1. Archaeologists have discovered a complex of megalithic structures and stone circles dating to around 6,000-7,000 years ago at Nabta Playa in southern Egypt. 2. The structures include five alignments of standing stones that radiate outward from a central megalithic structure, as well as a small stone circle that may have been used to track the summer solstice. 3. Radiocarbon dating indicates the ceremonial complex was built during a period of increased rainfall and lake formation in the region between around 7,000-6,700 years ago, before the area again became too dry to support human habitation around 4,800 years ago.

1. Nature © Macmillan Publishers Ltd 1998
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488 NATURE | VOL 392 | 2 APRIL 1998
impermeable sediment blanket in Middle Valley above very
young
oceanic crust that is the primary control on the style of hydro-
thermal circulation in this area, resulting in the formation of a
sea-
floor mineral deposit similar in size and grade to ore deposits
mined
on land. M
Received 1 August 1997; accepted 29 January 1998.
1. Wolery, T. J. & Sleep, N. H. Hydrothermal circulation and
geochemical flux at mid-ocean ridges.
J. Geol. 84, 249–275 (1978).
2. Lister, C. R. B. in The Dynamic Environment of the Ocean
Floor (eds Fanning, K. A. & Manheim, F. T.)
441–470 (Lexington Books, Lexington, 1982).
3. Sleep, N. H. & Wolery, T. J. Egress of hot water from the
midocean ridge hydrothermal systems: some
thermal constraints. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 2375–2387 (1991).
4. Stanton, R. L. General features of the conformable ‘‘pyritic’’

2. ore-bodies. Can. Inst. Mining Metall.
Trans. 63, 22–27 (1960).
5. Franklin, J. M., Lydon, J. W. & Sangster, D. F. Volcanic-
associated massive sulfide deposits. Econ. Geol.,
75th Anniv. Vol. 485–627 (1981).
6. Hannington, M. D., Jonasson, I. R., Herzig, P. M. & Petersen,
S. Physical and Chemical Processes of
Seafloor Mineralization at Mid-ocean Ridges 115–157
(Geophys. Monogr. 91, Am. Geophys. Union,
Washington DC, 1995).
7. Davis, E. E. et al. Proc. ODP Init. Rep. 139, 1–1026 (1992).
8. Davis, E. E. & Villinger, H. Tectonic and thermal structure of
the Middle Valley sedimented rift,
northern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Proc. ODP Init. Rep. 139, 9–41
(1992).
9. Davis, E. E. & Fisher, A. T. On the nature and consequences
of hydrothermal circulation in Middle
Valley sedimented rift: inferences from geophysical and
geochemical observations, Leg 139. Proc. ODP
Sci. Res. 139, 695–717 (1994).
10. Goodfellow, W. D. & Franklin, J. M. Geology, mineralogy,
and chemistry of sediment-hosted clastic
massive sulfides in shallow cores, Middle Valley, northern Juan
de Fuca Ridge. Econ. Geol. 88, 2037–
2068 (1994).
11. Ames, D. E., Franklin, J. M. & Hannington, M. D.
Mineralogy and geochemistry of active and inactive
chimneys and massive sulfide, Middle Valley, northern Juan de
Fuca Ridge: An evolving hydrothermal

3. system. Can. Mineral. 31, 997–1024 (1993).
12. Krasnov, S., Stepanova, T. & Stepanov, M. Chemical
composition and formation of a massive sulfide
deposit, Middle Valley, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge (Site 856).
Proc. ODP Sci. Res. 139, 353–372
(1994).
13. Duckworth, R. C., Fallick, A. E. & Rickard, E. Mineralogy
and sulfur isotopic composition of the
Middle Valley massive sulfide deposit, northern Juan de Fuca
Ridge. Proc. ODP Sci. Res. 139, 373–385
(1994).
14. Fouquet, Y. et al. Middle Valley; Bent Hill area (Site 1035).
Proc. ODP Init. Rep. 169 (in the press).
15. Janecky, D. J. & Seyfried, W. E. Jr Formation of massive
sulfide deposits on oceanic ridge crests:
incremental reaction models for mixing between hydrothermal
solutions and seawater. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 48, 2723–2738 (1984).
16. Currie, R. G. & Davis, E. E. Low crustal magnetization of
the Middle Valley sedimented rift inferred
from sea-surface magnetic anomalies. Proc. ODP Sci. Res. 139,
19–28 (1994).
Acknowledgements. We thank the staff of the Geological
Survey of Canada, particularly J. M. Franklin
and E. E. Davis, for sharing data and expertise on the Middle
Valley area. We also thank the ODP
Engineering staff, and the drilling, ship and scientific staff on-
board the D/V JOIDES Resolution for their
many contributions.

4. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed
to R.A.Z. (e-mail:
[email protected]).
Megaliths and Neolithic
astronomy in southern Egypt
J. McKim Malville, Fred Wendorf*, Ali A Mazar†
& Romauld Schild‡
Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University
of Colorado,
Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
* Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University,
Dallas,
Texas 75275, USA
† Egyptian Geological Survey, Cairo, Egypt
‡ Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of
Sciences,
00-140 Warsaw
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sahara west of the Nile in southern Egypt was hyperarid
and
unoccupied during most of the Late Pleistocene epoch. About
11,000 years ago1 the summer monsoons of central Africa
moved
into Egypt, and temporary lakes or playas were formed. The
Nabta
Playa depression, which is one of the largest in southern Egypt,
is
a kidney-shaped basin of roughly 10 km by 7 km in area2– 4.
We
report the discovery of megalithic alignments and stone circles
next to locations of Middle and Late Neolithic communities at

5. Nabta, which suggest the early development of a complex
society.
The southward shift of the monsoons in the Late Neolithic age
rendered the area once again hyperarid and uninhabitable some
4,800 radiocarbon years before the present (years BP). This
well-
determined date establishes that the ceremonial complex of
Nabta, which has alignments to cardinal and solstitial
directions,
was a very early megalithic expression of ideology and
astronomy.
Five megalithic alignments within the playa deposits radiate
outwards from megalithic structures, which may have been
funerary structures. The organization of the megaliths suggests
a symbolic geometry that integrated death, water, and the Sun.
An
exodus from the Nubian Desert at ,4,800 years BP may have
stimulated social differentiation and cultural complexity in pre-
dynastic Upper Egypt.
Pastoralists seem to have entered the Nabta region (Fig. 1 inset)
during the summer rainy season beginning ,10,000 years BP.
Most
of the early sites at Nabta consist of small concentrations of
artefacts
with one or more hearths, evidence of repeated summer
occupation
by small family groups. In addition to bones of gazelles, hares,
jackals, and small mammals, most of the sites also contain
bones of
cattle, which may have been used for milk, blood, and
transport5,6.
There were three major moist periods in the Holocene epoch in
the Eastern Sahara, each of which is documented by massive silt

6. deposits in the seasonal playas, for which we have over 100
radio-
carbon dates7. These three playa episodes of the Early, Middle,
and
Late Neolithic ages were separated from each other by periods
of
hyperaridity, at 7,300–7,100 years BP and 6,700–6,500 years
BP, when
the water table was lowered to the same or lower levels than
those of
today. The preceding playa silts were extensively eroded and in
some
instances sand dunes filled the hollows. The alignments,
megalithic
structures and sandstone circles were placed in sediments that
probably accumulated between 7,000 and 6,700 years BP, at the
end of the Middle Neolithic.
These Neolithic settlements reveal repeated occupation over
several millennia during the summer rainy season, when there
was enough water in the playas for large groups and their
animals.
At 8,100–8,000 years BP in the Early Neolithic, dates that are
well
established by a cluster of radiocarbon dates from charcoal and
ostrich eggshells, larger communities appeared. One village (E-
75-
6) contained more than 18 houses, arranged in two (possibly
three)
straight lines, and deep walk-in wells, which required
significant
labour investment and control3,8. One well that we excavated
was
4 m in width and 3 m deep; the existence of this well may have
made
it possible for some people to live in the desert throughout the

7. year.
The construction of the wells may be the first indication of
emerging
social control that later made the design and execution of the
megalithic complex of the Late Neolithic possible.
Although primarily attracted to the playa for its water and
forage,
these nomadic groups must have engaged in a variety of
activities
during summer occupation, such as social bonding, marriage,
trade, and ritual. The abundance of cattle remains in the Middle
and Late Neolithic settlements is consistent with the ritual
tradi-
tions of modern pastoralists, who may slaughter cattle to mark
socially important events. We excavated two types of cattle
tumuli
at Nabta. The most common type consists of unshaped blocks
of sandstone containing disarticulated bones of one or more
cattle. One such tumulus (E-96-1) has yielded a date of
5; 500 years BP 6 160 years, from charcoal in a hearth. The
second
type of cattle tumulus (E-94-1), which may have marked a place
and
an event of considerable ideological significance for the group,
consisted of an articulated skeleton of a young cow buried in a
roofed, clay-lined chamber, which was covered with unshaped
sandstone blocks. Wood from the roof of the chamber yielded a
radiocarbon date of 6;470 6 270 years BP.
Oval clusters of large recumbent slabs constitute the megalithic
structures (Fig. 1), which we initially thought might mark high-
status burials. However, no firm evidence of human burials was
found in any of these features. Although churning clay vertisol
would probably have destroyed all buried material except large
rocks, the structures may have served primarily as proxy tombs

8. for
high-ranking individuals who died on the trail. Excavation and
Nature © Macmillan Publishers Ltd 1998
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NATURE | VOL 392 | 2 APRIL 1998 489
drilling of five of the structures showed that each one was built
over
a modified table rock, which perhaps functioned symbolically as
a
cenotaph. We obtained a radiocarbon date of 4; 800 years BP 6
80
from one of the smaller structures (E-96-1; structure E).
Beneath the surface slabs of the largest megalithic structure
(E-96-1; structure A) we found a sculptured rock, which has
some resemblance to a cow. It was standing upright with its
base 2 m below the surface, and its long axis was oriented a few
degrees west of north. The rock had been blocked into place by
two smaller slabs. Further beneath it, at a depth of 4 m, the
shaped table rock had a similar northward orientation.
Excavations of the megaliths contained in the alignments reveal
that they are not bedrock material. These slabs, typically
measuring
2 m by 3 m, were brought from exposed sandstone, over
distances of
0.5 km or more, and then embedded during the Late Neolithic in
playa deposits. Megalith 0, with an exposed length of 1.05 m, is

9. shown in Fig. 2 and is the northernmost stone of alignment II.
Numerous deflated hearths and Late Neolithic pottery9, all of
which
appear to be contemporaneous with the megalithic alignments,
surround the megaliths and cattle tumuli.
The longest series of standing megaliths (megalithic alignments
I,
II and III; Fig. 1) was originally interpreted2 as a single line of
megaliths orientated approximately 108 east of north. Our re-
evaluation of the alignment indicates that the slabs are
organized
into three separate lines, which radiate outwards from the
largest
of the megalithic structures, E-96-1 structure A, with azimuths
of 24.38, 258, and 288. During the 1997 season, we combined
theodolite and differential global positioning system
measurements
to map the megaliths, and established the centre of structure A
at
228 309 29.70 N, 308 439 31.20 W. We discovered two
additional
megalithic alignments, which also radiate out from the vicinity
of
structure A, with azimuths of 90.028 and 1268. We have not
Figure 1 A plan of the stone structures found in the western
portion of the
Nabta Playa (scale in metres). A map of Egypt, giving the
location of the Nabta
Playa, is shown as an inset. True geographic north is indicated.
A indicates
the largest megalithic structure; E is a smaller megalithic

10. structure.
Figure 2 Megalith 0, the northernmost stone of alignment II
(Fig. 1).
Nature © Macmillan Publishers Ltd 1998
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490 NATURE | VOL 392 | 2 APRIL 1998
excavated the bases of these megaliths, but they appear to be
similarly embedded in playa deposits.
The circle (E-92-9) of small upright and recumbent slabs, with a
diameter slightly less than 4 m (Fig. 3a–c), contains four sets of
upright slabs, which may have been used for sighting along the
horizon. The circle is too small to have functioned as a precise
sighting device. The centre lines of the two windows have
azimuths
of 3588 and 628. Taking into account refraction, we estimate
the
azimuth of the first gleam of the summer solstice Sun 6,000
years
before the present to have been 63.28, which would have been
visible
through the slots of the circle. The location on the horizon of
the
rising Sun close to the summer solstice may have acquired
additional
significance because of Nabta’s proximity to the Tropic of
Cancer. At

11. this latitude, the Sun crosses the zenith on two days,
approximately
three weeks before and after the summer solstice. Vertical
structures
cast no shadows under the zenith Sun, and within the tropics the
day
of the zenith Sun is often regarded as a significant event10.
In addition to the north–south sight-line in the calendar circle,
other suggestions of the importance of cardinality are provided
by
the east–west megalith alignment that extends from structure A
and
the isolated monolith (Fig. 3d), which lies 1.88 east of north
from
megalithic structure A. The exposed and buried slabs of
structure A,
as well as many of the exposed slabs in the other megalithic
structures, were also aligned with their long sides
approximately
north –south.
Although no star was visible at the north celestial pole during
most of the occupation of Nabta, north directionality would
have
been important for nomadic groups navigating across the
Sahara.
The standing megaliths would have been apt devices to
acknowledge
the zenith Sun near the onset of the rainy season. Placed in
playa
deposits, the megaliths would have been partly submerged in the
rising waters of the summer monsoon, and they may have been
considered to be ritual markers of the onset of the rainy season.
The

12. megalithic complex may have been an expression of
interconnec-
tions between the Sun, water, death, and the fertile Earth. The
unusual standing monolith, either chosen for its shape or inten-
tionally sculptured, is a suggestive symbol of male fertility.
The symbolic richness and spatial awareness seen in the Nabta
complex of the Late Neolithic age may have developed from
adaptation by nomadic peoples to the stress of survival in the
desert. The ceremonial complex could not be more recent than
the
onset of hyperaridity in the region around 4,800 years BP,
suggesting
that the astronomy and ceremonialism of Nabta occurred before
most of the megalithic features of Europe, Great Britain, and
Brittany were established. Within some 500 years after the
exodus
from Nabta, the step pyramid at Saqqara was constructed,
indicat-
ing that there was a pre-existing cultural base, which may have
originated in the desert of Upper Egypt. An exodus from the
Nubian
desert at ,5,000 years BP could have precipitated the
development
of social differentiation in predynastic cultures through the
arrival
in the Nile valley of nomadic groups who were better organized
and
possessed a more complex cosmology. M
Received 14 August 1997; accepted 22 January 1998.
1. Wendorf, F. et al. in Egypt During the Last Interglacial (eds,
Wendorf, F., Close, A. E. & Schild, R.) 552–
573 (Plenum, New York, 1993).
2. Wendorf, F., Close, A. E. & Schild, R. Megaliths in the

13. Egyptian Sahara. Sahara 5, 7–16 (1992–1993).
3. Wendorf, F. & Schild, R. Prehistory of the Eastern Sahara
(Academic, New York, 1990).
4. Close, A. E. (ed.) Prehistory of Arid North Africa (Southern
Methodist Univ. Press, Dallas, 1987).
5. Gautier, A. in Prehistory of Arid North Africa (ed. Close, A.
E.) 163–187 (Southern Methodist Univ.
Press, Dallas, 1987).
6. Close, A. E. & Wendorf, F. in Transitions to Agriculture in
Prehistory (eds Gebauer, A. B. & Price, T. D.)
63–72 (Prehistory, Madison, 1992).
Figure 3 Stone circle and monolith. a, b, Stone circle, E-
92-9. b, The outer eight standing stones that establish
sighting slots, in addition to the mix interior standing
stones, are shown in black. Recumbent stones are
shown in white. c, Southwest window of circle in a, b. d,
Standing monolith (height 1 m).
Nature © Macmillan Publishers Ltd 1998
8
letters to nature
NATURE | VOL 392 | 2 APRIL 1998 491

14. 7. Wendorf, F., Schild, R. & Close, A. Cattle Keepers of the
Eastern Sahara (Publications in Anthropology,
Southern Methodist Univ., Dallas, 1984).
8. Wendorf, F. & Schild, R. Nabta Playa during the Early and
Middle Holocene. ANKH 4/5, 33–45
(1995–1996).
9. Banks, K. M. in Prehistory of the Eastern Sahara (eds
Wendorf, F. & Schild, R.) 300–315 (Academic,
New York, 1990).
10. Aveni, A. F. Tropical archaeoastronomy. Science 243, 161–
171 (1981).
11. Burl, A. From Carnac to Callanish: The Prehistoric Stone
Rows and Avenues of Britain, Ireland, and
Brittany (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, 1993).
Acknowledgements. This paper is based upon research carried
out by the Combined Prehistoric
Expedition, which is jointly sponsored by the Southern
Methodist University, the Institute of Archaeology
and Ethnology, the Polish Academy of Sciences, and the
Geological Survey of Egypt. Fieldwork was partly
supported by the grants from the US National Science
Foundation. We thank the Egyptian Antiquities
Organization and A. Radwan for support and assistance.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed
to J.M.M. (e-mail: [email protected]
colorado.edu).
Inbreeding and extinction in a
butterfly metapopulation
Ilik Saccheri*, Mikko Kuussaari*, Maaria Kankare*,

15. Pia Vikman*, Wilhelm Fortelius† & Ilkka Hanski*
* Department of Ecology and Systematics, Division of
Population Biology,
PO Box 17, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
† Tvärminne Zoological Station, University of Helsinki, 10900
Hanko, Finland
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It has been proposed that inbreeding contributes to the decline
and eventual extinction of small and isolated populations1,2.
There
is ample evidence of fitness reduction due to inbreeding
(inbreed-
ing depression) in captivity3 –7 and from a few experimental8,9
and
observational field studies10,11, but no field studies on natural
populations have been conducted to test the proposed effect on
extinction. It has been argued that in natural populations the
impact of inbreeding depression on population survival will be
insignificant in comparison to that of demographic and environ-
mental stochasticity12,13. We have now studied the effect of
inbreeding on local extinction in a large metapopulation14 of
the
Glanville fritillary butterfly (Melitaea cinxia)15. We found that
extinction risk increased significantly with decreasing hetero-
zygosity, an indication of inbreeding6, even after accounting for
the effects of the relevant ecological factors. Larval survival,
adult
longevity and egg-hatching rate were found to be adversely
affected by inbreeding and appear to be the fitness components
underlying the relationship between inbreeding and extinction.
To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of an effect of
inbreeding on the extinction of natural populations. Our results

16. are particularly relevant to the increasing number of species
with
small local populations due to habitat loss and fragmentation16.
The Glanville fritillary metapopulation on the Åland islands in
southwest Finland is well suited to the study of factors affecting
population extinction15,17,18. This metapopulation consists of
numerous small, more-or-less isolated, local populations
breeding
on dry meadows with one or both of the larval host plants,
Plantago
lanceolata and Veronica spicata. The Glanville fritillary has a
yearly
life cycle in northern Europe. Adult butterflies mate and
females lay
eggs in June; caterpillars feed in conspicuous family groups of
50–
250 larvae, which facilitates large-scale censusing; caterpillars
diapause from August until March, continue feeding in the
spring
and pupate in May. We have located about 1,600 suitable
meadows,
ranging from 6 m2 to 3 ha in size, within an area of 3,500 km2.
Autumnal surveys have revealed that larvae were present in 524,
401,
384 and 320 meadows in late summer of 1993, 1994, 1995 and
1996,
respectively. Local populations can be very small, often
consisting of
just one sib-group of larvae, the offspring of one pair of
butterflies.
Consequently, population turnover rate is high, with an average
of
200 extinctions and 114 colonizations observed per year. The
number of local populations has declined during the study
period, probably because of a sequence of unfavourable

17. summers.
Populations were characterized between 1993 and 1995 in terms
of size (number of larval groups) and isolation (distances to and
the
sizes of neighbouring populations19). Female butterflies were
caught
in June 1996 from 42 local populations across Åland (Fig. 1),
chosen
to include relatively large ($5 larval groups), non-isolated
popula-
tions (from which 5–10 females were sampled per population),
as
well as small (,5 larval groups) and isolated populations (from
which two females were usually sampled per population).
Individual heterozygosity was determined at seven polymorphic
enzyme loci and one polymorphic microsatellite locus (see
Methods). The number of heterozygous loci per female was nor-
mally distributed, ranging from zero to seven. Heterozygosity
differed significantly among the populations (P ¼ 0:02). A
signifi-
cant fraction (19%) of variance in heterozygosity among
popula-
tions was explained by population size in 1993 and by
longitude.
Heterozygosity was low in populations that had been small in
1993
and in those in eastern Åland. The latter effect apparently
reflects
large-scale regional changes in abundance in the past18,20.
Accuracy of heterozygosity as a relative measure of inbreeding
is
largely dependent on the number and degree of polymorphism
of

18. markers used to estimate heterozygosity as well as the
magnitude of
the differences in inbreeding being measured. The variance in
inbreeding among populations is expected to be high in this
metapopulation, because there is substantial gene flow in many
dense regional networks of local populations21, but also close
inbreeding in many local populations that are extremely small
and quite isolated. Thus, differences in average heterozygosity
of
local populations, even if based on a limited number of poly-
morphic loci, should reflect real differences in the degree of
inbreeding.
Figure 1 Map of Åland in southwestern Finland showing the
locations of the 42
local populations from which adult female butterflies were
sampled in summer
1996 (large symbols). All known suitable meadows are shown
as small circles,
with meadows in which Glanville fritillary larvae were present
in autumn 1995
indicated by black circles (and large symbols), and unoccupied
meadows by
white circles. Of the 42 local populations sampled, the 35 that
survived to autumn
1996 (green circles) are distinguished from the seven that went
extinct (red
triangles).
Megaliths and Neolithic astronomy in southern

19. EgyptAcknowledgementsReferences
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Hunter–Gatherer Cattle-Keepers of Early Neolithic
El Adam Type from Nabta Playa:
Latest Discoveries from Site E–06–1
Maciej Jórdeczka & Halina Królik &
Mirosław Masojć & Romuald Schild
Published online: 3 August 2013
# The Author(s) 2013. This article is published with open access
at Springerlink.com
Abstract Further Neolithic encampments and settlements have
been explored by the
Combined Prehistoric Expedition in the Nabta Playa Basin on
the South–Western Desert
border around 100 km west of the Nile Valley. The perfectly
preserved stratigraphic
setting of the new site, numerous hearths and traces of
dwellings, rich cultural material
including pottery, radiocarbon dates and presence of bone
remains render site E–06–1 an
exception on the map of settlements of El Adam communities.
Keywords Nile Valley. Nabta Playa . Early Holocene . El Adam
. Settlement
Introduction
The Nabta Playa Basin is one of the largest palaeolakes of the
playa type on the South–

20. Western Desert border, located around 100 km west of the Nile
Valley (Fig. 1).
Remains of hundreds of Neolithic encampents and settlements
have been found
around it and excavated by the Combined Prehistoric Expedition
(Wendorf and
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
DOI 10.1007/s10437-013-9136-1
M. Jórdeczka (*)
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Branch Poznań, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Jórdeczka
e-mail: [email protected]
H. Królik : R. Schild
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
H. Królik
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Schild
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Masojć (*)
Institute of Archaeology, Department of Archaeology of the
Stone Age,
University of Wroclaw, Wrocław, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
Schild 1980, 1998, 2001a; Banks 1984; Close 1987; Nelson et
al. 2002). In 2006, a
research project commenced that aimed at examining various
aspects of the Early

21. Fig. 1 Location of Nabta Playa and Kiseiba
254 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
Neolithic settlement, beginning with the identification of its
earliest phase. An exten-
sive archaeological survey was carried out in the Nabta Playa
Basin as part of that
project.
Fig. 2 Satellite photo of the Nabta area showing locations of
studied sites
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 255
Fig. 3 Map of the Nabta area showing locations of studied sites
256 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
Evidence of El Adam horizon settlement at Nabta had
previously been recorded at
three sites: E–75–9 (Wendorf and Schild 2001c), E–91–3 and E–
91–4 (Close 2001).
All of these sites are situated close to each other in the central
part of the basin
(Fig. 2). Exploration of a new site, E–06–1, located 600 m
northwest of Site E–75–9,
provided extraordinary results. It was a seasonal encampment
situated on an Early

22. Holocene phytogenic dune, at the edge of a seasonal playa lake
appearing after
summer rains, probably for several months a year (Fig. 3). The
Early Holocene rains
and subsequent seasonal lakes were the direct response of the
considerable northward
shift of the monsoonal rain belt (e.g., Haynes 1987; Pöllath and
Peters 2007).
Although partially truncated by recent wind erosion, the site is
overlain by massive
mid-Holocene silt formation heralding a major arid phase
(compare Schild and
Wendorf 2001), and preserved in an excellent state. So far, a
dozen remains of
dwellings, several dozen hearths and rich artefact assemblages
have been excavated,
including nearly 20,000 lithics, numerous bone remains,
thousands of fragments of
ostrich eggshells and beads made from them, as well as
fragments of decorated
ostrich eggshell containers. A discovery of eight potsherds, five
of which were
embedded in dated archaeological features, is very important.
The site’s complex
stratigraphy, including frequent overlapping hut basins, proves
how attractive the
place was and testifies to the fact that the settlers returned
seasonally many times.
Radiocarbon dates indicate that the huts were inhabited by a
small group of people
between 9200 and 9000 uncal year BP, thus ca. 8400–8000 (cal
BC).
Natural Environment at the Beginning of Holocene
The end of the Pleistocene in the Western Desert was marked by

23. an arid period lasting
for tens of thousands of years. Climate changes from the end of
the Last Glacial once
again made it possible, following a long break, to settle in the
desert (Kuper and
Kröpelin 2006: 806).
During the humid interphase of the El Adam variant (ca.
9800/9500–8850 uncal year
BP), the climate was relatively dry and not as favourable as
during the subsequent Holocene
optimum, yet summer rains (ca. 50–100 mm annually) were
sufficient to fill seasonal lakes
forming in deflation basins as well as to allow the expansion of
modest vegetation and
small- and medium-sized animals adapted to desert conditions
(Wendorf and Schild 2006:
9). So far, very little information is available concerning the
early Holocene flora. Scarce
data come from two sites, E–77–7 at El Gebal El Beid Playa,
some 40 km northeast of
Gebel Nabta, and E–06–1, where botanical remains were
recovered. At the former site, the
following floral macroremains were identified: charcoal of
Tamarix sp. (Barakat 2001: 596),
charred seeds identified as wild millet (Panicum turgidum), a
seed of a plant belonging to
Paniceae and four seeds belonging to two taxa, possibly
Leguminosae (Close and Wendorf
2001: 69; Wasylikowa et al. 2001: 606). Site E–06–1 provided
Tamarix sp., Citrullus
colocynthis and Echinochloa colona, while in one of the
samples from Hearth 35, seeds of
Poaceae grass were found (Maria Lityńska-Zając, personal
communication).

24. The recovered flora with tamarisk is the only tree species
indicated by Barakat
(2001: 600); this suggests an environment similar to that of the
extant small oases in
the deserts of southern Egypt. The recently identified flora from
Site E–06–1 has not
changed this interpretation. Further to the south, however, at
Selima, Oyo and El
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 257
Atrun, Sudan, elements of Sahelian flora appear in the pollen
samples dated to the
lower early Holocene (e.g., Haynes et al. 1989).
Geomorphological and lithostratigraphic studies of the Kiseiba
and Nabta Playa
Areas have yielded additional characteristics of the
environment. In the Kiseiba Area,
the eponymous El Adam Playa contained the El Adam Sites E–
79–8 and E–80/4 in
the center, partially buried in slightly clayey sands (Schild and
Wendorf 1984: 28). El
Ghorab artifacts of the Lower Cultural Layer at Site E–79–4
were imbedded in
similar sand in the center of El Ghorab Playa (Schild and
Wendorf 1984). In Nabta
Playa at Site E–75–6, a basin of a possible hut had cut into a
phytogenic dune and
was covered by the eolian sands of the same dune in the site’s
lower cultural layer,
assigned to the El Ghorab cultural/taxonomic variant (Schild
and Wendorf 2001: 16). It

25. is the same dune in which the remains of Site E–06–1 have been
buried.
Both geomorphology and lithology indicate that the early
Holocene space/time units of
El Adam and El Ghorab are coeval with an environment in
which the phytogenic dunes and
eolian processes were still active. The heavily sandy textures of
lacustrine (playa) deposits of
this time suggest a lack of vegetation cover in the lands beyond
playas and their shore zones.
It is an ecological scenario well fitting a desert landscape with
relatively large oasis-like,
seasonal playas with wide shores and tamarisk trees, shrubs and
grasses along the shores.
Osteological material from the El Adam settlements identified
such species of
animal as gazelle (Gazella dorcas and Gazella dama), hare
(Lepus capensis), jackal
(Canis aureus), turtle (Testudo sp.), birds (Otis tarda and Anas
querquedula), big
bivalve shells (Aspartharia rubens) of Nilotic origin and shells
of snails (Bulinus
truncatus and Zootecus insularis) (Gautier 2001: 611; Wendorf
and Schild 2001c:
656). The most interesting and controversial are the remains of
cattle, which could not
really have survived in these conditions without human help.
Site E–06–1
New concentrations of burnt stones and a substantial number of
artefacts were found
on the surface, and their analysis showed that they belong to the
El Adam horizon.

26. Numerous bone remains indicated that the site was uncovered
by wind a relatively
short time before. During four seasons (2006–2009) 178 m2
were excavated
altogether, which constitutes ca. 50–60 % of the site’s total area
(Fig. 4).
The southwest part of the site was considerably deflated. The
observed remains of
hearths were circular, dark–grey sand spots without any
charcoal. The area abounded
in artefacts, which were present almost solely on the surface
and probably represented
a palimpsest of several telescoped settlement horizons. The
site’s northern portion
was a little better preserved, where the remains of hearths were
visible as small
concentrations of burnt rock and overlapping objects indicated
the multiphase char-
acter of settlement. Fills contained grey sand and fine charcoal
as well as lithics,
fragments of animal bones, and ostrich eggshells together with
beads made from the
latter. Distinct traces of human activity reached the depth of
50–60 cm.
However, the most interesting portions were the central and
western parts of the site.
Hardly any artefacts were found on the surface, but after the
layer of recent eolian and sheet
wash sand was removed, overlapping outlines of dwellings
became visible at the depth of
15–20 cm. The exploration revealed four to five settlement
phases, which manifested
themselves as dark grey, sometimes reddish layers, whose
thickness varied between several

27. 258 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
and a dozen centimetres, separated by several centimetre-thick
layers of sterile sand (Fig. 5).
The layers, subsiding in the middle, probably constituted the
floors of seasonal huts,
subsequently covered with eolian sand deposited after they were
abandoned. Their fills
contained rather a modest number of artefacts, restricted to
blanks, scant cores and tools
Fig. 4 Site E–06–1, scatter pattern of area of surface collection.
Photo—Site E–06–1 before exploration
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 259
predominated by backed pieces and relatively big end scrapers.
A few pottery fragments,
animal bone remains and ostrich eggshells (including the beads)
were also found. They were
probably small huts of approximately oval outlines, whose
diameters varied between 2 and
3.5 m. Inside each was at least one small hearth. In several
features, the remains of post holes
and small pits for storing vessels were found. So far, 11 huts
have been excavated, yet their
total number may be greater as the stratigraphy seems to
indicate with a great degree of
probability that further huts may be waiting to be discovered at
the site’s western and
southwestern edge, i.e., in the part totally or at least partially

28. covered by younger beds of
lacustrine sediments.
The distribution of artefacts and post-consumption waste seems
to indicate that
distinct concentrations of hearths and the accompanying
movable archaeological
material found at the site are the remains of zones of economic
activity situated
outside rather than inside those small and cramped dwellings
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 5 Site E–06–1. Northern wall of squares BB-B/14. Cross
section of El Adam huts (drawn by R.
Schild, photo by M. Jórdeczka)
Fig. 6 Site E–06–1. Hearths outside huts area with
agglomeration of artifacts (photo by M. Jórdeczka)
260 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
Description of the Material
Lithics
The excavations provided nearly 14,000 flint artefacts,
including 949 tools and 147
cores. The site’s complex stratigraphy and the differences
between the material
collected from the surface and found in the layers situated
below necessitated the
division of the material into three horizons. One was constituted
by the surface and
the layers of contemporary, loose, drifting sand blown over by

29. the wind (Horizon III).
Another horizon (II) comprised the layers located 0–10 cm
below the surface, which
provided mixed material. Horizon I was made by layers situated
more than 10 cm
below the site’s surface and reaching the floor of the cut and
comprised the material
connected with the oldest phases of the site’s occupation.
In terms of blanks, Eocene flint decisively predominates over
chert, quartz,
chalcedony, quartzite sandstone and basalt. The remaining raw
materials, such as
sandstone, agate and petrified wood, play an insignificant role
in the inventory
(Tables 1, 2 and 3). The analysis of blanks shows that, in all the
horizons, the material
of flake proportions distinctly predominates with the constant
contribution of blades
(Tables 1, 2 and 3). Similarly, flakes and blades from single–
platform cores predom-
inate everywhere; however, their proportions are the greatest in
the oldest layers (over
70 % of blades and flakes). Debitage from the remaining types
of cores played a
considerably less significant role (Tables 1, 2 and 3).
Metric data for the debitage from Site E–06–1 are similar for all
the horizons.
Blanks are microlithic and never exceed 3 cm in length and 2
cm in width. Only
blades from opposed platform cores are slightly bigger.
The site provided an overall number of 147 cores (Fig. 7). At all
horizons, single
platform forms predominate over multiplatform and opposed

30. platform cores as well
as the 90° specimens. The cores from the oldest settlement
phase are characterised by
the smallest mean dimensions. Most cores carried no traces of
preparation except for
striking platforms.
Site E–60–1 provided a rich collection of typical El Adam tools.
As in the case of
debitage and cores, the material was divided into at least two
phases (Horizon
I—older phase, Horizon II—mixed material, Horizon III—
younger phase). In all,
949 tools or their fragments were recovered from the site. The
greatest typological
diversification is displayed by the material from the surface,
which provided the
majority, i.e., as many as 671 retouched artefacts.
The frequency of occurrence of individual types of tools from
Site E–06–1 may be
seen in Tables 4, 5 and 6. Flint and chert distinctly predominate
at all horizons,
reaching the highest proportions on the surface, 62.1 and 23.2 %
respectively,
constituting together over 85 % of the assemblage.
The general typological structure within individual horizons is
roughly the same,
with a distinct predomination of backed pieces, a great
contribution of geometric
microliths and end scrapers and constant presence of microburin
technique. The
differences manifest themselves in the presence of some types
of tools (e.g., trapezes,
which are primarily found in younger layers) or the frequency

31. of occurrence of
certain groups of tools, for instance the relatively great
contribution of flakes and
denticulated or notched blades in the material from the site’s
surface (Table 4).
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 261
T
a
b
le
1
S
it
e
E
–
0
6
–
1
;
H
o
ri
zo
n
II
I;
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32. u
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ty
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33. C
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it
ic
sa
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34. an
d
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A
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w
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%
%

35. P
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36. 0
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37. o
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38. 11
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40. 2
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44. le
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45. 3
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46. 4
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47. o
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48. fi
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49. ri
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50. e
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51. 0
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52. 5
1
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(1
0
0
)
3
3
.7
4
%
4
9
.7
4
1
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53. .4
2
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54. ,5
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55. T
o
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3
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9
3
1
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5
7
4
7
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1
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2
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56. 5
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3
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%
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9
.0
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57. .3
9
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0
262 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
T
a
b
le
2
S
it
e
E
–
0
6

58. –
1
;
H
o
ri
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n
II
;
F
re
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at

59. er
ia
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F
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60. n
d
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sp
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61. N
%
%
P
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m
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1
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1
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0
1
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62. .4
7
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9
P
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63. n
g
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re
6
9
5
4
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64. 5
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5
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65. .3
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66. m
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U
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id

67. en
ti
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4
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68. m
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69. .1
4
3
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B
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70. 0
1
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U
n
id
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71. -t
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t
1
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72. 1
1
9
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73. 1
4
5
7
4
4
5
2
3
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9
2
7
2
5
7
3
(1
0
0
)
3
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7
%
3
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74. .7
9
2
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1
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1
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5
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6
4
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1
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75. s
an
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ch
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s
4
7
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2
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0
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4
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1
4
5
11
2
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2
6
4
1
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76. 9
7
6
7
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3
T
o
ta
l
7
0
6
4
2
5
2
1
4
1
9
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3
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77. 3
3
4
2
1
7
7
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1
0
0
%
3
9
,8
8
2
4
,0
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1
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1
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78. 7
,6
3
3
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5
1
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6
0
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3
0
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1
1
0
0
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 263
T
a
b
le
3
S
it

79. e
E
–
0
6
–
1
;
H
o
ri
zo
n
I;
F
re
q
u
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ci
es
o
f
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it
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ty
p
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ra

80. w
m
at
er
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l
F
li
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t
C
h
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t
C
h
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ce
d
o
n
y
Q
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Q
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81. it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
B
as
al
t
S
an
d
st
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n
e
F
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ru
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82. st
o
n
e
Ja
sp
er
A
g
at
e
P
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fi
ed
w
o
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d
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
N
%

83. %
P
ri
m
ar
y
fl
ak
e
4
2
0
2
2
9
6
6
6
7
3
8
.9
0
11
.4
6
P

84. ri
m
ar
y
b
la
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e
3
4
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
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6
F
la
k
e
fr
o
m
si
n
g

85. le
p
la
tf
o
rm
co
re
8
1
1
0
7
6
9
3
2
2
7
5
2
2
1
1
1
1

86. 3
4
7
4
2
.3
2
5
2
.6
8
F
la
k
e
fr
o
m
o
p
p
o
se
d
p
la
tf
o
rm
co
re

87. 2
2
1
5
0
.6
1
F
la
k
e
fr
o
m
9
0
°
co
re
9
6
4
2
2
1
2
.5

88. 6
F
la
k
e
fr
o
m
m
u
lt
ip
le
p
la
tf
o
rm
co
re
3
1
0
3
2
1
1
9

89. 2
.3
2
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
fl
ak
e
8
5
2
5
4
4
1
2
4
0
4
.8
8

90. B
la
d
e
fr
o
m
si
n
g
le
p
la
tf
o
rm
co
re
8
0
7
9
6
9
1
3
4
1

91. 1
2
4
7
3
0
.1
2
3
2
.4
4
B
la
d
e
fr
o
m
o
p
p
o
se
d
p
la
tf
o
rm
co

92. re
2
3
5
0
.6
1
B
la
d
e
fr
o
m
9
0
°
co
re
1
2
3
0
.3
7
B
la
d
e

93. fr
o
m
m
u
lt
ip
le
p
la
tf
o
rm
co
re
4
1
5
0
.6
1
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le

94. b
la
d
e
2
1
3
6
0
.7
3
C
o
re
-t
ri
m
m
in
g
el
em
en
t
4
5
2
11

95. 1
.3
4
3
.4
1
B
u
ri
n
sp
al
l
1
1
2
0
.2
4
L
am
e
à
cr
êt
e
7
3

96. 3
1
1
4
1
.7
1
C
o
re
ta
b
le
t
1
1
0
.1
2
S
u
b
to
ta
l
2
0
8

97. 2
5
1
1
9
2
6
1
4
6
1
6
4
1
1
1
1
2
8
2
0
(1
0
0
)
2

98. 7
.7
2
%
2
5
.3
7
3
0
.6
1
2
3
.4
1
7
.4
4
5
.6
1
1
.9
5
5
.0
0

99. 0
.1
2
0
.1
2
0
.1
2
0
.1
2
C
h
ip
s
an
d
ch
u
n
k
s
6
3
2
5
8
3

100. 5
0
2
2
3
0
1
4
2
2
2
1
4
5
6
2
2
,1
3
8
7
2
.2
8
T
o
ta
l

101. 8
4
0
8
3
4
6
9
4
2
9
1
1
8
8
3
8
5
5
6
7
3
2
2
,9
5

102. 8
1
0
0
%
2
8
.4
0
2
8
.1
9
2
3
.4
6
9
.8
4
6
.3
6
1
.2
8
1
.8

103. 6
0
.2
0
0
.2
4
0
.1
0
0
.0
7
1
0
0
264 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
Among microliths (Figs. 7, 8 and 9), segments constituted the
group predominating
quantitatively at the deepest layers (typology according to
Tixier 1963). The 15–20-cm
layer provided a single specimen of trapeze. Trapezes are
proportionately rare at El
Fig. 7 Site E–06–1, Horizon III. Cores and retouched tools
(drawn by M. Puszkarski)

104. Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 265
T
a
b
le
4
S
it
e
E
–
0
6
–
1
;
H
o
ri
zo
n
II
I;
F
re
q
u
en
ci
es
o

105. f
re
to
u
ch
ed
to
o
l
ty
p
es
R
aw
m
at
er
ia
l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t

106. C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce
d
o
n
y
P
et
ri
fi
ed
w
o
o
d
A
g
at
e
Q
u
ar
tz
Q

107. u
at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st
o
n
e
F
er
ru
g
in
o
u
s
sa
n
d
st
o

108. n
e
B
as
al
t
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N
%
1
.
S
in
g
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
o

109. n
fl
ak
e
1
3
1
0
2
3
2
8
4
4
4
.1
7
6
.5
6
2
.
E
n
d
sc
ra

110. p
er
o
n
re
to
u
ch
ed
fl
ak
e
2
1
1
4
0
.6
0
5
.
D
en
ti
cu
la
te
d

111. en
d
sc
ra
p
er
1
1
0
.3
0
7
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
n
o
tc
h
ed
p
ie

112. ce
2
2
0
.3
0
8
.
S
in
g
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
b
la
d
e
5
1
6
0

113. .8
9
11
.
D
o
u
b
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
2
1
3
0
.4
5
1
6
.
D
o
u
b
le

114. -b
ac
k
ed
p
er
fo
ra
to
r
2
2
2
0
.3
0
0
.3
0
1
7
.
D
ih
ed
ra
l
b
u
ri

115. n
1
1
2
8
0
.3
0
1
.1
9
1
8
.
D
ih
ed
ra
l
an
g
le
b
u
ri
n
2
1

116. 3
0
.4
5
1
9
.
A
n
g
le
b
u
ri
n
o
n
b
re
ak
1
1
0
.1
5
2
0
.
M

117. u
lt
ip
le
d
ih
ed
ra
l
b
u
ri
n
1
1
0
.1
5
2
7
.
M
u
lt
ip
le
m
ix
ed

118. b
u
ri
n
1
1
0
.1
5
4
2
.
F
ra
g
m
en
t
o
f
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
e
1
1

119. 1
0
.1
5
0
.1
5
4
5
.
S
tr
ai
g
h
t
b
ac
k
ed
an
d
p
o
in
te
d
b
la
d

120. el
et
(S
B
P
B
)
3
1
7
5
1
1
4
5
1
9
4
6
.7
1
2
8
.9
1
4
6

121. .
S
B
P
B
w
it
h
ro
u
n
d
ed
b
as
e
3
1
1
5
0
.7
5
5
3
.
A
ig
u

122. il
lo
n
d
ro
it
1
1
0
.1
5
5
6
.
A
rc
h
-b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
2
8
1

123. 7
8
2
1
5
6
8
.3
5
266 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
T
a
b
le
4
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
)
R
aw
m

124. at
er
ia
l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t
C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce
d
o
n
y
P
et
ri
fi

125. ed
w
o
o
d
A
g
at
e
Q
u
ar
tz
Q
u
at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st

126. o
n
e
F
er
ru
g
in
o
u
s
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
B
as
al
t
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N

127. %
5
8
.
A
rc
h
-b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
w
it
h
tr
u
n
ca
te
d
b
as
e
1
1

128. 2
0
.3
0
6
3
.
P
ar
ti
al
y
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
0
.1
5
6
4
.

129. S
h
o
u
ld
er
ed
b
la
d
el
et
2
2
0
.3
0
6
6
.
F
ra
g
m
en
t
o
f
b
ac
k

130. ed
b
la
d
el
et
4
2
2
1
6
1
4
1
7
5
11
.1
2
6
7
.
B
lu
n
t
b

131. ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
3
3
6
0
.8
9
7
0
.
O
u
ch
ta
ta
b
la
d
el
et
1
1

132. 0
.1
5
7
4
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
fl
ak
e
1
8
8
2
1
1
2
3
2
1
0
1

133. 4
.7
7
1
5
.0
5
7
5
.
D
en
ti
cu
la
te
d
fl
ak
e
1
4
11
1
1
2
1
3
0

134. 4
.4
7
7
6
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
b
la
d
e
3
4
3
1
11
1
.6
4
7
7
.
D

135. en
ti
cu
la
te
d
b
la
d
e
1
3
6
1
9
2
.8
3
7
9
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
o
r
d
en

136. ti
cu
la
te
d
p
ie
ce
w
it
h
co
n
ti
n
u
o
u
s
re
to
u
ch
7
2
9
1
.3
4
8

137. 0
.
T
ru
n
ca
te
d
p
ie
ce
1
5
7
3
1
2
6
2
6
3
.8
8
3
.8
8
8
2

138. .
L
u
n
at
e/
se
g
m
en
t
3
5
1
7
7
2
6
1
1
2
7
9
.0
9
1
8
.9

139. 3
8
6
.
T
ra
p
ez
e
w
it
h
o
n
e
co
n
ca
v
e
si
d
e
4
4
0
.6
0
8
7

140. .
T
ra
p
ez
e
w
it
h
tw
o
co
n
ca
v
e
si
d
e
1
3
1
1
4
2
.0
9
8
9
.

141. T
ra
p
ez
e
w
it
h
o
n
e
co
n
v
ex
si
d
e
7
1
1
9
1
.3
4
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 267

142. T
a
b
le
4
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed
)
R
aw
m
at
er
ia
l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t

143. C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce
d
o
n
y
P
et
ri
fi
ed
w
o
o
d
A
g
at
e
Q
u
ar
tz

144. Q
u
at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st
o
n
e
F
er
ru
g
in
o
u
s
sa
n
d
st

145. o
n
e
B
as
al
t
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N
%
9
0
.
S
ca
le
n
e
tr
ia
n
g
le

146. 7
7
1
1
1
6
2
.3
9
9
1
.
T
ri
an
g
le
w
it
h
o
n
e
co
n
ca
v
e
si

147. d
e
2
2
0
.3
0
9
2
.
T
ri
an
g
le
w
it
h
tw
o
co
n
ca
v
e
si
d
es
9

148. 3
1
2
1
.7
9
9
5
.
E
lo
n
g
at
ed
sc
al
en
e
tr
ia
n
g
le
w
it
h
sm

149. al
l
sh
o
rt
si
d
e
2
5
1
8
1
.1
9
9
7
.
E
lo
n
g
at
ed
sc
al
en
e
tr

150. ia
n
g
le
w
it
h
co
n
ca
v
e
b
as
e
1
1
0
.1
5
1
0
2
.
M
ic
ro
b
iu
ri

151. n
5
9
6
2
2
2
1
7
2
9
2
1
0
.7
3
1
3
.7
1
1
0
3
.
K
ru
k

152. o
w
sk
i
m
ic
ro
b
iu
ri
n
1
2
3
3
2
2
0
2
.9
8
1
0
4
.
S
ca
ll
ed

153. p
ie
ce
1
1
2
7
1
0
.3
0
1
0
.5
8
1
0
5
.
P
ie
ce
w
it
h
co
n
ti

154. n
u
o
u
s
re
to
u
ch
8
3
11
1
.6
4
1
0
6
.
S
id
es
cr
ap
er
6
1
8
1

155. 1
6
2
.3
9
1
0
7
.
O
u
n
an
p
o
in
t
3
3
0
.4
5
11
2
.
V
a
ri

156. a
3
4
3
1
1
3
9
5
.8
1
1
5
0
.
P
ro
je
ct
il
e
p
o
in
ts
5
5
5

157. 0
.7
5
0
.7
5
T
o
ta
l
N
4
1
7
1
5
6
4
8
1
4
1
9
1
9
3
1

158. 1
2
6
7
1
1
0
0
%
6
2
.1
5
2
3
.2
5
7
.1
5
0
.1
5
0
.6
0
2

159. .8
3
2
.8
3
0
.4
5
0
.1
5
0
.1
5
0
.1
5
1
0
0
268 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
T
a
b
le

160. 5
S
it
e
E
–
0
6
–
1
;
H
o
ri
zo
n
II
;
F
re
q
u
en
ci
es
o
f
re
to
u
ch
ed
to
o

161. l
ty
p
es
R
aw
m
at
er
ia
l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t
C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce

162. d
o
n
y
A
g
at
e
Q
u
ar
tz
Q
u
at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st
o
n

163. e
B
as
al
t
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N
%
1
.
S
in
g
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n

164. fl
ak
e
2
2
1
0
1
.9
4
9
.7
1
2
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
re
to
u
ch
ed

165. fl
ak
e
1
2
3
2
.9
1
5
.
D
en
ti
cu
la
te
d
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
1
1
0
.9
7

166. 7
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
n
o
tc
h
ed
p
ie
ce
1
1
0
.9
7
8
.
S
in

167. g
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
b
la
d
e
2
2
1
.9
4
11
.
D
o
u
b
le
en
d
sc

168. ra
p
er
1
1
0
.9
7
1
2
.
S
im
p
le
p
er
fo
ra
to
r
1
1
2
4
1
.9

169. 4
3
.8
8
1
6
.
D
o
u
b
le
-b
ac
k
ed
p
er
fo
ra
to
r
2
2
1
.9
4
1
9

170. .
A
n
g
le
b
u
ri
n
o
n
b
re
ak
1
1
3
0
.9
7
2
.9
1
2
1
.
A
n
g

171. le
b
u
ri
n
o
n
st
ra
ig
h
t,
n
o
rm
al
tr
u
n
ca
ti
o
n
2
2
1
.9
4
4
5

172. .
S
tr
ai
g
h
t
b
ac
k
ed
an
d
p
o
in
te
d
b
la
d
el
et
6
3
2
11
3
0

173. 1
0
.6
8
2
9
.1
3
5
6
.
A
rc
h
-b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
3
2
1
6
5
.8

174. 3
5
7
.
A
rc
h
-b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
w
it
h
ro
u
n
d
ed
b
as
e
1
1

175. 0
.9
7
6
3
.
P
ar
ti
al
ly
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
0
.9
7
6
6
.

176. F
ra
g
m
en
t
o
f
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
6
1
4
11
1
0
.6
8
7
4
.
N

177. o
tc
h
ed
fl
ak
e
1
1
2
7
1
.9
4
6
.8
0
7
5
.
D
en
ti
cu
la
te
d
fl
ak

178. e
1
1
0
.9
7
7
6
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
b
la
d
e
1
1
0
.9
7
7
7
.
D

179. en
ti
cu
la
te
d
b
la
d
e
1
1
2
1
.9
4
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284 269
T
a
b
le
5
(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed

180. )
R
aw
m
at
er
ia
l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t
C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce
d
o
n

181. y
A
g
at
e
Q
u
ar
tz
Q
u
at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st
o
n
e
B

182. as
al
t
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N
%
7
9
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
o
r
d
en
ti
cu
la
te
d
p

183. ie
ce
w
it
h
co
n
ti
n
u
o
u
s
re
to
u
ch
1
1
0
.9
7
8
0
.
T
ru
n
ca
te
d

184. p
ie
ce
4
1
5
5
4
.8
5
4
.8
5
8
2
.
L
u
n
at
e/
se
g
m
en
t
2
3

185. 5
1
0
4
.8
5
9
.7
1
9
0
.
S
ca
le
n
e
tr
ia
n
g
le
2
2
1
.9
4
9
2

186. .
T
ri
an
g
le
w
it
h
tw
o
co
n
ca
v
e
si
d
es
1
1
0
.9
7
9
4
.
E
lo
n

187. g
at
ed
sc
al
en
e
tr
ia
n
g
le
2
2
1
.9
4
1
0
2
.
M
ic
ro
b
u
ri
n
5
2

188. 1
1
1
1
0
1
2
9
.7
1
11
.6
5
1
0
3
.
K
ru
k
o
w
sk
i
m
ic
ro
b
iu

189. ri
n
2
2
1
.9
4
1
0
6
.
S
id
es
cr
ap
er
1
1
2
2
0
.9
7
2
1
.3
6

190. 1
0
7
.
O
u
n
an
p
o
in
t
1
1
2
1
.9
4
11
2
.
V
a
ri
a
9
4

191. 3
2
1
1
9
1
8
.4
5
T
o
ta
l
N
5
5
2
5
1
3
1
2
2
2
2
1

192. 1
0
3
1
0
0
%
5
3
.4
0
2
4
.2
7
1
2
.6
2
0
.9
7
1
.9
4
1
.9
4

193. 1
.9
4
1
.9
4
0
.9
7
1
0
0
270 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:253–284
T
a
b
le
6
S
it
e
E
–
0
6
–
1
;

194. H
o
ri
zo
n
I;
F
re
q
u
en
ci
es
o
f
re
to
u
ch
ed
to
o
l
ty
p
es
R
aw
m
at
er
ia

195. l
A
ll
m
at
er
ia
ls
F
li
n
t
C
h
er
t
C
h
al
ce
d
o
n
y
Q
u
ar
tz
Q
u

196. at
rz
it
ic
sa
n
d
st
o
n
e
S
an
d
st
o
n
e
U
n
id
en
ti
fi
ab
le
N
%
1
.

197. S
in
g
le
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
fl
ak
e
6
2
2
2
1
2
1
6
6
.8
6
9
.1

198. 4
2
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
re
to
u
ch
ed
fl
ak
e
1
1
0
.5
7
5
.
D

199. en
ti
cu
la
te
d
en
d
sc
ra
p
er
1
1
2
1
.1
4
7
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
o
n
n
o

200. tc
h
ed
p
ie
ce
1
1
0
.5
7
1
2
.
S
im
p
le
p
er
fo
ra
to
r
1
1
3

201. 0
.5
7
1
.7
1
1
3
.
P
er
fo
ra
to
r
o
n
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
0
.5

202. 7
1
6
.
D
o
u
b
le
-b
ac
k
ed
p
er
fo
ra
to
r
1
1
0
.5
7
1
7
.
D
ih

203. ed
ra
l
b
u
ri
n
1
1
2
0
.5
7
1
.1
4
2
7
.
M
u
lt
ip
le
m
ix
ed
b
u

204. ri
n
1
1
0
.5
7
4
4
.
E
n
d
sc
ra
p
er
/B
u
ri
n
1
1
1
0
.5
7
4
5

205. .
S
tr
ai
g
h
t
b
ac
k
ed
an
d
p
o
in
te
d
b
la
d
el
et
8
3
4
1
5
5
7

206. 8
.5
7
3
2
.5
7
5
6
.
A
rc
h
-b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
3
2
1
1
7
4
.0

207. 0
6
3
.
P
ar
ti
al
ly
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
1
3
1
.7
1
6
4
.

208. S
h
o
u
ld
er
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
2
4
2
.2
9
6
6
.
F
ra
g
m
en
t
o

209. f
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
5
5
4
1
1
2
6
1
4
.8
6
6
7
.
B
lu
n

210. t
b
ac
k
ed
b
la
d
el
et
1
1
2
1
.1
4
7
4
.
N
o
tc
h
ed
fl
ak
e
1
2

211. 3
9
1
.7
1
5
.1
4
7
5
.
…
In general, I’d like you to ponder how archaeological finds from
Nabta Playa provide information about ancient cultural
practices? For this activity, I want you to simply think of
culture as “shared ideas.”
1. First, I would like you to find two examples of either
artifacts or features; one example from Jordescka et al. 2013
and one example from Malville et al. 1998, that reflect cultural
practices of any sort. You needn’t dwell too deeply on the
details, just generally summarize the finds.
2. Then, comment on why your selections reflect shared ideas,
and what those ideas might be.
Your post should be about 3-4 paragraphs long.