Positioning techniques have been a common objective since the early development of wireless networks. However, current positioning methods in cellular networks, for instance, are still primarily focused on the use of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which has several limitations, like high power drainage and failure in indoor scenarios. This study introduces a novel approach employing standard LTE signaling in order to provide high accuracy positioning estimation. The proposed technique is designed in analogy to the human sound localization system, eliminating the need of having information from three spatially diverse Base Stations (BSs). This is inspired by the perfect human 3D sound localization with two ears. A field study is carried out in a dense urban city to verify the accuracy of the proposed technique, with more than 20 thousand measurement samples collected. The achieved positioning accuracy is meeting the latest Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requirements in the planner dimension.
A COGNITIVE RADIO SCHEME FOR DYNAMIC RESOURCE ALLOCATION BASED ON QOEijwmn
This paper introduces a cognitive radio scheme based on quality of experience (QoE). QoE involves the
mobile end user’s preferences. Considering QoE can lead to an improved cognitive radio resource
management strategy. The cognitive radio scheme aims to manage the traffic flow in dynamic systems; it is
a new way of thinking about dynamic resource management in cellular systems. The Use of the cognitive
radio techniques in cellular systems will improve the resource assignment in wireless communication. The
cognitive radio is a self-aware communication system that aims to use the resource assignment in an
efficient way. The proposed algorithm is very successful at handling the call-blocking rate based on QoS
and QoE.
K Coverage Probability of 5G Wireless Cognitive Radio Network under Shadow Fa...ijeei-iaes
Land mobile communication is burdened with typical propagation constraints due to the channel characteristics in radio systems.Also,the propagation characteristics vary form place to place and also as the mobile unit moves,from time to time.Hence,the tramsmission path between transmitter and receiver varies from simple direct LOS to the one which is severely obstructed by buildings,foliage and terrain.Multipath propagation and shadow fading effects affect the signal strength of an arbitrary Transmitter-Receiver due to the rapid fluctuations in the phase and amplitude of signal which also determines the average power over an area of tens or hundreds of meters.Shadowing introduces additional fluctuations,so the received local mean power varies around the area –mean.The present section deals with the performance analysis of fifth generation wireless cognitive radio network on the basis of signal and interference level based k coverage probability under the shadow fading effects.
Beamforming with per antenna power constraint and transmit antenna selection ...sipij
In this paper, transmit beamforming and antenna selection techniques are presented for the Cooperative
Distributed Antenna System. Beamforming technique with minimum total weighted transmit power
satisfying threshold SINR and Per-Antenna Power constraints is formulated as a convex optimization
problem for the efficient performance of Distributed Antenna System (DAS). Antenna Selection technique is
implemented in this paper to select the optimum Remote Antenna Units from all the available ones. This
achieves the best compromise between capacity and system complexity. Dual polarized and Triple
Polarized systems are considered. Simulation results prove that by integrating Beamforming with DAS
enhances its performance. Also by using convex optimization in Antenna Selection enhances the
performance of multi polarized systems.
Signal Strength Evaluation of a 3G Network in Owerri Metropolis Using Path Lo...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract: In this work, the path loss and the received signal strength of a 3G network at 2.1GHz was evaluated to determine its performance within the Owerri metropolis. Various measuring equipment such as Transmission Evaluation and Monitoring System (TEMS 11), Global positioning system (BU353 GPS) and laptop were deployed for the drive test within the selected urban and sub-urban regions. From the data collected, Owerri sub-urban region showed poor received signal power level compared to the Owerri urban region. The path loss exponents computed for the Owerri urban and sub-urban regions are 3.24 and 4.34 respectively, the mean square error was evaluated as 1.96 and 1.68. The result obtained showed deviations between the compared existing models (Hata and Cost 231) and the proposed models. However, the slope of the Hata plot was relatively close in comparison to the proposed model than that of Cost 231; hence, the proposed model was best suited for the environment followed by the Hata model.
A Summative Comparison of Blind Channel Estimation Techniques for Orthogonal ...IJECEIAES
The OFDM technique i.e. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has become prominent in wireless communication since its instruction in 1950’s due to its feature of combating the multipath fading and other losses. In an OFDM system, a large number of orthogonal, overlapping, narrow band subchannels or subcarriers, transmitted in parallel, divide the available transmission bandwidth. The separation of the subcarriers is theoretically optimal such that there is a very compact spectral utilization. This paper reviewed the possible approaches for blind channel estimation in the light of the improved performance in terms of speed of convergence and complexity. There were various researches which adopted the ways for channel estimation for Blind, Semi Blind and trained channel estimators and detectors. Various ways of channel estimation such as Subspace, iteration based, LMSE or MSE based (using statistical methods), SDR, Maximum likelihood approach, cyclostationarity, Redundancy and Cyclic prefix based. The paper reviewed all the above approaches in order to summarize the outcomes of approaches aimed at optimum performance for channel estimation in OFDM systems.
A COGNITIVE RADIO SCHEME FOR DYNAMIC RESOURCE ALLOCATION BASED ON QOEijwmn
This paper introduces a cognitive radio scheme based on quality of experience (QoE). QoE involves the
mobile end user’s preferences. Considering QoE can lead to an improved cognitive radio resource
management strategy. The cognitive radio scheme aims to manage the traffic flow in dynamic systems; it is
a new way of thinking about dynamic resource management in cellular systems. The Use of the cognitive
radio techniques in cellular systems will improve the resource assignment in wireless communication. The
cognitive radio is a self-aware communication system that aims to use the resource assignment in an
efficient way. The proposed algorithm is very successful at handling the call-blocking rate based on QoS
and QoE.
K Coverage Probability of 5G Wireless Cognitive Radio Network under Shadow Fa...ijeei-iaes
Land mobile communication is burdened with typical propagation constraints due to the channel characteristics in radio systems.Also,the propagation characteristics vary form place to place and also as the mobile unit moves,from time to time.Hence,the tramsmission path between transmitter and receiver varies from simple direct LOS to the one which is severely obstructed by buildings,foliage and terrain.Multipath propagation and shadow fading effects affect the signal strength of an arbitrary Transmitter-Receiver due to the rapid fluctuations in the phase and amplitude of signal which also determines the average power over an area of tens or hundreds of meters.Shadowing introduces additional fluctuations,so the received local mean power varies around the area –mean.The present section deals with the performance analysis of fifth generation wireless cognitive radio network on the basis of signal and interference level based k coverage probability under the shadow fading effects.
Beamforming with per antenna power constraint and transmit antenna selection ...sipij
In this paper, transmit beamforming and antenna selection techniques are presented for the Cooperative
Distributed Antenna System. Beamforming technique with minimum total weighted transmit power
satisfying threshold SINR and Per-Antenna Power constraints is formulated as a convex optimization
problem for the efficient performance of Distributed Antenna System (DAS). Antenna Selection technique is
implemented in this paper to select the optimum Remote Antenna Units from all the available ones. This
achieves the best compromise between capacity and system complexity. Dual polarized and Triple
Polarized systems are considered. Simulation results prove that by integrating Beamforming with DAS
enhances its performance. Also by using convex optimization in Antenna Selection enhances the
performance of multi polarized systems.
Signal Strength Evaluation of a 3G Network in Owerri Metropolis Using Path Lo...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract: In this work, the path loss and the received signal strength of a 3G network at 2.1GHz was evaluated to determine its performance within the Owerri metropolis. Various measuring equipment such as Transmission Evaluation and Monitoring System (TEMS 11), Global positioning system (BU353 GPS) and laptop were deployed for the drive test within the selected urban and sub-urban regions. From the data collected, Owerri sub-urban region showed poor received signal power level compared to the Owerri urban region. The path loss exponents computed for the Owerri urban and sub-urban regions are 3.24 and 4.34 respectively, the mean square error was evaluated as 1.96 and 1.68. The result obtained showed deviations between the compared existing models (Hata and Cost 231) and the proposed models. However, the slope of the Hata plot was relatively close in comparison to the proposed model than that of Cost 231; hence, the proposed model was best suited for the environment followed by the Hata model.
A Summative Comparison of Blind Channel Estimation Techniques for Orthogonal ...IJECEIAES
The OFDM technique i.e. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has become prominent in wireless communication since its instruction in 1950’s due to its feature of combating the multipath fading and other losses. In an OFDM system, a large number of orthogonal, overlapping, narrow band subchannels or subcarriers, transmitted in parallel, divide the available transmission bandwidth. The separation of the subcarriers is theoretically optimal such that there is a very compact spectral utilization. This paper reviewed the possible approaches for blind channel estimation in the light of the improved performance in terms of speed of convergence and complexity. There were various researches which adopted the ways for channel estimation for Blind, Semi Blind and trained channel estimators and detectors. Various ways of channel estimation such as Subspace, iteration based, LMSE or MSE based (using statistical methods), SDR, Maximum likelihood approach, cyclostationarity, Redundancy and Cyclic prefix based. The paper reviewed all the above approaches in order to summarize the outcomes of approaches aimed at optimum performance for channel estimation in OFDM systems.
Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks : QoS Considerations csandit
The rapidly growing number of wireless communication devices has led to massive increases in
radio traffic density, resulting in a noticeable shortage of available spectrum. To address this
shortage, the Cognitive Radio (CR) technology offers promising solutions that aim to improve
the spectrum utilization. The operation of CR relies on detecting the so-called spectrum holes,
the frequency bands that remain unoccupied by their licensed operators. The unlicensed users
are then allowed to communicate using these spectrum holes. As such, the performance of CR is
highly dependent on the employed spectrum sensing methods. Several sensing methods are
already available. However, no individual method can accommodate all potential CR operation
scenarios. Hence, it is fair to ascertain that the performance of a CR device can be improved if
it is capable of supporting several sensing methods. It should obviously also be able to select the
most suitable method. In this paper, several spectrum sensing methods are compared and
analyzed, aiming to identify their advantages and shortcomings in different CR operating
conditions. Furthermore, it identifies the features that need to be considered while selecting a
suitable sensing method from the catalog of available methods.
Impact of Next Generation Cognitive Radio Network on the Wireless Green Eco s...ijeei-iaes
Land mobile communication is burdened with typical propagation constraints due to the channel characteristics in radio systems.Also,the propagation characteristics vary form place to place and also as the mobile unit moves,from time to time.Hence,the tramsmission path between transmitter and receiver varies from simple direct LOS to the one which is severely obstructed by buildings, foliage and terrain. Multipath propagation and shadow fading effects affect the signal strength of an arbitrary Transmitter-Receiver due to the rapid fluctuations in the phase and amplitude of signal which also determines the average power over an area of tens or hundreds of meters. Shadowing introduces additional fluctuations, so the received local mean power varies around the area –mean. The present paper deals with the performance analysis of impact of next generation wireless cognitive radio network on wireless green eco system through signal and interference level based k coverage probability under the shadow fading effects.
CL-SA-OFDM: cross-layer and smart antenna based OFDM system performance enha...IJECEIAES
The growing usage of wireless services is lacking in providing high-speed data communication in recent times. Hence, many of the modulation techniques are evolved to attain these communication needs. The recent researches have widely considered OFDM technology as the prominent modulation mechanism to fulfill the futuristic needs of wireless communication. The OFDM can bring effective usage of resources, bandwidth, and system performance enhancement in collaboration with the smart antenna and resource allocation mechanism (adaptive). However, the usage of adaptive beamforming with the OFDM leads to complication in the design of medium access layer and which causes a problem in adaptive resource allocation mechanism (ARAM). Hence, the proposed manuscript intends to design an OFDM system by considering different switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) along with the cross-layer adaptive resource allocation (CLARA) and hybrid adaptive array (HAA). In this, various smart antenna mechanism are considered to analyze the quality of service (QoS) and complexity reduction in the OFDM system. In this paper, various SA schemes are used as per the quality of service (QoS) requirement of the different users. The performance analysis is conducted by considering data traffic reduction, bit-rate reduction, and average delay.
FINGERPRINT LOCATION METHODS USING RAY-TRACINGmarcelonog29
Mobile location methods that employ signal fingerprints are becoming increas- ingly popular in a number of wireless positioning solutions. A fingerprint is a spatial database, created either by recorded measurement or simulation, of the radio envi- ronment. It is used to assign signal characteristics such as received signal strength or power delay profiles to an actual location. Measurements made by either the handset or the network, are then matched to those in the fingerprint in order to determine a location. Creation of the fingerprint by an a priori measurement stage is costly and time consuming. Virtual fingerprints, those created by a ray-tracing radio propagation prediction tool, normally require a lengthy o↵-line simulation mode that needs to be repeated each time changes are made to the network or built environment. An open research question exists of whether a virtual fingerprint could be created dynamically via a ray-trace model embedded on a mobile handset for positioning purposes.
The key aim of this thesis is to investigate the trade-o↵ between complexity of the physics required for ray-tracing models and the accuracy of the virtual fingerprints they produce. The most demanding computational phase of a ray-trace simulation is the ray-path finding stage, whereby a distribution of rays cast from a source point, interacting with walls and edges by reflection and di↵raction phenomena are traced to a set of receive points. Due to this, we specifically develop a new technique that decreases the computation of the ray-path finding stage. The new technique utilises a modified method of images rather than brute-force ray casting. It leads to the creation of virtual fingerprints requiring significantly less computation e↵ort relative to ray casting techniques, with only small decreases in accuracy.
Our new technique for virtual fingerprint creation was then applied to the devel- opment of a signal strength fingerprint for a 3G UMTS network covering the Sydney central business district. Our main goal was to determine whether on current mo- bile handsets, a sub-50m location accuracy could be achieved within a few seconds timescale using our system. The results show that this was in fact achievable. We also show how virtual fingerprinting can lead to more accurate solutions. Based on these results we claim user embedded fingerprinting is now a viable alternative to a priori measurement schemes.
Spectrum requirement is the biggest issue in the field of communication. Because
of new technology and applications expansion bandwidth becomes more crucial. Many
methods and techniques are used to solve this problem. One of them is bandwidth sharing
cognitive radio technique. This paper shows bandwidth sharing in cognitive radio using
common control channel. For this purpose after spectrum sensing, actual work spectrum
sharing is done. New secondary user comes into the network and checks spectrum
availability by using one of the spectrum sensing techniques, if spectrum is free than
spectrum sharing technique assigns available channel to new user without harming existing
primary users. This is done through first come first serve bases. Priority is given to the
primary users. If existing spectrum band contains secondary users and new primary user
comes into the network when no more spectrum band is free then one of the secondary user
needs to vacant the band and that spectrum band is allocated to new primary user. In this
paper simulation results have been described which gives exact idea of spectrum sharing.
Bit Error Rate Analysis in WiMAX Communication at Vehicular Speeds using mod...IJMER
At high vehicular speeds, rapid changes in surrounding environments, cause severe fading at
the receiver, resulting a drastic fall in throughput and unless any proactive measure is taken to combat
this problem, throughput becomes insufficient to support many applications, particularly those with
multimedia contents. Bit Error Rate (BER) estimation is an integral part of any proactive measure and
recent studies suggest that Nakagami-m model performs better for modelling channel fading in wireless
communications at high vehicular speeds. No work has been reported in literature that estimates BER
at high vehicular speeds in WiMAX communication using Nakagami-m model. In this thesis, we develop
and present an analytical model to estimate BER in WiMAX at vehicular speeds using Nakagami-m
fading model. The proposed model is adaptive and can be used with resource management schemes
designed for fixed, nomadic, and mobile WiMAX communications.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNC Journal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has
resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated
unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR)
technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues
relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled
White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article
discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical
applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results
demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related
parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the
IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the
applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that
implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where
common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
In recent past the influence of Radar has played a significant part in various fields. Radar sensing is one of
the prime application by which velocity and distance of a moving target can be found out. A joint RadCom
system to serve both radar sensing and wireless communication is proposed which ensures better
performance in terms of spectral efficiency, extended detection range and cost effectiveness. Such systems
demand for a common waveform which is designed in this work that perfectly matches to the system
requirements. OFDM multi carrier technique is chosen to generate a common waveform. Applicability of
multiple antenna technique for direction of arrival estimation is also considered. MIMO-OFDM technique
has gained much interest in the field of communication which improves the signal to noise ratio and lowers
the bit error rate. On the other hand the usage of MIMO reflects in the form of interference between
signals. In order to overcome this effect beamforming technique is used. In addition to theoretical
explanations we have also simulated and discussed the results for the proposed RadCom system using
MATLAB simulation tool.
User equipment geolocation depended on long-term evolutionsignal-level measur...IJECEIAES
A new approach is described for investigating the accuracy of positioning active long-term evolution (LTE) users. The explored approach is a networkbased method and depends on signal level measurements as well as the coverage of the serving cell. In a two-dimensional coordinate system, the algorithm simultaneously applies LTE measured data with a combination of a basic prediction model to locate the mobile device’s user. Furthermore, we introduce a unique method that combines timing advance (TA) and the measured signal level to narrow the search region and improve accuracy. The developed method is assessed by comparing the predicted results from the proposed algorithm with satellite measurements from the global positioning system (GPS) in various scenarios calculated via the number of cells that user equipment concurrently reports. This work separates seven different cases starting from a single reported cell to five reported cells from up to 3 sites. For analysis, the root mean square error (RMSE) is computed to obtain the validation for the proposed approach. The study case demonstrates location accuracy based on the numbers of registered cells with the mean RMSE improved using TA to approximately 70-191 m for the range of scenarios.
-> Explanation of various techniques for Localization like Triangulation and Proximity Based Techniques. (OTDOA/ AOA/ GSM Fingerprinting/Hybrid technologies, etc.)
-> Working of GPS and its drawbacks.
-> AGPS- working and advantages.
-> E911 call processing in AGPS.
->Location Based Services in 4G
Intelligent GIS-Based Road Accident Analysis and Real-Time Monitoring Automat...CSCJournals
It has been a big concern for many people and government to reduce the amount of road accident specially in Malaysia since it could be a big threat to this country. Malaysian government has spent millions of money in order to reduce the number of accident occurrence through several modes of campaign. Unfortunately, from years to years the number keeps increasing. The lack of a comprehensive accident recording and analysis system in Malaysia can be effective in these kinds of problems. By making use of IRAS (Intelligent Road Accident System), the police would be control and manage whole accident events as a real-time monitoring system. This system exploits WiMAX and GPRS communications to connect to the server for transfer the specific data to the data center. This system can be used for a comprehensive intelligent GIS-based solution for accident analysis and management. The system is developed based on object and aspect oriented software design such as .NET technology.
Location Fingerprinting is a very familiar Wi-Fi positioning method, which determines a device by retrieving the information recorded containing the location fingerprint. These methods deploy the signal strength (RSS) to predict the coordinate. There are feedbacks for using the absolute RSS either the absolute RSS in a time interval may not be representable of the IEEE 802.11 signal, as the signal may fluctuate or a manual error prone calibration is needed across different mobile platform. The main target is to propose the use of Fourier descriptors in LF. We convert the IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi signal into a Fourier domain. Then, the Fourier descriptors are used to predict the location by applying the K-Nearest Neighbor algorithm. The results show that the effectiveness of LF methods based on Fourier descriptors lead to substantially more accurate and robust localization.
Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks : QoS Considerations csandit
The rapidly growing number of wireless communication devices has led to massive increases in
radio traffic density, resulting in a noticeable shortage of available spectrum. To address this
shortage, the Cognitive Radio (CR) technology offers promising solutions that aim to improve
the spectrum utilization. The operation of CR relies on detecting the so-called spectrum holes,
the frequency bands that remain unoccupied by their licensed operators. The unlicensed users
are then allowed to communicate using these spectrum holes. As such, the performance of CR is
highly dependent on the employed spectrum sensing methods. Several sensing methods are
already available. However, no individual method can accommodate all potential CR operation
scenarios. Hence, it is fair to ascertain that the performance of a CR device can be improved if
it is capable of supporting several sensing methods. It should obviously also be able to select the
most suitable method. In this paper, several spectrum sensing methods are compared and
analyzed, aiming to identify their advantages and shortcomings in different CR operating
conditions. Furthermore, it identifies the features that need to be considered while selecting a
suitable sensing method from the catalog of available methods.
Impact of Next Generation Cognitive Radio Network on the Wireless Green Eco s...ijeei-iaes
Land mobile communication is burdened with typical propagation constraints due to the channel characteristics in radio systems.Also,the propagation characteristics vary form place to place and also as the mobile unit moves,from time to time.Hence,the tramsmission path between transmitter and receiver varies from simple direct LOS to the one which is severely obstructed by buildings, foliage and terrain. Multipath propagation and shadow fading effects affect the signal strength of an arbitrary Transmitter-Receiver due to the rapid fluctuations in the phase and amplitude of signal which also determines the average power over an area of tens or hundreds of meters. Shadowing introduces additional fluctuations, so the received local mean power varies around the area –mean. The present paper deals with the performance analysis of impact of next generation wireless cognitive radio network on wireless green eco system through signal and interference level based k coverage probability under the shadow fading effects.
CL-SA-OFDM: cross-layer and smart antenna based OFDM system performance enha...IJECEIAES
The growing usage of wireless services is lacking in providing high-speed data communication in recent times. Hence, many of the modulation techniques are evolved to attain these communication needs. The recent researches have widely considered OFDM technology as the prominent modulation mechanism to fulfill the futuristic needs of wireless communication. The OFDM can bring effective usage of resources, bandwidth, and system performance enhancement in collaboration with the smart antenna and resource allocation mechanism (adaptive). However, the usage of adaptive beamforming with the OFDM leads to complication in the design of medium access layer and which causes a problem in adaptive resource allocation mechanism (ARAM). Hence, the proposed manuscript intends to design an OFDM system by considering different switched beam smart antenna (SBSA) along with the cross-layer adaptive resource allocation (CLARA) and hybrid adaptive array (HAA). In this, various smart antenna mechanism are considered to analyze the quality of service (QoS) and complexity reduction in the OFDM system. In this paper, various SA schemes are used as per the quality of service (QoS) requirement of the different users. The performance analysis is conducted by considering data traffic reduction, bit-rate reduction, and average delay.
FINGERPRINT LOCATION METHODS USING RAY-TRACINGmarcelonog29
Mobile location methods that employ signal fingerprints are becoming increas- ingly popular in a number of wireless positioning solutions. A fingerprint is a spatial database, created either by recorded measurement or simulation, of the radio envi- ronment. It is used to assign signal characteristics such as received signal strength or power delay profiles to an actual location. Measurements made by either the handset or the network, are then matched to those in the fingerprint in order to determine a location. Creation of the fingerprint by an a priori measurement stage is costly and time consuming. Virtual fingerprints, those created by a ray-tracing radio propagation prediction tool, normally require a lengthy o↵-line simulation mode that needs to be repeated each time changes are made to the network or built environment. An open research question exists of whether a virtual fingerprint could be created dynamically via a ray-trace model embedded on a mobile handset for positioning purposes.
The key aim of this thesis is to investigate the trade-o↵ between complexity of the physics required for ray-tracing models and the accuracy of the virtual fingerprints they produce. The most demanding computational phase of a ray-trace simulation is the ray-path finding stage, whereby a distribution of rays cast from a source point, interacting with walls and edges by reflection and di↵raction phenomena are traced to a set of receive points. Due to this, we specifically develop a new technique that decreases the computation of the ray-path finding stage. The new technique utilises a modified method of images rather than brute-force ray casting. It leads to the creation of virtual fingerprints requiring significantly less computation e↵ort relative to ray casting techniques, with only small decreases in accuracy.
Our new technique for virtual fingerprint creation was then applied to the devel- opment of a signal strength fingerprint for a 3G UMTS network covering the Sydney central business district. Our main goal was to determine whether on current mo- bile handsets, a sub-50m location accuracy could be achieved within a few seconds timescale using our system. The results show that this was in fact achievable. We also show how virtual fingerprinting can lead to more accurate solutions. Based on these results we claim user embedded fingerprinting is now a viable alternative to a priori measurement schemes.
Spectrum requirement is the biggest issue in the field of communication. Because
of new technology and applications expansion bandwidth becomes more crucial. Many
methods and techniques are used to solve this problem. One of them is bandwidth sharing
cognitive radio technique. This paper shows bandwidth sharing in cognitive radio using
common control channel. For this purpose after spectrum sensing, actual work spectrum
sharing is done. New secondary user comes into the network and checks spectrum
availability by using one of the spectrum sensing techniques, if spectrum is free than
spectrum sharing technique assigns available channel to new user without harming existing
primary users. This is done through first come first serve bases. Priority is given to the
primary users. If existing spectrum band contains secondary users and new primary user
comes into the network when no more spectrum band is free then one of the secondary user
needs to vacant the band and that spectrum band is allocated to new primary user. In this
paper simulation results have been described which gives exact idea of spectrum sharing.
Bit Error Rate Analysis in WiMAX Communication at Vehicular Speeds using mod...IJMER
At high vehicular speeds, rapid changes in surrounding environments, cause severe fading at
the receiver, resulting a drastic fall in throughput and unless any proactive measure is taken to combat
this problem, throughput becomes insufficient to support many applications, particularly those with
multimedia contents. Bit Error Rate (BER) estimation is an integral part of any proactive measure and
recent studies suggest that Nakagami-m model performs better for modelling channel fading in wireless
communications at high vehicular speeds. No work has been reported in literature that estimates BER
at high vehicular speeds in WiMAX communication using Nakagami-m model. In this thesis, we develop
and present an analytical model to estimate BER in WiMAX at vehicular speeds using Nakagami-m
fading model. The proposed model is adaptive and can be used with resource management schemes
designed for fixed, nomadic, and mobile WiMAX communications.
SPECTRUM SENSING STRATEGY TO ENHANCE THE QOS IN WHITE-FI NETWORKSIJCNC Journal
The rapidly growing number of wireless devices running applications that require high bandwidths, has
resulted in increasing demands for the unlicensed frequency spectrum. Given the scarcity of allocated
unlicensed frequencies, meeting such demands can become a serious concern. Cognitive Radio (CR)
technology opens the door for the opportunistic use of the licensed spectrum to partially address the issues
relevant to the limited availability of unlicensed frequencies. Combining CR and Wi-Fi to form the socalled
White-Fi networks, has been proposed for achieving higher spectrum utilization. This article
discusses the spectrum sensing in White-Fi networks and the impacts that it has on the QoS of typical
applications. It also reports the analysis of such impacts through various simulation studies. Our results
demonstrate the advantages of an adaptive sensing strategy that is capable of changing the related
parameters based on QoS requirements. We also propose such a sensing strategy that can adapt to the
IEEE 802.11e requirements. The goal of the proposed strategy is the enhancement of the overall QoS of the
applications while maintaining efficient sensing of the spectrum. Simulation results of the scenarios that
implement the proposed mechanisms demonstrate noticeable QoS improvements compared to cases where
common sensing methods are utilized in IEEE802.11 networks.
In recent past the influence of Radar has played a significant part in various fields. Radar sensing is one of
the prime application by which velocity and distance of a moving target can be found out. A joint RadCom
system to serve both radar sensing and wireless communication is proposed which ensures better
performance in terms of spectral efficiency, extended detection range and cost effectiveness. Such systems
demand for a common waveform which is designed in this work that perfectly matches to the system
requirements. OFDM multi carrier technique is chosen to generate a common waveform. Applicability of
multiple antenna technique for direction of arrival estimation is also considered. MIMO-OFDM technique
has gained much interest in the field of communication which improves the signal to noise ratio and lowers
the bit error rate. On the other hand the usage of MIMO reflects in the form of interference between
signals. In order to overcome this effect beamforming technique is used. In addition to theoretical
explanations we have also simulated and discussed the results for the proposed RadCom system using
MATLAB simulation tool.
User equipment geolocation depended on long-term evolutionsignal-level measur...IJECEIAES
A new approach is described for investigating the accuracy of positioning active long-term evolution (LTE) users. The explored approach is a networkbased method and depends on signal level measurements as well as the coverage of the serving cell. In a two-dimensional coordinate system, the algorithm simultaneously applies LTE measured data with a combination of a basic prediction model to locate the mobile device’s user. Furthermore, we introduce a unique method that combines timing advance (TA) and the measured signal level to narrow the search region and improve accuracy. The developed method is assessed by comparing the predicted results from the proposed algorithm with satellite measurements from the global positioning system (GPS) in various scenarios calculated via the number of cells that user equipment concurrently reports. This work separates seven different cases starting from a single reported cell to five reported cells from up to 3 sites. For analysis, the root mean square error (RMSE) is computed to obtain the validation for the proposed approach. The study case demonstrates location accuracy based on the numbers of registered cells with the mean RMSE improved using TA to approximately 70-191 m for the range of scenarios.
-> Explanation of various techniques for Localization like Triangulation and Proximity Based Techniques. (OTDOA/ AOA/ GSM Fingerprinting/Hybrid technologies, etc.)
-> Working of GPS and its drawbacks.
-> AGPS- working and advantages.
-> E911 call processing in AGPS.
->Location Based Services in 4G
Intelligent GIS-Based Road Accident Analysis and Real-Time Monitoring Automat...CSCJournals
It has been a big concern for many people and government to reduce the amount of road accident specially in Malaysia since it could be a big threat to this country. Malaysian government has spent millions of money in order to reduce the number of accident occurrence through several modes of campaign. Unfortunately, from years to years the number keeps increasing. The lack of a comprehensive accident recording and analysis system in Malaysia can be effective in these kinds of problems. By making use of IRAS (Intelligent Road Accident System), the police would be control and manage whole accident events as a real-time monitoring system. This system exploits WiMAX and GPRS communications to connect to the server for transfer the specific data to the data center. This system can be used for a comprehensive intelligent GIS-based solution for accident analysis and management. The system is developed based on object and aspect oriented software design such as .NET technology.
Location Fingerprinting is a very familiar Wi-Fi positioning method, which determines a device by retrieving the information recorded containing the location fingerprint. These methods deploy the signal strength (RSS) to predict the coordinate. There are feedbacks for using the absolute RSS either the absolute RSS in a time interval may not be representable of the IEEE 802.11 signal, as the signal may fluctuate or a manual error prone calibration is needed across different mobile platform. The main target is to propose the use of Fourier descriptors in LF. We convert the IEEE 802.11b Wi-Fi signal into a Fourier domain. Then, the Fourier descriptors are used to predict the location by applying the K-Nearest Neighbor algorithm. The results show that the effectiveness of LF methods based on Fourier descriptors lead to substantially more accurate and robust localization.
Spectrum Sharing between Cellular and Wi-Fi Networks based on Deep Reinforcem...IJCNCJournal
Recently, mobile traffic is growing rapidly and spectrum resources are becoming scarce in wireless networks. Due to this, the wireless network capacity will not meet the traffic demand. To address this problem, using cellular systems in an unlicensed spectrum emerged as an effective solution. In this case, cellular systems need to coexist with Wi-Fi and other systems. For that, we propose an efficient channel assignment method for Wi-Fi AP and cellular NB, based on the DRL method. To train the DDQN model, we implement an emulator as an environment for spectrum sharing in densely deployed NB and APs in wireless heterogeneous networks. Our proposed DDQN algorithm improves the average throughput from 25.5% to 48.7% in different user arrival rates compared to the conventional method. We evaluated the generalization performance of the trained agent, to confirm channel allocation efficiency in terms of average throughput under the different user arrival rates.
Spectrum Sharing between Cellular and Wi-Fi Networks based on Deep Reinforcem...IJCNCJournal
Recently, mobile traf ic is growing rapidly and spectrum resources are becoming scarce in wireless
networks. Due to this, the wireless network capacity will not meet the traf ic demand. To address this
problem, using cellular systems in an unlicensed spectrum emerged as an ef ective solution. In this case,
cellular systems need to coexist with Wi-Fi and other systems. For that, we propose an ef icient channel
assignment method for Wi-Fi AP and cellular NB, based on the DRL method. To train the DDQN model,
we implement an emulator as an environment for spectrum sharing in densely deployed NB and APs in
wireless heterogeneous networks. Our proposed DDQN algorithm improves the average throughput from
25.5% to 48.7% in dif erent user arrival rates compared to the conventional method. We evaluated the
generalization performance of the trained agent, to confirm channel allocation ef iciency in terms of
average throughput under the dif erent user arrival rates
Effective range free localization scheme for wireless sensor networkijmnct
Location aware sensors can be used in many areas such as military and civilian applications. Wireless
Sensor Networks help to identify the accurate location of the event. In this paper a cost effective schema for
localization has been proposed. It uses two beacon nodes to identify the location of unknown nodes. It
also uses flooding and estimating method to accurately identify the location of other nodes. Available area
is divided into zones and beacons are provided for each zone. Beacon nodes are placed in appropriate
locations normally two in a zone to provide location information. Using the two nodes location of unknown
nodes can be calculated accurately.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology
A STRUCTURED DEEP NEURAL NETWORK FOR DATA-DRIVEN LOCALIZATION IN HIGH FREQUEN...IJCNCJournal
Next-generation wireless networks such as 5G and 802.11ad networks will use millimeter waves operating
at 28GHz, 38GHz, or higher frequencies to deliver unprecedentedly high data rates, e.g., 10 gigabits per
second. However, millimeter waves must be used directionally with narrow beams in order to overcome the
large attenuation due to their higher frequency. To achieve high data rates in a mobile setting,
communicating nodes need to align their beams dynamically, quickly, and in high resolution. We propose a
data-driven, deep neural network (DNN) approach to provide robust localization for beam alignment,
using a lower frequency spectrum (e.g., 2.4 GHz). The proposed DNN-based localization methods use the
angle of arrival derived from phase differences in the signal received at multiple antenna arrays to infer the
location of a mobile node. Our methods differ from others that use DNNs as a black box in that the
structure of our neural network model is tailored to address difficulties associated with the domain, such as
collinearity of the mobile node with antenna arrays, fading and multipath. We show that training our
models requires a small number of sample locations, such as 30 or fewer, making the proposed methods
practical. Our specific contributions are: (1) a structured DNN approach where the neural network
topology reflects the placement of antenna arrays, (2) a simulation platform for generating training and
evaluation data sets under multiple noise models, and (3) demonstration that our structured DNN approach
improves localization under noise by up to 25% over traditional off-the-shelf DNNs, and can achieve submeter
accuracy in a real-world experiment.
Implementation of Particle Swarm Optimization Technique for Enhanced Outdoor ...Onyebuchi nosiri
This paper describes the development of optimized model for urban outdoor coverage in Long Term Evolution (LTE) network at 2300 MHz frequency band in Port Harcourt urban region, Nigeria. Signal attenuation and fluctuation remain amongst the major channel impairments for mobile radio communication systems. This arises as a result of model incompatibility with terrain and Line of Sight (LOS) obstruction of the channel signals. Some path loss models such as OkumuraHata, COST 231, Ericsson 999, Egli and ECC-33 models were evaluated for suitability and compared with the modified model for the environments. The models were based on data collected from LTE base stations at three geographical locations in Port Harcourt namely- Rumuokoro, Eneka and Ikwerre roads respectively. The simulation was implemented using MATLAB R2014a software. The modified model was further optimized with some selected parameters such as Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique. The results obtained gave rise to 3.030dB for RMSE and 0.00162dB for MAE respectively. The results obtained from the PSO optimized model demonstrated a better performance which is suitable for cell coverage planning and smooth handoff processes.
Fuzzy Based Vertical Handoff Decision Controller for Future NetworksIJAEMSJORNAL
Abstract— In Next generation wireless Networks, the received signals (RSS) from different networks do not have a same meaning since each network is composed of its specific characteristics and there is no common pilot signal. Then, RSS comparisons are insufficient for handoff decision and may be inefficient and impractical. A more complex decision criterion that combines a large number of parameters or factors such as monetary cost, bandwidth, and power consumption and user profile is necessary. Though there are a lot works available for vertical handoff decision (VHD) for wireless networks, the selection of best network is still challenging problem. In this paper we propose a Fuzzy based vertical handoff decision controller (FVHDC) Which performs handover decision based on the output of fuzzy based rules.
Localization is one of the key technologies in wireless sensor networks (WSNs), since it provides
fundamental support for many location-aware protocols and applications. Constraints on cost and power
consumption make it infeasible to equip each sensor node in the network with a global position system
(GPS) unit, especially for large-scale WSNs. A promising method to localize unknown nodes is to use
anchor nodes, which are equipped with GPS units among unknown nodes and broadcast their current
locations to help nearby unknown nodes with localization. In this paper we can proposed a novel algorithm
of cuboid localization with the help of central point precision method. Simulation shows that the results are
far better then existing cuboid methods and gain accuracy of up to 83% with a localization error of 1.6m
and standard deviation of 2.7.
ADAPTIVE HANDOVER HYSTERESIS AND CALL ADMISSION CONTROL FOR MOBILE RELAY NODESIJCNCJournal
The aim of equipping a wireless network with a mobile relay node is to support broadband wireless communications for vehicular users and their devices. The high mobility of vehicular users, possibly at a very high velocity in the area in which two cells overlap, could cause the network to suffer from a reduced handover success rate and, hence, increased radio link failure. The combined impact of these problems is service interruptions to vehicular users. Thus, the handover schemes are crucial in solving these problems. In this work, we first present the adaptive handover hysteresis scheme for the wireless network with mobile relay nodes in the high-speed train scenario. Specifically, our proposed adaptive hysteresis scheme is based on the velocity of the train. Second, the handover call dropping probability is reduced by introducing a modified call admission control scheme to support radio resource reservation for handover calls that prioritizes handover calls of mobile relay over the other calls. The proposed solution in which adaptive parameter is combined with call admission control is evaluated by system level simulation. Our simulation results illustrate an increased handover success rate and reduced radio link failures.
Collaborative Re-Localization Method in Mobile Wireless Sensor Network Based ...CSCJournals
Localization in Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), particularly in areas like surveillance applications, necessitates triggering re-localization in different time periods in order to maintain accurate positioning. Further, the re-localization process should be designed for time and energy efficiency in these resource constrained networks. In this paper, an energy and time efficient algorithm is proposed to determine the optimum number of localized nodes that collaborate in the re-localization process. Four different movement methods (Random Waypoint Pattern, Modified Random Waypoint pattern, Brownian motion and Levy walk) are applied to model node movement. In order to perform re-localization, a server/head/anchor node activates the optimal number of localized nodes in each island/cluster. A Markov Decision Process (MDP) based algorithm is proposed to find the optimal policy to select those nodes in better condition to cooperate in the re-localization process. The simulation shows that the proposed MDP algorithm decreases the energy consumption in the WSN between 0.6% and 32%.
Similar to Novel Position Estimation using Differential Timing Information for Asynchronous LTE/NR Networks (20)
Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have become a viable technology to improve traffic flow and safety on the roads. Due to its effectiveness and scalability, the Wingsuit Search-based Optimised Link State Routing Protocol (WS-OLSR) is frequently used for data distribution in VANETs. However, the selection of MultiPoint Relays (MPRs) plays a pivotal role in WS-OLSR's performance. This paper presents an improved MPR selection algorithm tailored to WS-OLSR, designed to enhance the overall routing efficiency and reduce overhead. The analysis found that the current OLSR protocol has problems such as redundancy of HELLO and TC message packets or failure to update routing information in time, so a WS-OLSR routing protocol based on improved-MPR selection algorithm was proposed. Firstly, factors such as node mobility and link changes are comprehensively considered to reflect network topology changes, and the broadcast cycle of node HELLO messages is controlled through topology changes. Secondly, a new MPR selection algorithm is proposed, considering link stability issues and nodes. Finally, evaluate its effectiveness in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and control message overhead. Simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of our improved MR selection algorithm when compared to traditional approaches.
A Novel Medium Access Control Strategy for Heterogeneous Traffic in Wireless ...IJCNCJournal
So far, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have played a pivotal role in driving the development of intelligent healthcare systems with broad applicability across various domains. Each WBAN consists of one or more types of sensors that can be embedded in clothing, attached directly to the body, or even implanted beneath an individual's skin. These sensors typically serve asingle application. However, the traffic generated by each sensor may have distinct requirements. This diversity necessitates a dual approach: tailored treatment based on the specific needs of each traffic typeand the fulfillment of application requirements, such asreliability and timeliness. Never the less, the presence of energy constraints and the unreliable nature of wireless communications make QoS provisioning under such networks a non-trivial task. In this context, the current paper introduces a novel Medium AccessControl (MAC) strategy for the regular traffic applications of WBANs, designed to significantly enhance efficiency when compared to the established MAC protocols IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6, with a particular focus on improving reliability, timeliness, and energy efficiency.
May_2024 Top 10 Read Articles in Computer Networks & Communications.pdfIJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
A Topology Control Algorithm Taking into Account Energy and Quality of Transm...IJCNCJournal
The efficient use of energy in wireless sensor networks is critical for extending node lifetime. The network topology is one of the factors that have a significant impact on the energy usage at the nodes and the quality of transmission (QoT) in the network. We propose a topology control algorithm for software-defined wireless sensor networks (SDWSNs) in this paper. Our method is to formulate topology control algorithm as a nonlinear programming (NP) problem with the objective to optimizing two metrics, maximum communication range, and desired degree. This NP problem is solved at the SDWSN controller by employing the genetic algorithm (GA) to determine the best topology. The simulation results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the MaxPower algorithm in terms of average node degree and energy expansion ratio.
Multi-Server user Authentication Scheme for Privacy Preservation with Fuzzy C...IJCNCJournal
The integration of artificial intelligence technology with a scalable Internet of Things (IoT) platform facilitates diverse smart communication services, allowing remote users to access services from anywhere at any time. The multi-server environment within IoT introduces a flexible security service model, enabling users to interact with any server through a single registration. To ensure secure and privacy preservation services for resources, an authentication scheme is essential. Zhao et al. recently introduced a user authentication scheme for the multi-server environment, utilizing passwords and smart cards, claiming resilience against well-known attacks. This paper conducts cryptanalysis on Zhao et al.'s scheme, focusing on denial of service and privacy attacks, revealing a lack of user-friendliness. Subsequently, we propose a new multi-server user authentication scheme for privacy preservation with fuzzy commitment over the IoT environment, addressing the shortcomings of Zhao et al.'s scheme. Formal security verification of the proposed scheme is conducted using the ProVerif simulation tool. Through both formal and informal security analyses, we demonstrate that the proposed scheme is resilient against various known attacks and those identified in Zhao et al.'s scheme.
Advanced Privacy Scheme to Improve Road Safety in Smart Transportation SystemsIJCNCJournal
In -Vehicle Ad-Hoc Network (VANET), vehicles continuously transmit and receive spatiotemporal data with neighboring vehicles, thereby establishing a comprehensive 360-degree traffic awareness system. Vehicular Network safety applications facilitate the transmission of messages between vehicles that are near each other, at regular intervals, enhancing drivers' contextual understanding of the driving environment and significantly improving traffic safety. Privacy schemes in VANETs are vital to safeguard vehicles’ identities and their associated owners or drivers. Privacy schemes prevent unauthorized parties from linking the vehicle's communications to a specific real-world identity by employing techniques such as pseudonyms, randomization, or cryptographic protocols. Nevertheless, these communications frequently contain important vehicle information that malevolent groups could use to Monitor the vehicle over a long period. The acquisition of this shared data has the potential to facilitate the reconstruction of vehicle trajectories, thereby posing a potential risk to the privacy of the driver. Addressing the critical challenge of developing effective and scalable privacy-preserving protocols for communication in vehicle networks is of the highest priority. These protocols aim to reduce the transmission of confidential data while ensuring the required level of communication. This paper aims to propose an Advanced Privacy Vehicle Scheme (APV) that periodically changes pseudonyms to protect vehicle identities and improve privacy. The APV scheme utilizes a concept called the silent period, which involves changing the pseudonym of a vehicle periodically based on the tracking of neighboring vehicles. The pseudonym is a temporary identifier that vehicles use to communicate with each other in a VANET. By changing the pseudonym regularly, the APV scheme makes it difficult for unauthorized entities to link a vehicle's communications to its real-world identity. The proposed APV is compared to the SLOW, RSP, CAPS, and CPN techniques. The data indicates that the efficiency of APV is a better improvement in privacy metrics. It is evident that the AVP offers enhanced safety for vehicles during transportation in the smart city.
April 2024 - Top 10 Read Articles in Computer Networks & CommunicationsIJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
DEF: Deep Ensemble Neural Network Classifier for Android Malware DetectionIJCNCJournal
Malware is one of the threats to security of computer networks and information systems. Since malware instances are available sufficiently, there is increased interest among researchers on usage of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Of late AI-enabled methods such as machine learning (ML) and deep learning paved way for solving many real-world problems. As it is a learning-based approach, accumulated training samples help in improving thequality of training and thus leveraging malware detection accuracy. Existing deep learning methods are focusing on learning-based malware detection systems. However, there is need for improving the state of the art through ensemble approach. Towards this end, in this paper we proposed a framework known as Deep Ensemble Framework (DEF) for automatic malware detection. The framework obtains features from training samples. From given malware instance a grayscale image is generated. There is another process to extract the opcode sequences. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) techniques are used to obtain grayscale image and opcode sequence respectively. Afterwards, a stacking ensemble is employed in order to achieve efficient malware detection and classification. Malware samples collected fromthe Internet sources and Microsoft are used for theempirical study. An algorithm known as Ensemble Learning for Automatic Malware Detection (EL-AML) is proposed to realize our framework. Another algorithm named Pre-Process is proposed to assist the EL-AML algorithm for obtaining intermediate features required by CNN and LSTM.Empirical study reveals that our framework outperforms many existing methods in terms of speed-up and accuracy.
High Performance NMF Based Intrusion Detection System for Big Data IOT TrafficIJCNCJournal
With the emergence of smart devices and the Internet of Things (IoT), millions of users connected to the network produce massive network traffic datasets. These vast datasets of network traffic, Big Data are challenging to store, deal with and analyse using a single computer. In this paper we developed parallel implementation using a High Performance Computer (HPC) for the Non-Negative Matrix Factorization technique as an engine for an Intrusion Detection System (HPC-NMF-IDS). The large IoT traffic datasets of order of millions samples are distributed evenly on all the computing cores for both storage and speedup purpose. The distribution of computing tasks involved in the Matrix Factorization takes into account the reduction of the communication cost between the computing cores. The experiments we conducted on the proposed HPC-IDS-NMF give better results than the traditional ML-based intrusion detection systems. We could train the HPC model with datasets of one million samples in only 31 seconds instead of the 40 minutes using one processor), that is a speed up of 87 times. Moreover, we have got an excellent detection accuracy rate of 98% for KDD dataset.
A Novel Medium Access Control Strategy for Heterogeneous Traffic in Wireless ...IJCNCJournal
So far, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have played a pivotal role in driving the development of intelligent healthcare systems with broad applicability across various domains. Each WBAN consists of one or more types of sensors that can be embedded in clothing, attached directly to the body, or even implanted beneath an individual's skin. These sensors typically serve asingle application. However, the traffic generated by each sensor may have distinct requirements. This diversity necessitates a dual approach: tailored treatment based on the specific needs of each traffic typeand the fulfillment of application requirements, such asreliability and timeliness. Never the less, the presence of energy constraints and the unreliable nature of wireless communications make QoS provisioning under such networks a non-trivial task. In this context, the current paper introduces a novel Medium AccessControl (MAC) strategy for the regular traffic applications of WBANs, designed to significantly enhance efficiency when compared to the established MAC protocols IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6, with a particular focus on improving reliability, timeliness, and energy efficiency.
A Topology Control Algorithm Taking into Account Energy and Quality of Transm...IJCNCJournal
The efficient use of energy in wireless sensor networks is critical for extending node lifetime. The network topology is one of the factors that have a significant impact on the energy usage at the nodes and the quality of transmission (QoT) in the network. We propose a topology control algorithm for software-defined wireless sensor networks (SDWSNs) in this paper. Our method is to formulate topology control algorithm as a nonlinear programming (NP) problem with the objective to optimizing two metrics, maximum communication range, and desired degree. This NP problem is solved at the SDWSN controller by employing the genetic algorithm (GA) to determine the best topology. The simulation results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the MaxPower algorithm in terms of average node degree and energy expansion ratio.
Multi-Server user Authentication Scheme for Privacy Preservation with Fuzzy C...IJCNCJournal
The integration of artificial intelligence technology with a scalable Internet of Things (IoT) platform facilitates diverse smart communication services, allowing remote users to access services from anywhere at any time. The multi-server environment within IoT introduces a flexible security service model, enabling users to interact with any server through a single registration. To ensure secure and privacy preservation services for resources, an authentication scheme is essential. Zhao et al. recently introduced a user authentication scheme for the multi-server environment, utilizing passwords and smart cards, claiming resilience against well-known attacks. This paper conducts cryptanalysis on Zhao et al.'s scheme, focusing on denial of service and privacy attacks, revealing a lack of user-friendliness. Subsequently, we propose a new multi-server user authentication scheme for privacy preservation with fuzzy commitment over the IoT environment, addressing the shortcomings of Zhao et al.'s scheme. Formal security verification of the proposed scheme is conducted using the ProVerif simulation tool. Through both formal and informal security analyses, we demonstrate that the proposed scheme is resilient against various known attacks and those identified in Zhao et al.'s scheme.
Advanced Privacy Scheme to Improve Road Safety in Smart Transportation SystemsIJCNCJournal
In -Vehicle Ad-Hoc Network (VANET), vehicles continuously transmit and receive spatiotemporal data with neighboring vehicles, thereby establishing a comprehensive 360-degree traffic awareness system. Vehicular Network safety applications facilitate the transmission of messages between vehicles that are near each other, at regular intervals, enhancing drivers' contextual understanding of the driving environment and significantly improving traffic safety. Privacy schemes in VANETs are vital to safeguard vehicles’ identities and their associated owners or drivers. Privacy schemes prevent unauthorized parties from linking the vehicle's communications to a specific real-world identity by employing techniques such as pseudonyms, randomization, or cryptographic protocols. Nevertheless, these communications frequently contain important vehicle information that malevolent groups could use to Monitor the vehicle over a long period. The acquisition of this shared data has the potential to facilitate the reconstruction of vehicle trajectories, thereby posing a potential risk to the privacy of the driver. Addressing the critical challenge of developing effective and scalable privacy-preserving protocols for communication in vehicle networks is of the highest priority. These protocols aim to reduce the transmission of confidential data while ensuring the required level of communication. This paper aims to propose an Advanced Privacy Vehicle Scheme (APV) that periodically changes pseudonyms to protect vehicle identities and improve privacy. The APV scheme utilizes a concept called the silent period, which involves changing the pseudonym of a vehicle periodically based on the tracking of neighboring vehicles. The pseudonym is a temporary identifier that vehicles use to communicate with each other in a VANET. By changing the pseudonym regularly, the APV scheme makes it difficult for unauthorized entities to link a vehicle's communications to its real-world identity. The proposed APV is compared to the SLOW, RSP, CAPS, and CPN techniques. The data indicates that the efficiency of APV is a better improvement in privacy metrics. It is evident that the AVP offers enhanced safety for vehicles during transportation in the smart city.
DEF: Deep Ensemble Neural Network Classifier for Android Malware DetectionIJCNCJournal
Malware is one of the threats to security of computer networks and information systems. Since malware instances are available sufficiently, there is increased interest among researchers on usage of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Of late AI-enabled methods such as machine learning (ML) and deep learning paved way for solving many real-world problems. As it is a learning-based approach, accumulated training samples help in improving thequality of training and thus leveraging malware detection accuracy. Existing deep learning methods are focusing on learning-based malware detection systems. However, there is need for improving the state of the art through ensemble approach. Towards this end, in this paper we proposed a framework known as Deep Ensemble Framework (DEF) for automatic malware detection. The framework obtains features from training samples. From given malware instance a grayscale image is generated. There is another process to extract the opcode sequences. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) techniques are used to obtain grayscale image and opcode sequence respectively. Afterwards, a stacking ensemble is employed in order to achieve efficient malware detection and classification. Malware samples collected fromthe Internet sources and Microsoft are used for theempirical study. An algorithm known as Ensemble Learning for Automatic Malware Detection (EL-AML) is proposed to realize our framework. Another algorithm named Pre-Process is proposed to assist the EL-AML algorithm for obtaining intermediate features required by CNN and LSTM.Empirical study reveals that our framework outperforms many existing methods in terms of speed-up and accuracy.
High Performance NMF based Intrusion Detection System for Big Data IoT TrafficIJCNCJournal
With the emergence of smart devices and the Internet of Things (IoT), millions of users connected to the network produce massive network traffic datasets. These vast datasets of network traffic, Big Data are challenging to store, deal with and analyse using a single computer. In this paper we developed parallel implementation using a High Performance Computer (HPC) for the Non-Negative Matrix Factorization technique as an engine for an Intrusion Detection System (HPC-NMF-IDS). The large IoT traffic datasets of order of millions samples are distributed evenly on all the computing cores for both storage and speedup purpose. The distribution of computing tasks involved in the Matrix Factorization takes into account the reduction of the communication cost between the computing cores. The experiments we conducted on the proposed HPC-IDS-NMF give better results than the traditional ML-based intrusion detection systems. We could train the HPC model with datasets of one million samples in only 31 seconds instead of the 40 minutes using one processor), that is a speed up of 87 times. Moreover, we have got an excellent detection accuracy rate of 98% for KDD dataset.
IoT Guardian: A Novel Feature Discovery and Cooperative Game Theory Empowered...IJCNCJournal
Cyber intrusion attacks increasingly target the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, exploiting vulnerable devices and networks. Malicious activities must be identified early to minimize damage and mitigate threats. Using actual benign and attack traffic from the CICIoT2023 dataset, this WORK aims to evaluate and benchmark machine-learning techniques for IoT intrusion detection. There are four main phases to the system. First, the CICIoT2023 dataset is refined to remove irrelevant features and clean up missing and duplicate data. The second phase employs statistical models and artificial intelligence to discover novel features. The most significant features are then selected in the third phase based on cooperative game theory. Using the original CICIoT2023 dataset and a dataset containing only novel features, we train and evaluate a variety of machine learning classifiers. On the original dataset, Random Forest achieved the highest accuracy of 99%. Still, with novel features, Random Forest's performance dropped only slightly (96%) while other models achieved significantly lower accuracy. As a whole, the work contributes substantial contributions to tailored feature engineering, feature selection, and rigorous benchmarking of IoT intrusion detection techniques. IoT networks and devices face continuously evolving threats, making it necessary to develop robust intrusion detection systems.
Enhancing Traffic Routing Inside a Network through IoT Technology & Network C...IJCNCJournal
IoT networking uses real items as stationary or mobile nodes. Mobile nodes complicate networking. Internet of Things (IoT) networks have a lot of control overhead messages because devices are mobile. These signals are generated by the constant flow of control data as such device identity, geographical positioning, node mobility, device configuration, and others. Network clustering is a popular overhead communication management method. Many cluster-based routing methods have been developed to address system restrictions. Node clustering based on the Internet of Things (IoT) protocol, may be used to cluster all network nodes according to predefined criteria. Each cluster will have a Smart Designated Node. SDN cluster management is efficient. Many intelligent nodes remain in the network. The network design spreads these signals. This paper presents an intelligent and responsive routing approach for clustered nodes in IoT networks. An existing method builds a new sub-area clustered topology. The Nodes Clustering Based on the Internet of Things (NCIoT) method improves message transmission between any two nodes. This will facilitate the secure and reliable interchange of healthcare data between professionals and patients. NCIoT is a system that organizes nodes in the Internet of Things (IoT) by grouping them together based on their proximity. It also picks SDN routes for these nodes. This approach involves selecting one option from a range of choices and preparing for likely outcomes problem addressing limitations on activities is a primary focus during the review process. Predictive inquiry employs the process of analyzing data to forecast and anticipate future events. This document provides an explanation of compact units. The Predictive Inquiry Small Packets (PISP) improved its backup system and partnered with SDN to establish a routing information table for each intelligent node, resulting in higher routing performance. Both principal and secondary roads are available for use. The simulation findings indicate that NCIoT algorithms outperform CBR protocols. Enhancements lead to a substantial 78% boost in network performance. In addition, the end-to-end latency dropped by 12.5%. The PISP methodology produces 5.9% more inquiry packets compared to alternative approaches. The algorithms are constructed and evaluated against academic ones.
IoT Guardian: A Novel Feature Discovery and Cooperative Game Theory Empowered...IJCNCJournal
Cyber intrusion attacks increasingly target the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, exploiting vulnerable devices and networks. Malicious activities must be identified early to minimize damage and mitigate threats. Using actual benign and attack traffic from the CICIoT2023 dataset, this WORK aims to evaluate and benchmark machine-learning techniques for IoT intrusion detection. There are four main phases to the system. First, the CICIoT2023 dataset is refined to remove irrelevant features and clean up missing and duplicate data. The second phase employs statistical models and artificial intelligence to discover novel features. The most significant features are then selected in the third phase based on cooperative game theory. Using the original CICIoT2023 dataset and a dataset containing only novel features, we train and evaluate a variety of machine learning classifiers. On the original dataset, Random Forest achieved the highest accuracy of 99%. Still, with novel features, Random Forest's performance dropped only slightly (96%) while other models achieved significantly lower accuracy. As a whole, the work contributes substantial contributions to tailored feature engineering, feature selection, and rigorous benchmarking of IoT intrusion detection techniques. IoT networks and devices face continuously evolving threats, making it necessary to develop robust intrusion detection systems.
** Connect, Collaborate, And Innovate: IJCNC - Where Networking Futures Take ...IJCNCJournal
The International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) is a bi monthly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of Computer Networks & Communications. The journal focuses on all technical and practical aspects of Computer Networks & data Communications. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced networking concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
Enhancing Traffic Routing Inside a Network through IoT Technology & Network C...IJCNCJournal
IoT networking uses real items as stationary or mobile nodes. Mobile nodes complicate networking. Internet of Things (IoT) networks have a lot of control overhead messages because devices are mobile. These signals are generated by the constant flow of control data as such device identity, geographical positioning, node mobility, device configuration, and others. Network clustering is a popular overhead communication management method. Many cluster-based routing methods have been developed to address system restrictions. Node clustering based on the Internet of Things (IoT) protocol, may be used to cluster all network nodes according to predefined criteria. Each cluster will have a Smart Designated Node. SDN cluster management is efficient. Many intelligent nodes remain in the network. The network design spreads these signals. This paper presents an intelligent and responsive routing approach for clustered nodes in IoT networks. An existing method builds a new sub-area clustered topology. The Nodes Clustering Based on the Internet of Things (NCIoT) method improves message transmission between any two nodes. This will facilitate the secure and reliable interchange of healthcare data between professionals and patients. NCIoT is a system that organizes nodes in the Internet of Things (IoT) by grouping them together based on their proximity. It also picks SDN routes for these nodes. This approach involves selecting one option from a range of choices and preparing for likely outcomes problem addressing limitations on activities is a primary focus during the review process. Predictive inquiry employs the process of analyzing data to forecast and anticipate future events. This document provides an explanation of compact units. The Predictive Inquiry Small Packets (PISP) improved its backup system and partnered with SDN to establish a routing information table for each intelligent node, resulting in higher routing performance. Both principal and secondary roads are available for use. The simulation findings indicate that NCIoT algorithms outperform CBR protocols. Enhancements lead to a substantial 78% boost in network performance. In addition, the end-to-end latency dropped by 12.5%. The PISP methodology produces 5.9% more inquiry packets compared to alternative approaches. The algorithms are constructed and evaluated against academic ones.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
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Novel Position Estimation using Differential Timing Information for Asynchronous LTE/NR Networks
1. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
DOI: 10.5121/ijcnc.2021.13403 39
NOVEL POSITION ESTIMATION USING
DIFFERENTIAL TIMING INFORMATION FOR
ASYNCHRONOUS LTE/NR NETWORKS
Muhammad Abugabal, Yasmine Fahmy and Hazim Tawfik
Department of Electronics and Electrical Communications,
Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
ABSTRACT
Positioning techniques have been a common objective since the early development of wireless networks.
However, current positioning methods in cellular networks, for instance, are still primarily focused on the
use of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which has several limitations, like high power
drainage and failure in indoor scenarios. This study introduces a novel approach employing standard LTE
signaling in order to provide high accuracy positioning estimation. The proposed technique is designed in
analogy to the human sound localization system, eliminating the need of having information from three
spatially diverse Base Stations (BSs). This is inspired by the perfect human 3D sound localization with two
ears. A field study is carried out in a dense urban city to verify the accuracy of the proposed technique,
with more than 20 thousand measurement samples collected. The achieved positioning accuracy is meeting
the latest Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requirements in the planner dimension.
KEYWORDS
Cellular Networks, LTE, OTDoA, Sound Localization & Wireless Positioning.
1. INTRODUCTION
The desire for wireless devices’ positioning has existed since the introduction of commercial
mobile networks. It has been further enforced by the US Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) in 2001, mandating all wireless carriers to position users conducting emergency calls with
a defined accuracy limits [1]. This requirement has evolved to reach a maximum planner error of
50 meters for 80% of the positioning attempts and maximum error of 5 meters in the vertical
plane, to be achieved by mobile operators by 2021 [2]. The maximum vertical error requirement
has evolved further to reach 3 meters for future applications [3]. These regulations have
accelerated the development of various algorithms to estimate the location of wireless devices
either in a given coordinate system or relative to network elements. Applications of cellular
positioning are not limited to emergency requirements, but span other multiple use cases. For
mobile carriers, anonymous users’ positioning allows conduction of performance assessment and
enhancement based on geographical grids rather than on cell basis. Positioning algorithms are
classified into two main categories, the first is known as range-based positioning algorithm,
where measurements associated with wireless environment aids the location estimate. Typical
measurement methods include Global Positioning System (GPS), Time of Arrival (TOA), Angle
of Arrival (AoA) and Received Signal Strength (RSS). The second category is known as range-
free positioning algorithms, utilizing network connectivity for localization [4].
Range-based positioning algorithms are not generally able to position devices accurately because
of the induced measurement error associated with the radio environment. This error results from
2. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
40
multi-path propagation, mobility and Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) propagation. Range-free
positioning algorithms, on the contrary, provide better accuracy but require an initial phase to
acquire trained data. The slow adoption of positioning algorithms stems from the low accuracy of
range-based algorithms and the cost associated with range-free algorithms to acquire trained data.
In this paper a novel approach is proposed to enhance the range-based positioning accuracy and
applicability for a defined sample of devices, and can be further utilized as a basis for range-free
methods to position the full population. The contributions of this paper are two-fold:
• The development of a generalized approach utilizing standard Long Term Evolution
(LTE) measurements between transmitters and receivers without the need for extra
functionalities, which enables wide adoption of the proposed positioning approach.
• Planner position estimation employing data from only two spatially separated Base
Stations (BS), as opposed to typical planner positioning using at least three spatially
separated BSs.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows, section two provides a literature review
focusing on identifying measurement quantities available in LTE systems followed by a
description of the most common positioning algorithms for LTE networks. The proposed
differential position estimation algorithm is described in section three, while in section four,
results of the field trial are provided, followed by a conclusion in section five.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. LTE Physical Layer Measurement
Long-term Evolution (LTE) is a well-known broadband standard issued by 3GPP [5]. It meets the
4th
generation requirements and is currently contributing to the majority of broadband
connections worldwide. LTE is utilizing primarily OFDM technology to provide high-speed
connections to multiple mobile users simultaneously. It is available in both Frequency Division
Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD), with the earlier being dominant worldwide,
while the latter is used in few countries in Asia like China. LTE standard procedures involve
multiple measurements to describe the radio environment and aid to provide reliable
communication. While physical layer measurements are designed to sustain communication
between transmitter and receiver, like reporting received power, synchronization, channel
estimation, among others, they can be utilized to estimate the user’s position.
Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP) is a fundamental quantity in LTE measuring the
received power of the reference signal in the downlink [6]. Timing Advance (TA) represents the
amount of time the Mobile Station (MS) needs to advance its uplink transmission in order to
reach the Base Station (BS) at the beginning of each slot, which ensures that transmissions from
all users in the same cell arrive at the same time. The timing advance is maintained through a
timing advance command sent regularly from the BS towards each MS. Timing advance
commands are typically sent for connected users every few milliseconds. The LTE standard
specifies a granularity for signalling timing advance of 0.52 µs which corresponds to a distance
between BS and MS of 78.12 meters approximately [7]. TA and RSRP are basic parameters in
LTE and are available in all LTE networks. Another common LTE measurement quantity is the
Pre-Coder Matrix Index (PMI), which reflects the channel conditions and is signalled from the
user to the cell.
3. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
41
For New Radio (NR) system the same parameters exist either for non-standalone and standalone
deployment scenarios. LTE quantities of the anchor cell are available for the earlier while the
latter provides the NR parameters only [8].
2.2. LTE Position Estimation Techniques
Cellular positioning in LTE involves multiple methods developed over time. The most basic
method is the Cell ID (CID) positioning, where a location server named Evolved Serving Mobile
Location Centre (E-SMLC) requests the serving cell ID of the user from the Mobile Management
Entity (MME), then it looks up a predefined database of the cell serving geographical area. The
cell serving area is typically a polygon with size depending on many factors like cell type;
outdoor or indoor, area nature; Urban or Suburban, and the frequency band used. Cell serving
area increases with the use of lower frequency bands. In urban areas, it is typical to have an inter-
base station distance from 100 to 500 meters, while in suburban it can go up to a few kilometers.
The Enhanced CID (E-CID) positioning method improves the accuracy of CID through
employing additional sources of information associated with the serving cell ID like TA, RSRP,
and Angle of Arrival (AoA). It specifies a smaller geographical area than CID. The use of timing
advance, for instance, specifies a circular contour for an Omni-directional cell and an arch for a
directional cell. The use of signal strength adds additional information as well through matching
the received power from serving cells and neighbours with the empirical propagation model.
Angle of Arrival (AoA), when combined with timing advance, specifies a smaller part on the
circular contour as a potential position of the user [9]. While the introduction of timing advance
narrows down the polygon with the potential user location, it is contaminated with the multi-path
environment especially in NLOS scenarios. Accordingly, the distance between MS and BS is
reported higher than the true distance because of the longer propagation distance. This error is
strongly influenced by the environmental aspects in the cell serving area. On the other hand,
received signal strength is highly affected by multipath fading and users’ mobility. The
comparison with empirical propagation model will not provide descent accuracy in accordance
because of the difficulty to acquire accurate digital maps and the environment dynamics. AoA in
combination with TA should be able to improve the positioning accuracy. However, to acquire
AoA, each cell should be equipped with multiple antenna arrays spatially separated. Most
commercial mobile networks today don’t use this setup and rather configure each cell with a
cross polarized dual antenna arrays. This is due to change in the future when higher order antenna
arrays and massive MIMO become available.
Another range-based algorithm standardized by 3GPP is the Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA),
where either multiple BSs observe the difference in arrival time of the target MS, or the MS is
observing the arrival time difference of multiple BS signals in the downlink. The latter case is
more relevant in LTE networks because of the continuous broadcast channel transmitting from
each cell. It is referred to as Observed Time Difference of Arrival (OTDoA) [10]. OTDoA is
based on measurement of the differences in time of arrival of the Positioning Reference Signal
(PRS) of multiple cells spatially separated. A comparison between two cells specifies a hyperbola
identifying a potential user location. For planner positioning at least measurements from three
BSs are needed. UTDoA is almost similar to OTDOA with the exception that the BSs, on the
contrary, observe the differences in time of arrival of uplink the signal transmitted by the user
[11]. Accuracy of OTDoA algorithm has been verified using real measurements in LTE network
[12], spanning a range from 20 to 63 meters based on the environment and can achieve an
average accuracy of 50 m [13]. It is considered one of the high accuracy positioning algorithms in
mobile networks which don’t require synchronization between transmitter and receiver, and
support indoor localization as well [14]. On the other hand, it requires tight time and phase
synchronization of all Base Stations in the target region, which is the primary reason why it is not
4. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
42
commonly deployed in current FDD mobile networks. A time difference of 100 ns between
different BSs is equivalent to error in positioning of around 30 m [15]. The increasing
deployment of 5G in TDD spectrum will facilitate the adoption of OTDoA because of the tight
time and phase synchronization deployed to allow the TDD technology. Another limitation
comes from the necessity to implement additional protocol and server in mobile networks to
support the location protocol which adds to the complexity and cost.
It is well established that one of the most accurate positioning algorithms is the GPS. It is
considered a range-based technique where a satellite signal is utilized to precisely position the
wireless receiver. For cellular networks an assisted GPS algorithm was introduced by a company
named SnapTrack [16] in order to aid mobile devices in GPS positioning. It was also introduced
in 3GPP standards for all technologies [17], where the network aids the mobile device by
accelerating signal acquisition and reducing battery requirements accordingly. Furthermore, to
facilitate mobile network management and quality of service assurance by mobile carriers, 3GPP
has introduced a functionality called Minimization of Drive Tests (MDT) where it allows the
Mobile Station (MS) to share its GPS coordinates with the operating carrier network [18]. While
GPS based positioning provides almost the best accuracy [13], it is not widely used by mobile
carriers for the purpose of network management and quality of service assurance due to many
reasons; first the MS must be in LOS with the satellites, limiting the position reporting to the
outdoor scenarios, second ordering mobile devices to share their GPS position imposes privacy
constraints, third faster battery drainage with frequent requests of GPS positions is noticed [19].
A comparison of the performance of different position estimation algorithms can be found in
[13]. Yet with the limited adoption of positioning algorithms by mobile operators, the motivation
to develop a positioning algorithm that can be globally applicable to most common LTE/NR
networks arises [13]. Up to the author’s knowledge most recent positioning techniques’
development is focused around two categories, the first involves the use of finger printing
inherited from its proven general accuracy [21] and [22], while the other category utilizes the
increased usage of massive MIMO in 5G networks [23] and its capability of inclusion of beam
angle in the positioning algorithm. Massive MIMO even allows the distinction between LOS and
NLOS components. However, the cost associated with the training phase in fingerprinting, and
the non-existence of network-wide deployment of massive MIMO brings the need to enhance the
range-based positioning techniques accordingly.
3. DIFFERENTIAL ESTIMATION OF POSITION
Consider a Mobile Station (MS) connected to an LTE cell1 belonging to a base station BS1. Since
cell1 is the serving cell, timing advance τ1,i is continuously updated throughout the connection in
order to maintain the slot synchronization. The quantity TA1,i reflects the measured range i
d ,
1
~
between the MS and cell1, whereas the true range is denoted by d1,i, and i represents the measured
sample and belongs to [0,1,2,…N], where N is the total number of observations. The relation
between i
d ,
1
~
and d1,i depends on the connection scenario being LOS or NLOS as follows
i
los
i
i q
z
d
d i ,
1
,
1
,
1 ,
1
~
LOS scenario, (1)
i
nlos
i
i
i q
z
b
d
d i ,
1
,
1
,
1
,
1 ,
1
~
NLOS scenario, (2)
where i
los
z ,
1
and i
nlos
z ,
1
represent the measurement noise sample and are modeled as zero mean
normal random variable with variances of
1
los
z
and
1
nlos
z
respectively, q1,i is the error term
5. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
43
introduced due to the quantization of the timing advance, and is thus modelled as uniformly
distributed random variable over the period [-39.06, 39.06] meters. b1 is a positive bias arising
from NLOS propagation and is modeled as exponential distribution with mean 1
/
1 b
and
variance
2
1
/
1 b
. The probability distribution functions of all the error sources are given by the
following equations for both LOS and NLOS scenarios:
]
2
exp[
2
1
)
( 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
los
los z
los
z
los
z
z
f
, LOS, (3)
]
2
exp[
2
1
)
( 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
nlos
nlos z
nlos
z
nlos
z
z
f
, NLOS, (4)
otherwise
q
q
f
,
0
062
.
39
062
.
39
,
125
.
78
1
)
( 1
1
, (5)
0
,
0
0
,
)
(
1
1
1
1
1
1
b
b
e
b
f
b
b
b
. (6)
The information of τ1,i only provides a circular contour with the potential user location.
Information from at least three other cells is needed to further locate the user in the planner
dimension. In the proposed algorithm information from two spatially separated cells only is
employed for planner localization. A problem arises from having the timing advance available
from the serving cell only. To acquire timing advance for the neighbouring cells, it is proposed to
limit the positioning estimates around the events of handovers provided that MS is stationary or
quasi-stationary. This approach allows the acquisition of the timing advance from the source cell
before the handover and the timing advance of the neighboring cell after the handover. It is worth
noting that MS stationarity and handover are not mutually exclusive events. Frequent handovers
happen while mobile users are stationary because of multi-path propagation and dynamic channel
conditions. The proposed stationarity condition implies that the user is alternating between the
maximum of three timing advance values. This has been set after conducting field measurements,
as detailed in a results section, to achieve a compromise between user mobility state accuracy and
allowing measurement noise while the user is stationary.
Timing advance τ1,i and τ2,i are observed before and after handover between cell1 and cell2
respectively. The knowledge of timing advance values allows only an ambiguous positioning
attempt using trilateration for instance as described in [4]. Typically, information from three cells
is needed to reduce ambiguity. Trilateration positioning is based on intersecting the circular
ranges defined by each timing advance quantity. Two problems are arising accordingly; first,
error probability specified by equations (3) to (6) is relatively high compared to the 50 meters’
requirements of FCC especially for NLOS scenarios, where the bias is having a non-zero mean.
Second, the ambiguity in position estimation resulting from observing information from two cells
only, where it is very unlikely to acquire information from a third cell through a handover event
without spatial movement of the user. An algorithm is developed to provide high accuracy
position estimate using information from two cells only, inspired by the perfect 3D positioning
capabilities of human dual ears [20]. In human acoustic positioning system, the first attempt in
positioning employs a comparison of sound reaching the two ears in terms of amplitude and
phase. Accordingly, attention will be made to the differential timing advance rather than
examining each value of timing advance through trilateration for instance. The differential
measured range, i
i
i d
d
d ,
2
,
1
~
~
~
, is given by
6. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
44
i
i
los
i
i q
z
d
d
,
~
LOS, (7)
i
i
nlos
i
i
i q
z
b
d
d
,
~
NLOS. (8)
In urban cities, it is unlikely to have LOS scenarios. Moreover, it is difficult to have handover
between cells in different LOS/NLOS scenarios. It is then assumed in the following analysis that
the two cells involved in the handover are in NLOS scenario. Any mixed handover scenarios will
be considered as an error in position estimation. Since b1 and b2 are independent and identically
distributed exponential random variables, their differential probability density function is known
to be a Laplace distribution as follows:
b
B e
b
f
2
)
( . (9)
Where λ is equal to λb1 and λb2 because of the identical distribution assumption. The main
advantage achieved is a zero mean distribution on the expense of doubling the variance from 1/λ2
to 2/λ2
, which is a common drawback in many cases such as using the trilateration for instance
[4]. Similarly, the differential quantization error keeps the zero mean advantage while doubling
the variance.
otherwise
q
q
q
f Q
,
0
125
.
78
125
.
78
,
1
125
.
78
1
)
( (10)
]
4
exp[
4
1
)
( 2
2
2
los
los
los
z
los
z
los
Z
z
z
f
, (11)
fDZnlos
(Dznlos ) =
1
4psznlos
2
exp[-
znlos
2
4sznlos
2
]. (12)
The differential range equations (7) and (8) have led to achieving zero mean error probabilities
given by equations (9) through (12). This leads to the use of a minimum variance unbiased
estimator. The differential TA formulation also defines a hyperbola with the potential user
location. It is very unlikely in NLOS scenarios to have the actual range exceeding the measured
range because of the positive bias induced by the reflections from multiple objects. Thus the
information about the absolute measured range is proposed to set a constraint on the range. The
Hyperbola by equations (7) and (8) extends to infinity, but with the constraints in (13) and (14)
the potential user location on the Hyperbola will be limited to a finite range.
1
1
~
d
d , (13)
2
2
~
d
d . (14)
Another important consideration to improve the accuracy of position estimation is to ensure that
the user is in the intended cell serving area. Users served by overshooting cells exhibit more
uncertainty in their position estimate, and hence the following condition should apply:
12
2
1 )
~
,
~
max( d
d
d , (15)
7. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
45
where d12 is the distance between the base stations in the two cells. Figure 1 (a) illustrates the
area enclosing the potential user location, where the MS is likely to be located in the hashed area.
The trilateration method in Figure 1 (b) is not considering that the error is biased due to NLOS
scenario. It assumes a zero mean error component in each measured range quantity.
Figure 1. Position estimation techniques, proposed differential technique (a), Trilateration (b)
The handover event in LTE is controlled by the BS after evaluating the measured RSRP from
both serving and target cells. The Handover takes place at a configurable signal strength
difference between the serving and target cells, with a typical threshold in the range of 3 dB.
Thus the power levels of the two neighboring cells are comparable, which allows the setting of an
additional condition to ensure that both cells exhibit the same conditions in either LOS or NLOS
scenarios. Given that power levels are comparable, to ensure similar conditions, the differential
range should be less than a threshold γ, which is designed to be 156 meters as detailed in section
4. If on the other hand the measured differential range is high, it implies that once a cell is having
a more clear path to the user than the other, the condition for similar radio conditions is given by
2
1
~
~
d
d . (16)
The uncertainty of user location within the probable area in Figure 1 (a) can be viewed as the
cone of confusion problem within the Human acoustic location system. One of the techniques
used by humans to resolve cone of confusion is head movement to collect more samples with
different phase information [20], while this is not possible in cellular systems, an analogous
approach would be to utilize information about signal strength received from neighboring cells
located in the same BSs exhibiting the handover but oriented in a different azimuth through
directional antennas. In contrary to trilateration, the intersection points between two measured
range circles are not representing the probable user location because they exhibit zero bias in
range measurement which is unlikely in NLOS scenarios. Inside the probable area of user
location, it is more likely that the user is located in a point on the hyperbola inside the probable
polygon based on zero mean error equations (9) through (12). RSRP measurements are available
for serving cells as well as neighboring cells before and after handover. While RSRP
measurements are available, the phase information is not. Moreover, the BSs might not be
synchronized, which accordingly makes it difficult to establish probability estimation for the
AoA based on measured RSRP of different cells. However, hypothesis testing is employed to
8. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
46
select the most probable point for user location from a set of defined points. If MS is only
reporting the serving cell RSRP, then the serving angle is assumed to be the angle of the highest
antenna gain of the serving cell, whereas if measurements exist for neighboring cells at the same
BS, the strongest neighbor power RSn,1 is examined about the power of the serving cells RS1. If it
is within 3 dB, then the serving angle is assumed to be drifted toward the main beam of the
neighboring cell, but with half weight, i.e. the serving angle θ1 is equal to the angle of the
strongest beam of serving cells drifted towards the neighboring cell main beam angle φn,1 with an
angle equals to quarter the difference between the two cells main beam angles. For differences
higher than 3 dB, the user is assumed to be served through the angle of the main beam of the
serving cell φ1. The same methodologies are applied after the handover. The estimated serving
angle is used to select the user location from the three highlighted positions in Figure 2. The three
points of the probable user location are designed to be first the mid-point, defined on the line
joining the location of the two cells, then the other two points are located on the mid- distance
between the mid-point and the intersection of the two measured range circles. A point is selected
from the three- points to minimize the square error of the estimated serving angle before and after
handover.
Figure 2. Potential user locations on the differential range hyperbola
Another way to ensure that the user is static or quasi-static is through examining the changes in TA
during the observation period. Since each timing advance step is reflecting a range of 78.12 m, then
if the user exhibits more than two- step changes in timing advance it is regarded as a user with high
mobility. The observation period is proposed to be dynamic as long as the user is oscillating
between a maximum of three TA values. This allows more averaging of the measured range in
order to reduce the noise. τ1,n is the timing advance value of cell1 at instance n, i is the number of
measurements where user is considered static. In Algorithm 1, the proposed positioning algorithm
is described.
9. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
47
Algorithm 1: Differential Position Estimation Algorithm per MS
1. While max (τ1,i) – min(τ2,i) ≤ 3 steps
2. Compute
N
i
i
1
,
1
1
3. If handover occurs to Cell2
4. While max (τ1,i) – min(τ2,i) ≤ 3 steps
5. Compute
N
i 1
2
,
1
2
6. Compute d
~
7. If
d
~
and 12
2
1 )
~
,
~
max( d
d
d
8. Identify Hyperbola 2
1 d
d
d
9. Apply constraint 1
1
~
d
d and 2
2
~
d
d
10. Identify probable user location
11. If RS1 – RSn,1 < 3 dB
12. θ1 = φ1 + (φ1 – φn,1)/2
13. Else
14. θ1 = φ1
15. If RS1 – RSn,1 < 3 dB
16. θ2 = φ2 + (φ2 – φn,2)/2
17. Else
18. θ2 = φ2
19. Estimate MS location to reduce error in |θ1 and θ2|
20. Go to step 1
The algorithm is proposed to run in the Mobile Operators’ Operations Support Systems (OSS)
where all measurement reports from all users are collected in real time. It is best applied in urban
environments where dense base stations are likely to have handovers even for quasi-stationary
users.
4. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS
To test the newly proposed technique, real field measurements were collected in a highly density
urban city using smartphones configured to log messages communicated with the network in both
Uplink and Downlink. This allows access to physical layer measurements like TA and RSS
among others. The frequency band configured is the 2100 MHz band with 10 MHz spectrum
allocation on LTE technology. TA measurements are collected while conducting a drive route
with a speed of less than 10 Kmph. The used phones have also the capability to log the GPS
reading with an accuracy of less than three meters to serve as basis of comparison against the true
location. The test area includes around 100 BSs. More than 20,000 measurement messages are
collected. The average cell radius size is 350 meters. From the total number of handover events,
35% didn’t meet the proposed positioning algorithm requirements, mainly due to overshooting
cells. Few challenges have faced the experiment, resulting from the need to keep the car speed
constant during the driving test and the requirement to provide accurate cell location for the
algorithm. Other limitations include the necessity to conduct the drive route in an outdoor
scenario to be able to acquire the GOS signal for comparison as well as the lack of accurate
information about the RF coaxial cable length installed in towers which affect the propagated
distance.
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48
The reporting of TA value is done every few milliseconds as shown for a sample in Figure 3,
where it is observed that the measured range follows the true range with a positive bias resulting
from NLOS propagation and oscillations resulting from the measurement noise. While the drive
test is performed in a mobility state, a window of interest spans three seconds before and after the
handover, which corresponds to displacement less than 5 meters for the given car speed.
Figure 3. Sample of measured range against the corresponding true range
In Figure 4, the probability distribution function of the error between the measured distance
d
~
and the real distance d of the MS from the serving cell is plotted. It is clear from the figure that
the error mean value is a non-zero value which is expected due to the multipath propagation
effect in NLOS scenarios. The average value of the error delay in the test area is around 70
meters which reflects the environment propagation nature and it also embeds the granularity
nature of the reported timing advance.
Figure 4. Error distribution of the measured range
Figure 5, an important note is that negative error only happens at small distances from the sites
(less than 78 meters). When the distance increases the error positively increases as the effect of
the multipath propagation increases. While the negative error appears, its magnitude is small and
it is arising from the granularity measurement of their timing advance. Another contribution to
the error is the deviation of the antenna geographical location against the archived cell location.
One of the limitations in range-based position techniques is arising from the need of availing
accurate cell and antenna physical information. When the MS gets farther from the cell, NLOS
error becomes more dominant. The parameter γ is designed to be 156 meters to ensure that error
is contained within FCC requirements.
11. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
49
Figure 5. Error in range measurements against the measured range
The error in the measured differential range )
~
( d
d
probability density function is
plotted in Figure 6. The zero mean together with the extended variance resulting from
different sources of error is clear, following equations (9) through (12).
Figure 6. Error distribution of the measured differential range
In Figure 7, it is clear that the proposed algorithm is better matching the true range. The bias has
been reduced and is showing the ability to be reduced further in future research.
Figure 7. Scatter analysis of the measured range against the range
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50
The prime objective of the proposed positioning algorithm is to determine the most probable
coordinates for user location. However, Figure 8 is representing the range of the estimated position
relative to the true range. When compared to Figure 7, it is clear that the proposed algorithm is
better matching the true range. The bias has been reduced and is showing the ability to be reduced
further in future research.
Figure 8. Scatter analysis of the estimated range against the true range
The estimated range error of the suggested algorithm )
~
( d
d is plotted in Figure 9 together with
the measured range error )
~
( d
d . The estimated distance is closer to the true distance than the
measured distance, which results from the proposed noise reduction approach. While the
estimated range is closer to the true range, it is generally slightly lower than the true range
because of the assumption of high bias and avoidance of the measured range intersecting points.
This is showing the possibility to even reduce the error further by expecting the bias order per
area nature, which may in some occasions favor the measured range intersecting points, this
requires field measurement from different area nature and stand on key differences
Figure 9. Sample tracking of estimated range error and measured range error
13. International Journal of Computer Networks & Communications (IJCNC) Vol.13, No.4, July 2021
51
In Figure 10, the distribution of absolute error values is plotted, with a mean measurement error of
70 meters, whereas the mean estimation error is 30 meters, showing the ability of the proposed
algorithm to reduce the error for asynchronous LTE networks.
Figure 10. Absolute error distribution of the measured and estimated ranges
To conclude, applying the proposed differential estimation in the planner domain, a median error in
position estimation is 40 meters, which is meeting the FCC requirements of position estimation of
50 meters for calls experiencing handover. The proposed technique is adequate in urban
environments and specifies few assumptions for accurate positioning including the user quasi-
stationarity and not being served from an overshooting cell.
The technique can be used to estimate the position of a target sample then can further be utilized to
position the whole population using fingerprinting techniques. The proposed algorithm can be
enhanced further by examining multiple frequency bands to improve the accuracy especially for the
phones that support simultaneous carrier aggregation of different frequency bands.
5. CONCLUSION
The proposed positioning algorithm managed to achieve positioning accuracy less than 50 meters
while using information from only two cells. It has the advantage of applying to all commercial
LTE mobile networks without adding extra hardware. The main requirement to achieve this
accuracy is to base the analysis on the handover events, followed by ensuring user stationarity
and non-overshooting cells. While the accuracy might not be of high precision to serve the
emergency applications, it is adequate for providing mobile operators with a useful insight into
the quality of service per geographical grid. The typical performance management in commercial
mobile networks today is primarily based on examining average cell performance as a whole.
This algorithm is can leverage the performance management capabilities in mobile operators to
provide better services on a grid basis.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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