:
(1) Provide a different directional hypothesis (3 points).
(3) What are some of the disadvantages to not having a
sampling frame? (2 points) Discuss how you may overcome
these drawbacks? (2 points)
(4) What type of sampling method would you use? Why? (4
points)
(5) How far would you be able to generalize using the

sampling method chosen? (3 points)
(6) What is one ethical concern of conducting research on the
topic you have chosen? (2 points) How would you minimize this
ethical dilemma? (1 point)
grade.
Step Four ~ Survey Design:
constructing survey questions to your chosen topic.
Note that the questions constructed for this assignment are to be
closed-ended survey questions and are to be your own creation,
NOT taken from another source!
You must continue to use the SAME two hypotheses you created
earlier.
(1) List your first directional hypothesis and create five related
survey questions.
(2) List your second directional hypothesis and create five
related survey questions.
You must create questions with verbal response options.
You may use two verbal type Likert scale questions such as
“Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree”
out of the ten questions.
You may use up to two frequency questions “None, 1-3, 4-6, 7
or more” out of all ten questions.

You may use answer choices such as “Always, Sometimes,
Rarely, Never” twice out of the ten questions.
Each questions should have four or five choices. You may use
“Other _____________________” as the fifth choice where
appropriate.
You cannot use:
1. Demographic questions for this assignment (age, sex,
ethnicity, income, education level, number of children, sexual
orientation, religious preference, etc.)
2. Yes/no questions
3. Numeric type Likert scale questions (On a Scale from 1 to
10,)
4. Repeat survey questions for parts 1 and 2 of this assignment
5. Repeat response choices for more than two questions out of
all ten questions.
Each survey question is worth 5 points.
grade.
Step Five ~ A Qualitative Approach:
qualitative research. You are to assume you are using a non-
probability sample and therefore must designate an appropriate
population.
Using the methodology of in-depth interviewing, respond to
each of the following:
(1) Provide a directional hypothesis (2 points).

(3) How will you gain access to your population of interest? (3
points)
(4) Elaborate how will you gain a rapport with your interview
participants? (7 points)
(5) What are some advantages of in-depth interviews for this
subject matter? (4 points).
(6) What are some disadvantages of in-depth interviews for
this subject matter? (4 points)
(7) Create five interview questions (2 points each) that would
be part of an interview guide. These should be open-ended. (10
points total)
(8) Discuss two potential ethical concerns of conducting
interviews. (4 points) How would you would overcome these
issues? (3 points)
grade.
8

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