Opportunities from Satellite Observation Systems in Climate Risk Mitigation: The Case of Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya
One of the key findings in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) is that millions of people globally will be exposed to increased water stress due to climate change. With over three quarters of Africa falling under arid and semiarid climate, the continent is prone to the vagaries of climate change. Like other African countries, climate related disasters pose threat to the economy of Kenya, which largely depend on agriculture, tourism and hospitality sectors. Droughts and floods make regular news in the country causing devastating effects which are sometimes irreversible, at least in the short-term, causing destitution among the natives and huge losses to government agencies. In a continent where rainfall performance plays a critical role in most of economic sectors, monitoring of drought hazards is important in coping with climate vagaries and adopting the most appropriate mitigation measures. This paper focuses on the effects of climate shocks on tourism and hospitality sector in Nakuru County in Kenya. It utilizes satellite images, in addition to rainfall data, for drought assessment and monitoring. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and land cover images have been used to establish and map the geographical extent and severity of droughts and the availability of pasture and browse for wildlife. Changes in water levels in Lakes Nakuru have been well documented. The study benefits the tourism destination managers, tour operators and hoteliers on the best locational sites for tourism and hospitality enterprises not only to ensure maximum revenue but also facilitate satisfying experiences to the visitors during climate related catastrophes. In addition, the findings inform government agencies which areas require rapid responses and plan contingency measures a head of time.
Poverty Implications on Natural Disasters Occurrence in Nigeriatheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document discusses the impacts of tourism on developing economies. It begins with an introduction stating that while tourism provides economic benefits, it can also have environmental, social, and cultural impacts if not properly managed. It then provides details on the various impacts under sections on environment (1.1.1), sociocultural (1.1.2), and economic (1.1.3). Specific examples of impacts in Thailand (2.3) and India (2.4) are also discussed.
Understanding Extreme Climatic Events for Economic Development in Kenya Julius Huho
Kenya is an agri-based economy that heavily relies on rainfall performance. Unfortunately, changes in rainfall patterns have threatened the agricultural sector since it is largely rain-fed. The frequent occurrence and increased severity of climatic extremes, particularly droughts and floods, have led to slow economic development in the affected areas. However, the impacts on the economy vary from one hydrometeorological disaster to the other depending on their characteristics. From the case studies of Laikipia and Bunyala subcounties in Kenya, the study established an increasing trend in both the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts. Prolonged and severe flood and drought events had adverse impacts on economic development through (a) decrease in agricultural production, (b) poor prices for livestock and agricultural produce and (c) destruction of the immediate environment which in turn exacerbate the impacts. An inverse relationship between economic development and the magnitude of the disaster was established. The consequence have been increased poverty levels in the areas due to slow economic development.
This document summarizes tourism in Africa and its potential for economic growth. It finds that tourism currently contributes over $36 billion to Africa's GDP and is responsible for millions of jobs. However, Africa faces constraints like inadequate air and road transport that hamper tourism. If these constraints are addressed, tourism could be a significant driver of economic development across Africa by harnessing the region's natural and cultural assets. The document outlines opportunities and constraints to expanding Africa's tourism industry.
Cuba has invested increasingly in its tourism industry since 1993. Tourism currently accounts for nearly 10% of Cuba's GDP and has helped boost economic growth. While over 2.8 million people visited Cuba in 2012, recent relaxations of U.S. travel restrictions could significantly increase American tourism. However, greater tourism comes with risks of weakening Cuban culture and increasing foreign influence. As such, Cuban officials must weigh economic benefits against cultural impacts as U.S.-Cuba relations continue to evolve.
New Zealand is a mountainous group of islands located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The main islands are the North and South Islands, separated by the Cook Strait. New Zealand has a varied climate from subtropical in the north to cooler temperatures in the south. The government is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as the head of state. Key exports include dairy products, meat, and fruits and vegetables, while imports include vehicles, machinery, and pharmaceuticals. Tourism is also a major contributor to New Zealand's economy.
Revisiting the Types of Tourism Promotion & Development in India during the P...DebasishBatabyal
This document discusses the types of tourism that should be promoted in India during the post-COVID 19 era. It notes that the pandemic has caused health, economic, political, social, and travel emergencies globally. Going forward, it recommends focusing on health tourism, business tourism, employment-based tourism, and domestic tourism. It suggests these sectors will be important as travel resumes and the economy recovers. The document emphasizes accelerating domestic tourism in India and addressing the indispensable need to restart travel, while continuing existing health control measures until full recovery.
The document provides an overview of global tourism statistics and the tourism industry. It discusses how the tourism industry contributes to the global economy and GDP. It also describes the impact of COVID-19 on the tourism sector, with international tourism revenue decreasing 42.1% in 2020. Finally, it outlines the categorization of countries into "four worlds" based on their economic status and political alignment during the Cold War era.
Poverty Implications on Natural Disasters Occurrence in Nigeriatheijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document discusses the impacts of tourism on developing economies. It begins with an introduction stating that while tourism provides economic benefits, it can also have environmental, social, and cultural impacts if not properly managed. It then provides details on the various impacts under sections on environment (1.1.1), sociocultural (1.1.2), and economic (1.1.3). Specific examples of impacts in Thailand (2.3) and India (2.4) are also discussed.
Understanding Extreme Climatic Events for Economic Development in Kenya Julius Huho
Kenya is an agri-based economy that heavily relies on rainfall performance. Unfortunately, changes in rainfall patterns have threatened the agricultural sector since it is largely rain-fed. The frequent occurrence and increased severity of climatic extremes, particularly droughts and floods, have led to slow economic development in the affected areas. However, the impacts on the economy vary from one hydrometeorological disaster to the other depending on their characteristics. From the case studies of Laikipia and Bunyala subcounties in Kenya, the study established an increasing trend in both the frequency and magnitude of floods and droughts. Prolonged and severe flood and drought events had adverse impacts on economic development through (a) decrease in agricultural production, (b) poor prices for livestock and agricultural produce and (c) destruction of the immediate environment which in turn exacerbate the impacts. An inverse relationship between economic development and the magnitude of the disaster was established. The consequence have been increased poverty levels in the areas due to slow economic development.
This document summarizes tourism in Africa and its potential for economic growth. It finds that tourism currently contributes over $36 billion to Africa's GDP and is responsible for millions of jobs. However, Africa faces constraints like inadequate air and road transport that hamper tourism. If these constraints are addressed, tourism could be a significant driver of economic development across Africa by harnessing the region's natural and cultural assets. The document outlines opportunities and constraints to expanding Africa's tourism industry.
Cuba has invested increasingly in its tourism industry since 1993. Tourism currently accounts for nearly 10% of Cuba's GDP and has helped boost economic growth. While over 2.8 million people visited Cuba in 2012, recent relaxations of U.S. travel restrictions could significantly increase American tourism. However, greater tourism comes with risks of weakening Cuban culture and increasing foreign influence. As such, Cuban officials must weigh economic benefits against cultural impacts as U.S.-Cuba relations continue to evolve.
New Zealand is a mountainous group of islands located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. The main islands are the North and South Islands, separated by the Cook Strait. New Zealand has a varied climate from subtropical in the north to cooler temperatures in the south. The government is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as the head of state. Key exports include dairy products, meat, and fruits and vegetables, while imports include vehicles, machinery, and pharmaceuticals. Tourism is also a major contributor to New Zealand's economy.
Revisiting the Types of Tourism Promotion & Development in India during the P...DebasishBatabyal
This document discusses the types of tourism that should be promoted in India during the post-COVID 19 era. It notes that the pandemic has caused health, economic, political, social, and travel emergencies globally. Going forward, it recommends focusing on health tourism, business tourism, employment-based tourism, and domestic tourism. It suggests these sectors will be important as travel resumes and the economy recovers. The document emphasizes accelerating domestic tourism in India and addressing the indispensable need to restart travel, while continuing existing health control measures until full recovery.
The document provides an overview of global tourism statistics and the tourism industry. It discusses how the tourism industry contributes to the global economy and GDP. It also describes the impact of COVID-19 on the tourism sector, with international tourism revenue decreasing 42.1% in 2020. Finally, it outlines the categorization of countries into "four worlds" based on their economic status and political alignment during the Cold War era.
Political instability can significantly impact tourism. The document discusses how war, coups, terrorism and civil unrest can negatively influence tourists' perception of risk at a destination through media coverage. This leads to decreases in tourist arrivals, revenues, and related economic benefits. Examples from countries like China, Fiji, Mexico, Yugoslavia, the Middle East, and North/South Korea demonstrate tourism declines caused by these political events. The conclusion calls for tourism education to incorporate more discussion of international politics and its effects.
Economic Fluctuation and Its Effects on Tourism in Kish Island, Iranhamed rouzrokh
When economic recession accompany by international sanctions, market will experience the worst scenario in
three layers: political environment, fiscal, and management issues that Iran experienced from the second quarter
of 2012, due to international sanction. A field survey was applied to evaluate two target groups; shop owners and
tourists’ reactions against the economic fluctuation effects in Kish Island. Principal component analysis was
considered to analyze the data that obtained from field survey. The result shows that although the tourist chose
economizing strategies, however shop owners faced Paradoxical sphere, imbalance economy, none transparency,
high risk and uncertainty space. Shop owners try to adjust themselves through the variety of strategies based on
their capacity.
The Efficiency of Foreign Aid Transparency Hub in the Aftermath of Natural Di...inventionjournals
For having a withstanding condition of a country with corruption issues, Philippines is a progressing country that still depends on foreign support from abundant nations and multilateral organization to improve the economic development. With the rapid influx of the foreign contribution in reaction to the outcome of super typhoon in the Philippines, a crucial demand for transparency to track the flow of funds and making sure that itwill properly utilize. The government responded with the release of foreign aid transparency hub or so-called ―FAiTH‖. The research delves deeper to know the efficiency of FAiTH by collating relevant information fromhuman being and responsive web communities. Further, this article showcases if this kind of foreign support will be able to respond accurately and satisfy the anxiousness of the society regarding the foreign grants monitoring and usage.
Investment and sustainable development of tourism in kosovo (4)nakije.kida
The document discusses investment and sustainable development of tourism in Kosovo. It notes that tourism could increase Kosovo's participation in the global economy by facilitating employment creation, especially for small and medium enterprises. However, defects in infrastructure, marketing, and human resources currently hinder sustainable tourism development. The document recommends promoting Kosovo internationally to increase tourism, attracting investments like foreign direct investment to link tourism to other sectors, and developing green tourism to preserve the environment while creating jobs and revenue.
IRJET- Flood Risk Assessment in Uyo Urban, Nigeria using Geospatial ToolsIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that used geospatial tools to assess flood risk in Uyo Urban, Nigeria. Specifically:
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing were used to identify flood risk areas and produce a flood risk map categorizing areas as high, medium, or low risk.
- Factors affecting flooding in the study area were identified as population growth, urbanization, and drainage blockages.
- The study utilized ASTER Digital Elevation Model data and 2015 Landsat imagery to characterize topography and assess flood impacts. Flood risk maps delineating the three risk zones were produced.
- Recommendations included improving drainage systems, monitoring urban expansion and flood incidents, and conducting
ENV GLOBAL FORUM OCT 2016 - Session 2 - K. Habtegaber OECD Environment
Natural capital is the bedrock of African economies, with agriculture, tourism, fisheries, and forests contributing significantly to GDP and employment. However, rapid population growth, urbanization, and resource extraction are degrading natural capital through issues like land degradation, deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of resources. This undermines long-term economic development potential. African governments are now recognizing the need to account for natural capital in economic planning and decision making to promote more sustainable development.
Sustainable tourism development - A case study of CroatiaPaulius Bagdanskas
This document discusses seasonal tourism issues in Croatia and potential solutions. It notes that Croatia experiences significant seasonality in its tourism industry, with high tourist demand concentrated in the summer months and low demand the rest of the year. This seasonality leads to negative economic, environmental, and socio-cultural impacts. To promote more sustainable tourism, the document suggests diversifying tourism offerings and attracting visitors throughout the year to extend the summer season and distribute tourist demand more evenly.
The document discusses several macroeconomic factors affecting tourism in India. It states that tourism accounts for 9.2% of India's GDP and has outperformed global tourism. Higher inflation increases prices of transportation, accommodations, and goods, which can impact tourism. Government policies on infrastructure, taxation, and technology also influence tourism. Lower interest rates boost investment, consumption, and economic activity, increasing GDP. While India has risen in tourism competitiveness, the sector saw 5.2% foreign tourist arrival growth in 2018 and is a major foreign exchange earner, but may be affected by economic slowdowns.
This document contains summaries of figures and maps from the World Development Report 2010. It includes 3 summaries:
1) The number of people affected by climate-related disasters is increasing, especially in lower-middle income countries where almost 8% of the population is affected each year. Flood events are also increasing, particularly in Africa.
2) Insurance is limited in the developing world, with non-life insurance premiums making up a small percentage of GDP in these regions compared to developed countries.
3) In Niger, widespread regreening efforts led by farmers using indigenous techniques has improved food security and resilience to drought across 5 million hectares, benefiting millions of people. Social learning and government policies supported spreading these
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates the determinants and macroeconomic impact of remittances in sub-Saharan Africa. It finds that remittances are larger when the diaspora is located in wealthier countries and behave counter-cyclically. While remittances have a negative effect on growth in regressions, countries with better domestic institutions are better able to leverage remittances for faster economic growth. The paper aims to specifically analyze remittances in sub-Saharan Africa using expanded data and estimates of emigrant populations to determine factors influencing remittance levels and their relationship to economic growth in recipient countries.
Terrorism has a significant negative impact on tourism. The document discusses how terrorist attacks in India, such as in Mumbai, led to a 3.3% decline in foreign tourist arrivals in 2009. Such attacks damage the "Incredible India" brand and hurt the tourism industry, including airlines, hotels, travel agencies and tour operators. To mitigate these effects, the document recommends strengthening security measures, rebuilding tourism marketing efforts, and gaining foreign tourists' confidence in India's security.
Tourism is a major source of income for many countries and has experienced continued growth over decades to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors. It accounts for 30% of the world's trade of services and 6% of overall exports. Tourism benefits sectors like transportation, hospitality, and entertainment by creating opportunities for employment. It was recognized in 1980 as an activity essential to life for many nations due to its effects on social, cultural, economic and international relations. International tourist arrivals grew from over 996 million in 2011 to 1.035 billion in 2012, recovering after declines during the recession.
The document provides background on Bangladesh's vulnerability to natural disasters such as cyclones, floods, riverbank erosion and tornadoes. It notes that over 300 disasters since 1970 have affected over 10 million people and caused over 10 million fatalities. Climate change is expected to exacerbate existing hazards. The strategy outlines a National Resilience Programme to strengthen disaster risk reduction and management efforts in Bangladesh.
This document summarizes the 2018 economic impact report on travel and tourism in Argentina. Some key points:
- Travel and tourism directly contributed 3.7% to Argentina's GDP in 2017 and is forecast to contribute 3.7% in 2028. The total contribution (including indirect and induced impacts) was 10.3% of GDP in 2017 and is forecast to be 10.1% in 2028.
- In 2017 the sector directly supported 644,000 jobs in Argentina (3.5% of total) and indirectly supported a total of 1.8 million jobs (9.8% of total). The total jobs contribution is forecast to rise to over 2 million jobs (10.1% of total)
Country reports presented at Tropical Community Healthcare and Research 2015, at Khon Kaen University, Thailand on 8th July 2015 by members of 13 countries.
This document discusses sustainable community development in Africa through disaster risk reduction in the tourism industry, using Nigeria as a case study. It defines key concepts like tourism, disasters, and disaster risk management. Tourism is seen as having great potential to reduce poverty in Africa due to its labor intensive nature and ability to create jobs in rural areas. However, concerns over safety from natural and human-caused hazards that cause disasters limit tourism growth. Effective disaster risk management can increase tourist safety and patronage, boosting local economies. The document advocates strategies to manage risks from hazards through prevention, mitigation and coping in order to promote national economic development via tourism.
Hospitality and Tourism is one of the world’s largest growing industries and it is a source
of income for many nations. Being people oriented business, Hospitality industry also gives several jobs that has helped rejuvenate local economies. Though, like other kinds of development, hospitality and tourism can also cause difficulties such as loss of cultural heritage, social dislocation, ecological degradation and economic dependence. In Nepal, the industry of hospitality and tourism is growing at a skyrocket pace as well as it also has tremendous probable development of tourism because of its unique cultural and natural heritage. Concerning this, the tourism policy has been created with a framework of: increasing foreign currency, augmenting national income and productivity, improving regional imbalances, creating employment opportunities and projecting the image of Nepal more aggressively in the international arena with the diversification and development of tourism and travel industries.
Tourism Planning And Development Of Sustainable...Sheri Elliott
The document discusses several key concepts regarding sustainable development and sustainable tourism planning. It focuses on how sustainable development issues must be addressed to minimize negative tourism impacts and maximize benefits for tourism planning and future development. Rural and small island communities are particularly impacted as they have small populations and lack of businesses, which can increase unemployment. International organizations play an important role in tourism development by helping to plan, develop, and preserve destinations in a sustainable manner.
An Economic Analysis Of The Effect Of Volcano National Park Tourism Demand On...Sheila Sinclair
This document analyzes the effect of volcano national park tourism demand on human livelihood in Rwanda, using a case study of Burera and Musanze districts. It finds that factors like education level, household income, political stability, climate, and animal species visited positively influence tourism demand. Employment opportunities, new job creation, and enhanced business activities are also positively impacted by volcano park tourism. The biggest challenges for volcano park development are lack of sufficient land, insufficient human capital, pandemic diseases, limited funds, population pressure, and species reduction. The researcher recommends smallholder farmers promote local agricultural product supply to tourists, and the government make volcano park visits more affordable for Rwandans.
1. Marine and coastal tourism is an important part of the economy for many IORA member states. It provides jobs and income through activities like recreational boating, diving, and cruise ships.
2. However, marine environments face threats from climate change, overfishing, pollution, and coastal development. These stresses negatively impact tourism by damaging ecosystems and experiences.
3. Sustainable tourism practices, including ecotourism, can help mitigate these threats while continuing to support local communities. Many nations are pursuing marine protected areas and regulations to balance tourism and conservation.
Political instability can significantly impact tourism. The document discusses how war, coups, terrorism and civil unrest can negatively influence tourists' perception of risk at a destination through media coverage. This leads to decreases in tourist arrivals, revenues, and related economic benefits. Examples from countries like China, Fiji, Mexico, Yugoslavia, the Middle East, and North/South Korea demonstrate tourism declines caused by these political events. The conclusion calls for tourism education to incorporate more discussion of international politics and its effects.
Economic Fluctuation and Its Effects on Tourism in Kish Island, Iranhamed rouzrokh
When economic recession accompany by international sanctions, market will experience the worst scenario in
three layers: political environment, fiscal, and management issues that Iran experienced from the second quarter
of 2012, due to international sanction. A field survey was applied to evaluate two target groups; shop owners and
tourists’ reactions against the economic fluctuation effects in Kish Island. Principal component analysis was
considered to analyze the data that obtained from field survey. The result shows that although the tourist chose
economizing strategies, however shop owners faced Paradoxical sphere, imbalance economy, none transparency,
high risk and uncertainty space. Shop owners try to adjust themselves through the variety of strategies based on
their capacity.
The Efficiency of Foreign Aid Transparency Hub in the Aftermath of Natural Di...inventionjournals
For having a withstanding condition of a country with corruption issues, Philippines is a progressing country that still depends on foreign support from abundant nations and multilateral organization to improve the economic development. With the rapid influx of the foreign contribution in reaction to the outcome of super typhoon in the Philippines, a crucial demand for transparency to track the flow of funds and making sure that itwill properly utilize. The government responded with the release of foreign aid transparency hub or so-called ―FAiTH‖. The research delves deeper to know the efficiency of FAiTH by collating relevant information fromhuman being and responsive web communities. Further, this article showcases if this kind of foreign support will be able to respond accurately and satisfy the anxiousness of the society regarding the foreign grants monitoring and usage.
Investment and sustainable development of tourism in kosovo (4)nakije.kida
The document discusses investment and sustainable development of tourism in Kosovo. It notes that tourism could increase Kosovo's participation in the global economy by facilitating employment creation, especially for small and medium enterprises. However, defects in infrastructure, marketing, and human resources currently hinder sustainable tourism development. The document recommends promoting Kosovo internationally to increase tourism, attracting investments like foreign direct investment to link tourism to other sectors, and developing green tourism to preserve the environment while creating jobs and revenue.
IRJET- Flood Risk Assessment in Uyo Urban, Nigeria using Geospatial ToolsIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that used geospatial tools to assess flood risk in Uyo Urban, Nigeria. Specifically:
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing were used to identify flood risk areas and produce a flood risk map categorizing areas as high, medium, or low risk.
- Factors affecting flooding in the study area were identified as population growth, urbanization, and drainage blockages.
- The study utilized ASTER Digital Elevation Model data and 2015 Landsat imagery to characterize topography and assess flood impacts. Flood risk maps delineating the three risk zones were produced.
- Recommendations included improving drainage systems, monitoring urban expansion and flood incidents, and conducting
ENV GLOBAL FORUM OCT 2016 - Session 2 - K. Habtegaber OECD Environment
Natural capital is the bedrock of African economies, with agriculture, tourism, fisheries, and forests contributing significantly to GDP and employment. However, rapid population growth, urbanization, and resource extraction are degrading natural capital through issues like land degradation, deforestation, pollution, and overexploitation of resources. This undermines long-term economic development potential. African governments are now recognizing the need to account for natural capital in economic planning and decision making to promote more sustainable development.
Sustainable tourism development - A case study of CroatiaPaulius Bagdanskas
This document discusses seasonal tourism issues in Croatia and potential solutions. It notes that Croatia experiences significant seasonality in its tourism industry, with high tourist demand concentrated in the summer months and low demand the rest of the year. This seasonality leads to negative economic, environmental, and socio-cultural impacts. To promote more sustainable tourism, the document suggests diversifying tourism offerings and attracting visitors throughout the year to extend the summer season and distribute tourist demand more evenly.
The document discusses several macroeconomic factors affecting tourism in India. It states that tourism accounts for 9.2% of India's GDP and has outperformed global tourism. Higher inflation increases prices of transportation, accommodations, and goods, which can impact tourism. Government policies on infrastructure, taxation, and technology also influence tourism. Lower interest rates boost investment, consumption, and economic activity, increasing GDP. While India has risen in tourism competitiveness, the sector saw 5.2% foreign tourist arrival growth in 2018 and is a major foreign exchange earner, but may be affected by economic slowdowns.
This document contains summaries of figures and maps from the World Development Report 2010. It includes 3 summaries:
1) The number of people affected by climate-related disasters is increasing, especially in lower-middle income countries where almost 8% of the population is affected each year. Flood events are also increasing, particularly in Africa.
2) Insurance is limited in the developing world, with non-life insurance premiums making up a small percentage of GDP in these regions compared to developed countries.
3) In Niger, widespread regreening efforts led by farmers using indigenous techniques has improved food security and resilience to drought across 5 million hectares, benefiting millions of people. Social learning and government policies supported spreading these
This document summarizes a research paper that investigates the determinants and macroeconomic impact of remittances in sub-Saharan Africa. It finds that remittances are larger when the diaspora is located in wealthier countries and behave counter-cyclically. While remittances have a negative effect on growth in regressions, countries with better domestic institutions are better able to leverage remittances for faster economic growth. The paper aims to specifically analyze remittances in sub-Saharan Africa using expanded data and estimates of emigrant populations to determine factors influencing remittance levels and their relationship to economic growth in recipient countries.
Terrorism has a significant negative impact on tourism. The document discusses how terrorist attacks in India, such as in Mumbai, led to a 3.3% decline in foreign tourist arrivals in 2009. Such attacks damage the "Incredible India" brand and hurt the tourism industry, including airlines, hotels, travel agencies and tour operators. To mitigate these effects, the document recommends strengthening security measures, rebuilding tourism marketing efforts, and gaining foreign tourists' confidence in India's security.
Tourism is a major source of income for many countries and has experienced continued growth over decades to become one of the fastest growing economic sectors. It accounts for 30% of the world's trade of services and 6% of overall exports. Tourism benefits sectors like transportation, hospitality, and entertainment by creating opportunities for employment. It was recognized in 1980 as an activity essential to life for many nations due to its effects on social, cultural, economic and international relations. International tourist arrivals grew from over 996 million in 2011 to 1.035 billion in 2012, recovering after declines during the recession.
The document provides background on Bangladesh's vulnerability to natural disasters such as cyclones, floods, riverbank erosion and tornadoes. It notes that over 300 disasters since 1970 have affected over 10 million people and caused over 10 million fatalities. Climate change is expected to exacerbate existing hazards. The strategy outlines a National Resilience Programme to strengthen disaster risk reduction and management efforts in Bangladesh.
This document summarizes the 2018 economic impact report on travel and tourism in Argentina. Some key points:
- Travel and tourism directly contributed 3.7% to Argentina's GDP in 2017 and is forecast to contribute 3.7% in 2028. The total contribution (including indirect and induced impacts) was 10.3% of GDP in 2017 and is forecast to be 10.1% in 2028.
- In 2017 the sector directly supported 644,000 jobs in Argentina (3.5% of total) and indirectly supported a total of 1.8 million jobs (9.8% of total). The total jobs contribution is forecast to rise to over 2 million jobs (10.1% of total)
Country reports presented at Tropical Community Healthcare and Research 2015, at Khon Kaen University, Thailand on 8th July 2015 by members of 13 countries.
Similar to Opportunities from Satellite Observation Systems in Climate Risk Mitigation: The Case of Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya
This document discusses sustainable community development in Africa through disaster risk reduction in the tourism industry, using Nigeria as a case study. It defines key concepts like tourism, disasters, and disaster risk management. Tourism is seen as having great potential to reduce poverty in Africa due to its labor intensive nature and ability to create jobs in rural areas. However, concerns over safety from natural and human-caused hazards that cause disasters limit tourism growth. Effective disaster risk management can increase tourist safety and patronage, boosting local economies. The document advocates strategies to manage risks from hazards through prevention, mitigation and coping in order to promote national economic development via tourism.
Hospitality and Tourism is one of the world’s largest growing industries and it is a source
of income for many nations. Being people oriented business, Hospitality industry also gives several jobs that has helped rejuvenate local economies. Though, like other kinds of development, hospitality and tourism can also cause difficulties such as loss of cultural heritage, social dislocation, ecological degradation and economic dependence. In Nepal, the industry of hospitality and tourism is growing at a skyrocket pace as well as it also has tremendous probable development of tourism because of its unique cultural and natural heritage. Concerning this, the tourism policy has been created with a framework of: increasing foreign currency, augmenting national income and productivity, improving regional imbalances, creating employment opportunities and projecting the image of Nepal more aggressively in the international arena with the diversification and development of tourism and travel industries.
Tourism Planning And Development Of Sustainable...Sheri Elliott
The document discusses several key concepts regarding sustainable development and sustainable tourism planning. It focuses on how sustainable development issues must be addressed to minimize negative tourism impacts and maximize benefits for tourism planning and future development. Rural and small island communities are particularly impacted as they have small populations and lack of businesses, which can increase unemployment. International organizations play an important role in tourism development by helping to plan, develop, and preserve destinations in a sustainable manner.
An Economic Analysis Of The Effect Of Volcano National Park Tourism Demand On...Sheila Sinclair
This document analyzes the effect of volcano national park tourism demand on human livelihood in Rwanda, using a case study of Burera and Musanze districts. It finds that factors like education level, household income, political stability, climate, and animal species visited positively influence tourism demand. Employment opportunities, new job creation, and enhanced business activities are also positively impacted by volcano park tourism. The biggest challenges for volcano park development are lack of sufficient land, insufficient human capital, pandemic diseases, limited funds, population pressure, and species reduction. The researcher recommends smallholder farmers promote local agricultural product supply to tourists, and the government make volcano park visits more affordable for Rwandans.
1. Marine and coastal tourism is an important part of the economy for many IORA member states. It provides jobs and income through activities like recreational boating, diving, and cruise ships.
2. However, marine environments face threats from climate change, overfishing, pollution, and coastal development. These stresses negatively impact tourism by damaging ecosystems and experiences.
3. Sustainable tourism practices, including ecotourism, can help mitigate these threats while continuing to support local communities. Many nations are pursuing marine protected areas and regulations to balance tourism and conservation.
Students notes reduce impact of tourismgeographybn
This document discusses methods used to control the impact of tourism. It outlines several effective ways to reduce tourism's negative impacts, including diversifying attractions, reducing tourist numbers in certain areas, promoting eco-tourism and green tourism, implementing strict laws, and ensuring proper management. Case studies on eco-tourism in Kenya and tourism in Antarctica provide examples of strategies used.
An analysis of coffee stains militating sustainable tourism development in af...Alexander Decker
This document analyzes factors hindering sustainable tourism development in Africa. While Africa has many natural and artificial tourist attractions, tourism traffic to the region is low. The study found this is due to an unfavorable tourism environment in Africa characterized by political instability, negative perceptions, poor access, and diseases. These issues have depressed tourism activity. To realize Africa's potential, the study recommends implementing a universal visa regime, revising tourism pricing, enhancing air access, and financially supporting national tourism bodies.
Sustainability of Tourism Development in the city of Ain-Sukhna, EgyptGalala University
This document summarizes a journal article that analyzes tourism development in the city of Ain-Sukhna, Egypt over the past 40 years and assesses its impact on natural and cultural resources. It finds that while tourism has brought economic benefits, rapid and unplanned development has negatively impacted the fragile coastal environment through pollution, coral reef degradation, and altering of natural landscapes. The development pattern is not considered sustainable as it poses threats from natural disasters like flash floods and questions the long-term economic viability of many tourism facilities. The document calls for more sustainable approaches to development that preserve the environment and cultural heritage in the region for future generations.
Sustainability of Tourism Development in the city of Ain-Sukhna, EgyptYasser Mahgoub
Tourism is a major economic source for Egypt, due to its significant natural and cultural attractions. Yet, rapid development and construction of touristic facilities have a negative impact on the fragile natural and cultural heritage. This paper studies the recent touristic developments of the coastal stretch of Ain-Sukhna on the Red Sea coastal region of Galala Mountain, and their impact on the surrounding natural and cultural attractions. Coral reefs and rich marine life have made this stretch among the prime fishing and scuba diving destinations in the world. The area is also famous for its year-round sunny beaches and the spectacular coastal scenic drive where Galala Mountain reaches the Red Sea. Recently, development has started on the mountains following the construction of Galala Mountain Road. Galala City started with Galala University and several residential, touristic, and commercial facilities. This paper studies the pattern of development in the area during the past 40 years and assesses its impact on natural and cultural resources.
Sustainability of Tourism Development in the city of Ain-Sukhna, Egypt
* Professor Dr. Yasser Mahgoub Image result for research orcid
Faculty of Architecture, Galala University, Egypt
E-mail: ymahgoub@gu.edu.eg
ARTICLE INFO:
Article History:
Received 18 June 2021
Accepted 5 August 2021
Available online 14 August 2021
Keywords:
Coastal Tourism;
Sustainable Development;
Cultural Resource;
Ain-Sukhna;
Galala City.
ABSTRACT D:\My Journal\papers\Vol 4 ISSUE 1\1 senem sadri Turkey\check for updates2020ijcua.tif
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Opportunities from Satellite Observation Systems in Climate Risk Mitigation: The Case of Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya
1. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 9, September 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Opportunities from Satellite Observation Systems in
Climate Risk Mitigation: The Case of Tourism and
Hospitality Industry in Lake Nakuru National Park,
Kenya
Julius M. Huho1
, Margaret Mungai2
, Teresa Kinuthia3
, Rose C. Kosonei4
1, 2, 3
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Karatina University
P.O. BOX 1957, Karatina, Kenya
4
Department of Environmental Science, Maseno University
Abstract: One of the key findings in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) is that millions of people globally will be
exposed to increased water stress due to climate change. With over three quarters of Africa falling under arid and semi-
arid climate, the continent is prone to the vagaries of climate change. Like other African countries, climate related
disasters pose threat to the economy of Kenya, which largely depend on agriculture, tourism and hospitality sectors.
Droughts and floods make regular news in the country causing devastating effects which are sometimes irreversible, at
least in the short-term, causing destitution among the natives and huge losses to government agencies. In a continent
where rainfall performance plays a critical role in most of economic sectors, monitoring of drought hazards is important in
coping with climate vagaries and adopting the most appropriate mitigation measures. This paper focuses on the effects of
climate shocks on tourism and hospitality sector in Nakuru County in Kenya. It utilizes satellite images, in addition to
rainfall data, for drought assessment and monitoring. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and land cover
images have been used to establish and map the geographical extent and severity of droughts and the availability of
pasture and browse for wildlife. Changes in water levels in Lakes Nakuru have been well documented. The study benefits
the tourism destination managers, tour operators and hoteliers on the best locational sites for tourism and hospitality
enterprises not only to ensure maximum revenue but also facilitate satisfying experiences to the visitors during climate
related catastrophes. In addition, the findings inform government agencies which areas require rapid responses and plan
contingency measures a head of time.
Keywords: Droughts; Floods NDVI; Satellite images; Tourism and Hospitality sector
1. Introduction
Tourism is one of largest and the fastest growing economic
sectors globally playing a major role in the growth of global
economy (GoK, 2013).It accounts for up to 9% of the global
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 8.8% of the jobs, 5.8% of
the exports and 4.5% of the investment (Christie et al.,
2013). With a positive growth, global projection indicates
that by 2022, the global average growth rate will increase by
up to 4% accounting for 10% of the GDP. As a result, one in
every 10 jobs will be from tourism industry (World Travel
and Tourism Council (WTTC), 2012). Tourism also
generates jobs in diverse areas including those with harsh
environment and thus typically difficult to generate
employment (World Bank, 2010). In South Africa, a total of
513, 000 jobs (3.9% of total employment) emanated from
Travel and Tourism sector in 2011. In addition, tourism acts
as a catalyst for investments in other sector triggering
economic diversification. Overall, tourism expenditures can
turn over up to 7 to 11 times in an economy (source). For
instance, a strong relationship co-exists between tourism and
hospitality industry.
The proportion of tourist arrival in Africa is fairly minimal
at 4.8% of all tourist arrivals in the world (African Studies
Centre (ASC), 2008).The number of tourists varies from one
part of the continent to the other with about 33.3% visiting
Maghreb countries, 33.4% visiting Southern Africa, 25%
visiting East Africa and 8.3% going to the rest of the
continent, but mainly West Africa (ASC, 2008). Fortunately,
there has been a gradual increase in the number of tourist
visiting Africa at a rate of 7.2%. For instance, in sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA) the sub-sector attracted about 33.8
million visitors in 2012 up from 6.7 million in 1990
(Christie et al., 2013). Tourism remains the fastest
developing enterprise in Africa providing the continent’s
major investment opportunities (African Studies Centre
(ASC), 2008). Christie et al. (2013) observes that tourist and
travel industry accounts for 5% (one in every 20 jobs) of all
employments in Africa. It is viewed as the key drivers for
economic take off in SSA. In 2012, it directly contributed to
2.8% of the regions GDP. Taking into account the total
contribution i.e. direct, indirect and induced, tourism
accounted for up to 7.3% of the GDP and projections
indicate that about 3.8 million jobs will be created by
tourism industry in SSA over the next 10 years.
Climate is an important influence on the tourism sector as it
is one of the environmental factors that determine the choice
of a holiday destination. However with changing climate,
tourism and hospitality industry has been largely affected.
For instance, while sea life, which attracts tourists in the
Paper ID: SEP14440 1584
2. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 9, September 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Maldives and the Pacific Islands, have been destroyed by
rising sea levels and sea acidification, melting of snow due
to increasing temperature has negatively impacted skiing in
ski resorts (Viner and Agnew, 1999). Such effects can be
easily monitored using satellite observation systems for
early detection and planning of mitigation measures.
1.1 Tourism in Kenya
Tourism is third largest foreign exchange earner in Kenya
after tea and horticulture. The sub sector employs about 12%
of the total wage and accounts for 13.7%of the GDP.
Unfortunately, the subsector faces a myriad of challenges
ranging from natural calamities such as climate-related
disasters to anthropogenic threats such as terrorism. Despite
the challenges, Kenya continues to be a popular holiday
destination in East Africa. The diverse tourist attractions and
favorable climate in Kenya attract more visitors. Such
attractions include: wildlife, mountain scenery, coastal
beaches and coral reefs, geyser, lakes, grasslands, marine
Park and ancient Swahili cities. The most prominent is
wildlife tourism. International tourism accounts for up to
70% of the country’s total tourism while domestic tourism
accounts for 30% (Kenya Tourism Federation, 2010). Over
the years, the number of tourists and revenue from tourism
and hospitality sector has been increasing(Figure 1).Between
2001 and 2005 for instance, the number rose from 1 million
in 2001 to 1.62 million in 2005 with an overall growth rate
of 9.8% (GoK, 2006). By 2004, Kenya ranked 5th
in
international tourist destination in Africa. A total of 1.36
million international tourists visited Kenya accounting for
4.1% of the market share in Africa (GoK, 2006).Income
accrued from the sub-sector rose steadily from KShs. 65.4
billion in 2007 to 62.46 billion in 2009, 73.78 billion in 2010
and 97.9 billion in 2011 (GoK, 2013).Tourism, unlike
agriculture and manufacturing, is a service industry where
the product is consumed at the spot of production and
therefore largely affected by the prevailing environmental
conditions. According to World Bank (2010), the number of
visitor in Kenya game parks and reserves fluctuate from year
to year and within the year depending on several factors
such as animal movements, climate variations, political
instability and global financial crisis. It is against this
background that this study sought to examine the effects the
changing climate, particularly droughts and floods, on
tourism and hospitality sector in Nakuru County.
Figure 1: Trends in tourism indicators in Kenya (Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, KNBS, 2012)
2. Study Area and Methodology
Data for the study was collected from Nakuru sub-county
which has an area of 7,496.5 square kilometers, a population
of about 1,603,325 and 409,836 households. The Population
density is 213.9 persons per square kilometer. The County is
divided into four sub-counties namely: Molo, Nakuru,
Subukia and Naivasha (Figure 2). It enjoys good climate
with predictable weather patterns. Temperatures range
between 10°C and 20°C while annual rainfall ranges
between 700mm and 1200mm with an annual mean of about
950mm. The climate is not only suitable for agriculture but
also for tourism activities. However, about 43% of the
population lives below the poverty line.
Paper ID: SEP14440 1585
3. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 9, September 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Figure 2: Location and size of Nakuru County
Tourism plays a critical role in the economy of the county
with some local governments in the county earning up to
70% of their revenues from the sub-sector. The main tourist
attractions in the County include Lake Nakuru National
Park, Menengai Crater, Hell's Gate Park, Lake Naivasha,
Lake Elementaita, Hyrax Hill Anthropological Site and
Longonot Crater. The County is famous for Flamingoes at
Lake Nakuru, which also host a large number of animal and
bird species. In Nakuru County, just like in other parts of
Kenya, wildlife is found in both protected areas and open
fields that are privately or communally owned.
Rainfall data for a period of 48 years (1964 – 2011) was
obtained from Kenya Meteorological Department for
Nakuru station.From rainfall data, normal, drought and wet
years were computed. Weather was considered to be normal
when annual rainfall fell between Mean + 2/3 standard
deviation (M+2
/3δ) and Mean- 2/3 standard deviation (M -
2
/3δ). With an annual mean of 954.9 mm and a standard
deviation of 209.8mm, this translated to 1094.8mm and
815.0mm for upper and lower limits respectively. Thus,
droughts occurred when annual rainfall was below 815.0
mm while wet years occurred when annual rainfall was
above 1094.8mm. Rainfall amounts between 815.0 mm and
1094.8mm was considered as normal.
In Kenya where tourism is largely wildlife based, changes in
vegetation cover and water resources are critical in a
sustainable tourism sector and thus requires frequent
monitoring. The study used satellite observation system to
monitor vegetation cover and water resources in Nakuru
County. Landsat satellite imageries were used. Table 1
shows specifications for Landsat images used
Table 1: Landsat Image Specifications
Date Acquired Satellite Sensor
01/07/1984 Landsat 5 - TM
28/01/1986 Landsat 5 - TM
22/05/1999 Landsat 7 - ETM
15/03/2000 Landsat 7 - ETM
03/04/2001 Landsat 7 - ETM
01/02/2002 Landsat 7 - ETM
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used
to analyze the greenness of the biomass in the county at
large and Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP) in particular.
NDVI is the ratio of two wavelengths, red and near-Infrared
(NIR) and by examining their difference in wavelength
absorption and reflection, the health of the vegetation is
determined.The index values range from 1.o to +1. Healthy
vegetation yields an NDVI closer to +1 while sparse
vegetation has an index of close to 0.2. Computation of
NDVI values and images was done using Erdas Imagine v
2011. The study adoptedthe following classification of
NDVI
(http://simwright.com/downloads/SimWright_NDVI.pdf):
Table 2: NDVI Classifications
NDVI values Land cover type
0.3 to 0.8 Dense vegetation
0.2 to 0.3 shrub and grassland
0.1 to 0.2 Soils
0.0 to 0.1 Bare rocks and sand
0.0 to negative values Free standing water
For water resources, the study used Lakes Nakuru. Landsat
images of the lakes were used to delineate their sizes over
Paper ID: SEP14440 1586
4. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 9, September 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
different periods. ArcGis 10.1 software was used in
estimating their sizes in square kilometers.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Rainfall Characteristics
Rainfall is the key parameter influencing social and
economic activities of Nakuru County. As a sub-sector of
the economy, tourism is equally influenced by rainfall
characteristics. Wildlife tourism predominate the sub-sector
in the County. The condition of the parks, which is
dependent on rainfall performance, therefore plays a critical
role in the concentration and visibility of wild animals and
eventually the number of tourists visiting the parks.
However, rainfall characteristics vary from season-to-season
and from year-to-year (Figure 3). In general, rainfall in
Nakuru County is less variable with a coefficient of 0.21.
Between 1964 and 2011, for instance, 44% of the years had
annual rainfall variations within normal rainfall range of
between 815.0 and 1094.8mm. However, the county
occasionally experiences years of above and below normal
rainfall causing floods and droughts. There were about 13
very wet years (27%) and 14 drought years (29%) between
1964 and 2011 (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Annual rainfall variations for Nakuru County between 1964 and 2011
The year 1975 and 2010 were the wettest each recording
annual rainfall of 1435mm, i.e. 50.2% above the long term
mean. The years 1988, 1978, 1977 and 2007 were second,
third, fourth and fifth wettest years respectively. 1965 was
the driest year with an annual rainfall total of 575.2mm i.e.
39.8% below the long term mean. In order of drought
severity, other dry years occurred in 1984, 1980, 2000, 1991
and 1999.
Analysis of annual rainfall in the county revealed a gradual
increase in annual rainfall amount (Figure 4). Rainfall was
characterized by increased intensity and decreasing number
of rain days, an indicator of climate change (Figures 5 a, b, c
and d). The number of rain days with 1mm of rain and above
decreased from an average of 131 in 1970s to 119 in 2000s
with the intensity increasing from 7.7 to 8.2mm during the
same period. Similarly, the number of rain days with 5mm
of rain and above decreased from an average of 63 in 1970s
to 54 in 2000s with the intensity increasing from 16.3 to
18.1mm during the same period.
Paper ID: SEP14440 1587
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ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
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Figure 4: Annual rainfall trend for Nakuru County between 1964 and 2011
Paper ID: SEP14440 1588
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Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BYPaper ID: SEP14440 1589
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Figure 5: (a) number of rain days with 5mm of rain and above (b) Rainfall intensity for days with daily rainfall of 5mm and
above (c) number of rain days with 1mm of rain and above (d) Rainfall intensity for days with daily rainfall of 1mm and
above
3.2 Effect of Climate Variability on Tourism and
Hospitality Sub-Sector
The proximity of LNNP from Nakuru town (4 km) makes it
the second most visited park after Nairobi National park in
Kenya. Tourism is largely wildlife based and therefore
depends on the concentration and visibility of wild animals.
Table 3 shows the effects of floods and droughts on tourism
and hospitality sector.
Table 3: Major effects of floods and droughts on tourism and hospitality sector in Lake Nakuru National Park from1993 -
2013
Year
Rainfall
characteristics
Major effects on tourism and hospitality activities
2013 Floods
Highest water levels since 1960s
Over 22.9 km2
of Lake Nakuru flooded – decreased salinity and silting caused flamingoes to migrate to
Small Lake (Naivasha) and Lake Bogoria
Several campsites, tented camps and lodges have submerged
10 rhinos relocated to Samburu Ranch in Laikipia due to scarcity of graze caused by floods
2012 Floods
Water levels rose by 2m - submerged sections of acacia forest and reduced the salinity of the water making
the aquatic habitat unsuitable for flamingoes.
2011 Normal ‐ Easy accessibility to the park
2010 Floods
Reduced numbers of tourists due to destroyed road networks
Flooding of Lake Nakuru lodge led to the closure of the facility affecting hospitality sector.
2008-
09
Prolonged drought
Relocation of huge herbivores to the Nairobi park due to acute shortage of pasture
Park under wildfire
2000 Drought Lake level decreased caused increased water salinity leading to the migration of flamingoes
1995 Drought
More flamingos’ mortality following the 1993-94 droughts. Gradual disappearance of Arthrospirafusiformis
– feed for lesser flamingoes
1994 Drought Continued drying of the lake affecting the population of flamingoes.
1993 Drought Over 20,000 lesser flamingos died.
Paper ID: SEP14440 1590
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Availability of graze and water for wild animals determined
the pattern of animal distribution in the park which in turn
influenced the number of tourists visiting the park. High
concentration of wildlife attracts more tourists vis a vis low
concentration. Normal rainfall favored fair distribution of
graze and water for wildlife triggering high concentration of
animals in easily accessible areas (Plate 1). East (1999)
observes that favorable habitats enhance high concentration
of waterbucks with the population densities reaching a
height of more than 10 per square kilometer in LNNP.
Plate 1: Concentration of buffaloes due to the availability of
graze
Low concentration of animals was common during drought
period as animals scattered in search for graze and water.
Visibility of animals was reduced during the dry periods, as
animals grazed in bushy areas where pasture was still
palatable and as they shielded themselves from the scorching
sun. Other effects of droughts on tourism included loss of
wild animals due to starvation and fire out breaks (Plate 2a
&b). For instance, the 2008/ 2009 led to fire outbreak in
2009 destroying habitats. To mitigate the effects of this
drought, KWS relocated ten rhinos among other huge
herbivores to the Nairobi Park (Africa Conservation
Foundation, 2009).
Plate 2: (a) Animal carcass (b) rangers putting off fire in
LNNP during 2008/2009 drought
Above normal rainfall rendered the park inaccessible due to
flooded and destroyed roads (Plate 3). In 2013 the Lake
level rose rendering the park inaccessible using the normal
main circuit, the administrative block was flooded and most
of the herbivores had been forced to higher grounds. This
necessitated creation of alternative path ways for tourists and
relocation of administration offices. The lake level was
highest since 1960. Due to flooded grazing field, the
relatively reduced pasture at the park was not sufficient for
white rhinos’ population forcing Kenya Wildlife Service
(KWS) to relocate them to a new conservancy in Northern
Kenya.
According to KWS (2011) the 2010 floods made some parts
of LNNP inaccessible the destruction of a number of the
Park bridges and roads reducing the number of tourists
visiting the Park. The problem of accessibility due to heavy
downpour is usually short lived and the situation improved
suddenly with reduction in rainfall. For instance, despite
massive destruction of park roads during the 2010 floods,
reduction in rainfall in 2011 allowed easy accessibility of the
park by tourists. The main circuit from the main gate around
the lake shore through baboon cliff, Muya’s causeway, Lake
Nakuru Lodge, Sarova Lion Hill Lodge, Wildlife Clubs of
Kenya and Lanet gate remained safe for driving.
Paper ID: SEP14440 1591
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Plate 3: Flooded and destroyed access roads in LNNP
Lake Nakuru which is located between latitudes 0°19' and
0°24' S and longitude 36°04' and 36°07 E covers an area of
about 45 – 50km2
. It occupies about 27% of the Lake
Nakuru National Park
(http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1344/). Analysis of
satellite imageries revealed that the size of Lake Nakuru
varied from year to year depending on rainfall performance
of a particular year and the weather conditions of the
preceding year(s) (Plate 6). For instance, despite the 1984
severe drought the size of the Lake was 42.16 km2
,
approximately 84% of the entire Lake. This can be attributed
to the preceding consecutive years of normal rains in 1981,
1982 and 1983. After the drought, the lake size dropped by
12% by 1986. The normal rains of 1985 (2.2% above the
long term mean) did little to revive the size of the lake.
During the 2000 extreme drought, the lake size reduced by
12.2% compared to its size in 1999 (from 41.97 km2
in 1999
to 37.44km2
in 2000). This remarkable decline was
attributed to the occurrence of drought in 1999 which was
followed by the severe drought of 2000. Rainfall amounts in
1999 and 2000 were -29.4 and -36.1 below the long term
mean respectively. Figure 7 shows variations in lake sizes
for selected years. As lake receded during droughts, more
foot paths emerged as tourists moved closer to the shores
(Plate 8).
Figure 6: Graphical presentation of variations in size of Lake Nakuru for selected years
Figure 7: Changes in the sizes of Lake Nakuru during drought and wet years
Paper ID: SEP14440 1592
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Figure 8: More foot paths to reach the waters of receding
Lake Nakuru during the 2000 drought
Decrease in lake levels during droughts increases lake water
salinity while increase during floods reduces the salinity of
lakes Nakuru and Elementaita. Salinity levels affect the
growth of the green algae (undesirable blue algae
Microcystis sp., Anabaena sp) which is the main source of
food for the lesser flamingoes. On average about 162 tons of
algae is consumed daily by the flamingos. Very high or low
salinity levels do not favour growth of the green algae
leading to shortage of food for the flamingoes. Thus, the
amount of food supplies as well as the number of
flamingoes, especially for the lesser flamingoes
(Phoeniconaias minor), fluctuates greatly from year-to-year
dependent on rainfall performance. Massive flamingo
mortalities and migration occur during droughts. For
instance, Odada, et al. (2006) observes that during the 1993
drought, over 20,000 flamingoes died in Lake Nakuru. The
prolonged drought that extended to 1996 led to decrease in
lake levels. By 1994, the lake showed signs of drying and by
1995; the population of Arthrospirafusiformis (which is a
source of food for flamingoes) started decreasing. The
migration of flamingoes to Lakes Bogoria in Baringo
County and SimbiNyaima in Homabay County during the
2000 drought was partly attributed to shortage of food for
the flamingoes due changing salinity levels in Lakes Nakuru
and Elementaita. Decrease in salinity and increased saltation
following the 2013 floods caused migration of flamingoes to
Small Lake in Naivasha and Lake Bogoria (Onywele, et. al.,
2013).
3.3 Use of satellite observation systems in mitigating
climate risk in LNNP
Key to wildlife tourism in Nakuru County is the availability
of pasture and water for wild animals. The study utilized
Landsat satellite images for various years to monitor
availability of pasture. NDVI for selected years, with
different rainfall characteristics, was used to show variations
in vegetation cover in Nakuru County (Figure 9).
Analysis of satellite images gave an indication of the
environmental conditions of Nakuru County. During drought
years, water levels and vegetation cover are largely affected.
However, the effects were not immediate, particularly on the
vegetation. For instance, despite the year 1984 having the
second severest drought after 1965, the level of greenness
was average. This can be attributed to the fact that the past
three years (1981-83), the county had experienced normal
rainfall conditions.
Paper ID: SEP14440 1593
11. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 9, September 2014
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Figure 9: NDVI images for selected years in Nakuru County
As different parts of the park were affected differently by
droughts, four consecutive years with different rainfall
characteristics were analyzed. These were 1999 (drought),
2000 (drought), 2001 (normal rainfall) and 2002 (normal
rainfall). From the NDVI images areas that were worst hit
by droughts and that took long for pasture to recover after
drought a drought event were identified (Figure 10).
Figure 10: Worst affected areas by drought
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
Climate variability is one of the major threats affecting
LNNP resources affecting both tourism and hospitality
sector. Loss of animals due to droughts and floods has led to
declining number of tourists visiting the park and the
associated economy. The study recommends the use of
satellite-based information in analyzing threats to park
resources. The knowledge of the spatial distribution of park
resources is critical not only in planning to contingency
measures but also guiding the tourists on areas that large
concentration of animals can be found based on pasture
availability during droughts and soon after the drought. For
instance, the provision of water and feed for wildlife during
the 2000 drought by the government to would have
benefited from such information. In addition, the
information can also give an idea to the government and
other stakeholders in tourism and hospitality sectors on
sections of the park where more emphasis need to be put in
developing of tourism and hospitality products.
Reference
[1] Africa Conservation Foundation (2009) Kenya: Wild
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http://www.africanconservation.org/in-
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[3] Christie, I., Fernandes, E., Messerli, H. and Twining-
Ward, L. (2013) Tourism in Africa: Harnessing
Paper ID: SEP14440 1594
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ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
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tourism for growth and improved livelihoods. World
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Author Profile
Dr. Julius M. Huho is a senior lecturer and a researcher in
the Department of Geography in Karatina University Kenya.
He has taught in Kenya University for the last 13 years with
specialty in climatology, GIS and Remote Sensing.
Currently, he is the Head of Department of Tourism and
Hospitality Management, Karatina University.
Ms. Margaret Mungai is a Lecturer and a researcher in the
department of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
Karatina University, Kenya. She has a specialty in tourism
management and has published widely. She is currently
undertaking her doctoral studies in tourism management
Ms. Teresa Kinuthia is also a lecturer and a researcher in
the department of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
Karatina University, Kenya. Her specialization is in
hospitality. She is an experienced lecturer with over 15 years
of teaching hospitality courses both at intermediate and
tertiary institutions. She is currently undertaking her doctoral
studies in hospitality.
Ms. Rose Kosonei is a Master of Science in Environmental
Science student at Maseno University, Kenya. Using GIS
and Remote Sensing techniques, Ms. Kosonei is
investigating the effects of drought on vegetation cover and
water resources in the masters. Currently she is working as
an Environmental Impact Assessment expert in Kenya
Paper ID: SEP14440 1595