Bayesian learning methods calculate explicit probabilities for hypotheses. They allow each training example to incrementally increase or decrease a hypothesis' probability. Prior knowledge can be combined with data to determine final probabilities. Bayesian methods can accommodate probabilistic hypotheses and classify instances by combining hypothesis predictions weighted by probabilities. The minimum description length principle provides a Bayesian perspective on Occam's razor, preferring shorter hypotheses that minimize description length.
-BayesianLearning in machine Learning 12Kumari Naveen
1. Bayesian learning methods are relevant to machine learning for two reasons: they provide practical classification algorithms like naive Bayes, and provide a useful perspective for understanding many learning algorithms.
2. Bayesian learning allows combining observed data with prior knowledge to determine the probability of hypotheses. It provides optimal decision making and can accommodate probabilistic predictions.
3. While Bayesian methods may require estimating probabilities and have high computational costs, they provide a standard for measuring other practical methods.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It discusses key concepts like Bayes' theorem, maximum a posteriori hypotheses, maximum likelihood hypotheses, and how Bayesian learning relates to concept learning problems. Bayesian learning allows prior knowledge to be combined with observed data, hypotheses can make probabilistic predictions, and new examples are classified by weighting multiple hypotheses by their probabilities. While computationally intensive, Bayesian methods provide an optimal standard for decision making.
1. Bayesian learning provides a probabilistic approach to inference based on probability distributions of quantities of interest together with observed data.
2. The maximum a posteriori (MAP) hypothesis is the most probable hypothesis given observed training data. Consistent learning algorithms that make no errors on training data will always output a MAP hypothesis under certain assumptions.
3. Bayesian learning can be used to characterize the behavior of learning algorithms like decision tree induction even when the algorithms do not explicitly manipulate probabilities.
Bayesian learning uses prior knowledge and observed training data to determine the probability of hypotheses. Each training example can incrementally increase or decrease the estimated probability of a hypothesis. Prior knowledge is provided by assigning initial probabilities to hypotheses and probability distributions over possible observations for each hypothesis. New instances can be classified by combining the predictions of multiple hypotheses, weighted by their probabilities. Even when computationally intractable, Bayesian methods provide an optimal standard for decision making.
Bayesian Learning by Dr.C.R.Dhivyaa Kongu Engineering CollegeDhivyaa C.R
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It discusses key concepts like Bayes' theorem, maximum a posteriori hypotheses, and maximum likelihood hypotheses. Bayes' theorem allows calculating the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed data and prior probabilities. The maximum a posteriori hypothesis is the one with the highest posterior probability. Maximum likelihood hypotheses maximize the likelihood of the data. Bayesian learning faces challenges from requiring many initial probabilities and high computational costs but provides a useful perspective on machine learning algorithms.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning. It discusses key concepts like Bayes theorem, maximum likelihood hypotheses, minimum description length principle, Bayes optimal classifiers, and Gibbs algorithm. Bayes theorem allows calculating the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed data and prior probabilities. The maximum likelihood hypothesis is the one that maximizes the likelihood of the data. The minimum description length principle selects the hypothesis that minimizes the total description length of the hypothesis and data. A Bayes optimal classifier combines predictions of multiple hypotheses weighted by their probabilities to classify new instances. The Gibbs algorithm makes predictions by randomly selecting hypotheses based on their posterior probabilities.
Bayesian Learning- part of machine learningkensaleste
This module provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It introduces Bayesian reasoning and Bayes' theorem as a probabilistic approach to inference. Key concepts covered include maximum likelihood hypotheses, naive Bayes classifiers, Bayesian belief networks, and the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm. The EM algorithm is described as a method for estimating parameters of probability distributions when some variables are hidden or unobserved.
This document provides an overview of PAC (Probably Approximately Correct) learning theory. It discusses how PAC learning relates the probability of successful learning to the number of training examples, complexity of the hypothesis space, and accuracy of approximating the target function. Key concepts explained include training error vs true error, overfitting, the VC dimension as a measure of hypothesis space complexity, and how PAC learning bounds can be derived for finite and infinite hypothesis spaces based on factors like the training size and VC dimension.
-BayesianLearning in machine Learning 12Kumari Naveen
1. Bayesian learning methods are relevant to machine learning for two reasons: they provide practical classification algorithms like naive Bayes, and provide a useful perspective for understanding many learning algorithms.
2. Bayesian learning allows combining observed data with prior knowledge to determine the probability of hypotheses. It provides optimal decision making and can accommodate probabilistic predictions.
3. While Bayesian methods may require estimating probabilities and have high computational costs, they provide a standard for measuring other practical methods.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It discusses key concepts like Bayes' theorem, maximum a posteriori hypotheses, maximum likelihood hypotheses, and how Bayesian learning relates to concept learning problems. Bayesian learning allows prior knowledge to be combined with observed data, hypotheses can make probabilistic predictions, and new examples are classified by weighting multiple hypotheses by their probabilities. While computationally intensive, Bayesian methods provide an optimal standard for decision making.
1. Bayesian learning provides a probabilistic approach to inference based on probability distributions of quantities of interest together with observed data.
2. The maximum a posteriori (MAP) hypothesis is the most probable hypothesis given observed training data. Consistent learning algorithms that make no errors on training data will always output a MAP hypothesis under certain assumptions.
3. Bayesian learning can be used to characterize the behavior of learning algorithms like decision tree induction even when the algorithms do not explicitly manipulate probabilities.
Bayesian learning uses prior knowledge and observed training data to determine the probability of hypotheses. Each training example can incrementally increase or decrease the estimated probability of a hypothesis. Prior knowledge is provided by assigning initial probabilities to hypotheses and probability distributions over possible observations for each hypothesis. New instances can be classified by combining the predictions of multiple hypotheses, weighted by their probabilities. Even when computationally intractable, Bayesian methods provide an optimal standard for decision making.
Bayesian Learning by Dr.C.R.Dhivyaa Kongu Engineering CollegeDhivyaa C.R
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It discusses key concepts like Bayes' theorem, maximum a posteriori hypotheses, and maximum likelihood hypotheses. Bayes' theorem allows calculating the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed data and prior probabilities. The maximum a posteriori hypothesis is the one with the highest posterior probability. Maximum likelihood hypotheses maximize the likelihood of the data. Bayesian learning faces challenges from requiring many initial probabilities and high computational costs but provides a useful perspective on machine learning algorithms.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian learning. It discusses key concepts like Bayes theorem, maximum likelihood hypotheses, minimum description length principle, Bayes optimal classifiers, and Gibbs algorithm. Bayes theorem allows calculating the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed data and prior probabilities. The maximum likelihood hypothesis is the one that maximizes the likelihood of the data. The minimum description length principle selects the hypothesis that minimizes the total description length of the hypothesis and data. A Bayes optimal classifier combines predictions of multiple hypotheses weighted by their probabilities to classify new instances. The Gibbs algorithm makes predictions by randomly selecting hypotheses based on their posterior probabilities.
Bayesian Learning- part of machine learningkensaleste
This module provides an overview of Bayesian learning methods. It introduces Bayesian reasoning and Bayes' theorem as a probabilistic approach to inference. Key concepts covered include maximum likelihood hypotheses, naive Bayes classifiers, Bayesian belief networks, and the Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm. The EM algorithm is described as a method for estimating parameters of probability distributions when some variables are hidden or unobserved.
This document provides an overview of PAC (Probably Approximately Correct) learning theory. It discusses how PAC learning relates the probability of successful learning to the number of training examples, complexity of the hypothesis space, and accuracy of approximating the target function. Key concepts explained include training error vs true error, overfitting, the VC dimension as a measure of hypothesis space complexity, and how PAC learning bounds can be derived for finite and infinite hypothesis spaces based on factors like the training size and VC dimension.
The document discusses Bayesian learning frameworks and genetic algorithm-based inductive learning (GABIL). It describes how GABIL uses a genetic algorithm and fitness function to learn disjunctive rules from examples, representing rules as bit strings. The system achieves classification accuracy comparable to decision tree learning methods. It also describes extensions like adding generalization operators that further improve performance.
The document discusses the theoretical framework of computational learning theory and PAC (Probably Approximately Correct) learning. It defines what makes a learning problem PAC learnable and examines how the number of training examples needed for learning is affected by factors like the hypothesis space size, error tolerance, and confidence level. Key questions addressed include determining learnability of problem classes and bounding the sample complexity of learning algorithms.
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and deals with issues like parameter estimation and conditional independence. Finally, it works through an example predicting whether to play tennis using a sample training dataset.
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and deals with issues like parameter estimation and conditional independence. Finally, it works through an example predicting whether to play tennis using a sample training dataset.
bayesNaive algorithm in machine learningKumari Naveen
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and makes the independence assumption to simplify probability calculations. Finally, it provides an example of classifying whether to play tennis using the Naive Bayes algorithm.
Inductive analytical approaches to learningswapnac12
This document discusses two inductive-analytical approaches to learning from data: 1) minimizing errors between a hypothesis and training examples as well as errors between the hypothesis and domain theory, with weights determining the importance of each, and 2) using Bayes' theorem to calculate the posterior probability of a hypothesis given the data and prior knowledge. It also describes three ways prior knowledge can alter a hypothesis space search: using prior knowledge to derive the initial hypothesis, alter the search objective to fit the data and theory, and alter the available search steps.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian inference:
- Bayesian inference uses Bayes' theorem to update probabilities of hypotheses as new evidence becomes available. It is widely used in science, engineering, medicine and other fields.
- Bayes' theorem calculates the posterior probability (probability after seeing evidence) based on the prior probability (initial probability) and the likelihood function (probability of evidence under the hypothesis).
- Common applications of Bayesian inference include artificial intelligence, expert systems, bioinformatics, and more. Advantages include incorporating prior information to improve predictions, while disadvantages include potential issues if prior information is incorrect.
Bayesian data analysis deals with making inferences from available data using probability models. It uses prior knowledge to develop probability distributions for parameters before observing data. The Bayesian approach updates these prior probabilities as new evidence is observed using Bayes' theorem. Naive Bayesian classification is a simple probabilistic classifier that assumes attribute independence. It calculates the posterior probability of classes given attributes and selects the class with the highest probability. This approach can be extended to continuous attributes by discretizing them or modeling the attributes using probability distributions like the Gaussian normal distribution.
This document provides an introduction to probabilistic and stochastic models in machine learning. It discusses key concepts like probabilistic modeling, importance of probabilistic ML models, Bayesian inference, basics of probability theory, Bayes' rule, and examples of how to apply Bayes' theorem in machine learning. The document covers conditional probability, prior and posterior probability, and how a Naive Bayes classifier uses Bayes' theorem for classification tasks.
Regression, Bayesian Learning and Support vector machineDr. Radhey Shyam
The document discusses machine learning techniques including regression, Bayesian learning, and support vector machines. It provides details on linear regression, logistic regression, Bayes' theorem, concept learning, the Bayes optimal classifier, naive Bayes classifier, and Bayesian belief networks. The document is a slide presentation given by Dr. Radhey Shyam on machine learning techniques, outlining these various topics in greater detail over multiple slides.
This document discusses evaluating hypotheses by estimating their accuracy on future data. It describes how the accuracy measured on the training data (sample error) may be an optimistically biased estimate of the true accuracy. To reduce this bias, hypotheses should be evaluated on a held-out test set. It also explains that accuracy estimates from smaller test sets will have higher variance. The document then defines sample error and true error, and provides a formula and example for calculating confidence intervals around the true error estimate to account for this variance.
The document discusses machine learning and various related concepts. It provides an overview of machine learning, including well-posed learning problems, designing learning systems, supervised learning, and different machine learning approaches. It also discusses specific machine learning algorithms like naive Bayes classification and decision tree learning.
Combining inductive and analytical learningswapnac12
The document discusses combining inductive and analytical learning methods. Inductive methods like decision trees and neural networks seek general hypotheses based solely on training data, while analytical methods like PROLOG-EBG seek hypotheses based on prior knowledge and training data. The document argues that combining these approaches could overcome their individual limitations by using prior knowledge to guide inductive learning methods. It examines using prior knowledge to initialize hypotheses, alter the search objective, and modify the search operators of inductive learners. As an example, it describes the KBANN algorithm, which initializes a neural network to perfectly fit a domain theory before refining it inductively to the training data.
Machine Learning: Foundations Course Number 0368403401butest
This machine learning course will cover theoretical and practical machine learning concepts. It will include 4 homework assignments and programming in Matlab. Lectures will be supplemented by student-submitted class notes in LaTeX. Topics will include learning approaches like storage and retrieval, rule learning, and flexible model estimation, as well as applications in areas like control, medical diagnosis, and web search. A final exam format has not been determined yet.
Machine Learning: Foundations Course Number 0368403401butest
This machine learning course will cover theoretical and practical machine learning concepts. It will include 4 homework assignments and programming in Matlab. Lectures will be supplemented by student-submitted class notes in LaTeX. Topics will include learning approaches like storage and retrieval, rule learning, and flexible model estimation, as well as applications in areas like control, medical diagnosis, and web search. A final exam format has not been determined yet.
Elementary Probability and Information TheoryKhalidSaghiri2
This document provides an overview of foundational probability and statistics concepts relevant to statistical natural language processing (NLP). It discusses topics like probability theory, random variables, expectation, variance, Bayesian and frequentist statistics, maximum likelihood estimation, entropy, mutual information, and how these concepts can be applied to language modeling tasks in NLP. The document aims to motivate these mathematical foundations and illustrate their use for statistical inference and modeling of language.
This document summarizes a lecture on computational learning theory and machine learning. It discusses the difference between training error and generalization error, and how having a small training error does not necessarily mean good generalization. It introduces the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) learning framework for relating training examples, hypothesis complexity, accuracy, and probability of successful learning. Key concepts discussed include the version space, sample complexity, VC dimension, and uniform convergence. The goal of computational learning theory is to understand what general laws constrain inductive learning and relate various factors like training examples, hypothesis complexity, and accuracy.
The document discusses limitations of classical significance testing and advantages of Bayesian statistics for information retrieval (IR) evaluation. It proposes that the IR community should adopt the Bayesian approach to directly discuss the probability that a hypothesis is true given observed data. Bayesian methods allow estimating this probability for any hypothesis, using tools like Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling and Hamiltonian Monte Carlo. The document recommends always reporting effect sizes alongside probabilities to provide full understanding of results.
This document discusses Bayesian learning and the Bayes theorem. Some key points:
- Bayesian learning uses probabilities to calculate the likelihood of hypotheses given observed data and prior probabilities. The naive Bayes classifier is an example.
- The Bayes theorem provides a way to calculate the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed training data by considering the prior probability and likelihood of the data under the hypothesis.
- Bayesian methods can incorporate prior knowledge and probabilistic predictions, and classify new instances by combining predictions from multiple hypotheses weighted by their probabilities.
This document provides an overview of naive Bayes classification. It begins with an explanation of Bayes' theorem and how it can be used for classification problems by calculating the posterior probability P(C|X). It then explains that naive Bayes makes the assumption that characteristics are conditionally independent given the class. Some examples of uses for naive Bayes classification include spam filtering, recommender systems, and text classification by topics, opinions, authors. It concludes with an overview of the naive Bayes approach for text classification, including building a vocabulary, training the classifier, and evaluating on test data.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
The document discusses Bayesian learning frameworks and genetic algorithm-based inductive learning (GABIL). It describes how GABIL uses a genetic algorithm and fitness function to learn disjunctive rules from examples, representing rules as bit strings. The system achieves classification accuracy comparable to decision tree learning methods. It also describes extensions like adding generalization operators that further improve performance.
The document discusses the theoretical framework of computational learning theory and PAC (Probably Approximately Correct) learning. It defines what makes a learning problem PAC learnable and examines how the number of training examples needed for learning is affected by factors like the hypothesis space size, error tolerance, and confidence level. Key questions addressed include determining learnability of problem classes and bounding the sample complexity of learning algorithms.
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and deals with issues like parameter estimation and conditional independence. Finally, it works through an example predicting whether to play tennis using a sample training dataset.
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and deals with issues like parameter estimation and conditional independence. Finally, it works through an example predicting whether to play tennis using a sample training dataset.
bayesNaive algorithm in machine learningKumari Naveen
This document provides an overview of the Naive Bayes classifier machine learning algorithm. It begins by introducing Bayesian methods and Bayes' theorem. It then explains the basic probability formulas used in Naive Bayes. The document demonstrates how to calculate the probability that a patient has cancer using Bayes' theorem. It describes how Naive Bayes finds the maximum a posteriori hypothesis and makes the independence assumption to simplify probability calculations. Finally, it provides an example of classifying whether to play tennis using the Naive Bayes algorithm.
Inductive analytical approaches to learningswapnac12
This document discusses two inductive-analytical approaches to learning from data: 1) minimizing errors between a hypothesis and training examples as well as errors between the hypothesis and domain theory, with weights determining the importance of each, and 2) using Bayes' theorem to calculate the posterior probability of a hypothesis given the data and prior knowledge. It also describes three ways prior knowledge can alter a hypothesis space search: using prior knowledge to derive the initial hypothesis, alter the search objective to fit the data and theory, and alter the available search steps.
This document provides an overview of Bayesian inference:
- Bayesian inference uses Bayes' theorem to update probabilities of hypotheses as new evidence becomes available. It is widely used in science, engineering, medicine and other fields.
- Bayes' theorem calculates the posterior probability (probability after seeing evidence) based on the prior probability (initial probability) and the likelihood function (probability of evidence under the hypothesis).
- Common applications of Bayesian inference include artificial intelligence, expert systems, bioinformatics, and more. Advantages include incorporating prior information to improve predictions, while disadvantages include potential issues if prior information is incorrect.
Bayesian data analysis deals with making inferences from available data using probability models. It uses prior knowledge to develop probability distributions for parameters before observing data. The Bayesian approach updates these prior probabilities as new evidence is observed using Bayes' theorem. Naive Bayesian classification is a simple probabilistic classifier that assumes attribute independence. It calculates the posterior probability of classes given attributes and selects the class with the highest probability. This approach can be extended to continuous attributes by discretizing them or modeling the attributes using probability distributions like the Gaussian normal distribution.
This document provides an introduction to probabilistic and stochastic models in machine learning. It discusses key concepts like probabilistic modeling, importance of probabilistic ML models, Bayesian inference, basics of probability theory, Bayes' rule, and examples of how to apply Bayes' theorem in machine learning. The document covers conditional probability, prior and posterior probability, and how a Naive Bayes classifier uses Bayes' theorem for classification tasks.
Regression, Bayesian Learning and Support vector machineDr. Radhey Shyam
The document discusses machine learning techniques including regression, Bayesian learning, and support vector machines. It provides details on linear regression, logistic regression, Bayes' theorem, concept learning, the Bayes optimal classifier, naive Bayes classifier, and Bayesian belief networks. The document is a slide presentation given by Dr. Radhey Shyam on machine learning techniques, outlining these various topics in greater detail over multiple slides.
This document discusses evaluating hypotheses by estimating their accuracy on future data. It describes how the accuracy measured on the training data (sample error) may be an optimistically biased estimate of the true accuracy. To reduce this bias, hypotheses should be evaluated on a held-out test set. It also explains that accuracy estimates from smaller test sets will have higher variance. The document then defines sample error and true error, and provides a formula and example for calculating confidence intervals around the true error estimate to account for this variance.
The document discusses machine learning and various related concepts. It provides an overview of machine learning, including well-posed learning problems, designing learning systems, supervised learning, and different machine learning approaches. It also discusses specific machine learning algorithms like naive Bayes classification and decision tree learning.
Combining inductive and analytical learningswapnac12
The document discusses combining inductive and analytical learning methods. Inductive methods like decision trees and neural networks seek general hypotheses based solely on training data, while analytical methods like PROLOG-EBG seek hypotheses based on prior knowledge and training data. The document argues that combining these approaches could overcome their individual limitations by using prior knowledge to guide inductive learning methods. It examines using prior knowledge to initialize hypotheses, alter the search objective, and modify the search operators of inductive learners. As an example, it describes the KBANN algorithm, which initializes a neural network to perfectly fit a domain theory before refining it inductively to the training data.
Machine Learning: Foundations Course Number 0368403401butest
This machine learning course will cover theoretical and practical machine learning concepts. It will include 4 homework assignments and programming in Matlab. Lectures will be supplemented by student-submitted class notes in LaTeX. Topics will include learning approaches like storage and retrieval, rule learning, and flexible model estimation, as well as applications in areas like control, medical diagnosis, and web search. A final exam format has not been determined yet.
Machine Learning: Foundations Course Number 0368403401butest
This machine learning course will cover theoretical and practical machine learning concepts. It will include 4 homework assignments and programming in Matlab. Lectures will be supplemented by student-submitted class notes in LaTeX. Topics will include learning approaches like storage and retrieval, rule learning, and flexible model estimation, as well as applications in areas like control, medical diagnosis, and web search. A final exam format has not been determined yet.
Elementary Probability and Information TheoryKhalidSaghiri2
This document provides an overview of foundational probability and statistics concepts relevant to statistical natural language processing (NLP). It discusses topics like probability theory, random variables, expectation, variance, Bayesian and frequentist statistics, maximum likelihood estimation, entropy, mutual information, and how these concepts can be applied to language modeling tasks in NLP. The document aims to motivate these mathematical foundations and illustrate their use for statistical inference and modeling of language.
This document summarizes a lecture on computational learning theory and machine learning. It discusses the difference between training error and generalization error, and how having a small training error does not necessarily mean good generalization. It introduces the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) learning framework for relating training examples, hypothesis complexity, accuracy, and probability of successful learning. Key concepts discussed include the version space, sample complexity, VC dimension, and uniform convergence. The goal of computational learning theory is to understand what general laws constrain inductive learning and relate various factors like training examples, hypothesis complexity, and accuracy.
The document discusses limitations of classical significance testing and advantages of Bayesian statistics for information retrieval (IR) evaluation. It proposes that the IR community should adopt the Bayesian approach to directly discuss the probability that a hypothesis is true given observed data. Bayesian methods allow estimating this probability for any hypothesis, using tools like Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling and Hamiltonian Monte Carlo. The document recommends always reporting effect sizes alongside probabilities to provide full understanding of results.
This document discusses Bayesian learning and the Bayes theorem. Some key points:
- Bayesian learning uses probabilities to calculate the likelihood of hypotheses given observed data and prior probabilities. The naive Bayes classifier is an example.
- The Bayes theorem provides a way to calculate the posterior probability of a hypothesis given observed training data by considering the prior probability and likelihood of the data under the hypothesis.
- Bayesian methods can incorporate prior knowledge and probabilistic predictions, and classify new instances by combining predictions from multiple hypotheses weighted by their probabilities.
This document provides an overview of naive Bayes classification. It begins with an explanation of Bayes' theorem and how it can be used for classification problems by calculating the posterior probability P(C|X). It then explains that naive Bayes makes the assumption that characteristics are conditionally independent given the class. Some examples of uses for naive Bayes classification include spam filtering, recommender systems, and text classification by topics, opinions, authors. It concludes with an overview of the naive Bayes approach for text classification, including building a vocabulary, training the classifier, and evaluating on test data.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
1. || Jai Sri Gurudev||
Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust (R)
SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi& Approved by AICTE, New Delhi.)
No. 67, BGS Health & Education City, Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road Kengeri, Bengaluru – 560 060
Subject: AI & ML(18CS71)
By
Supriya B N, Asst. professor,
Semester/Section: VII
Department of Information Science & Engineering
Aca. Year: ODD SEM /2021-22
2. Bayesian Learning
• Introduction to Bayesian.
• Bayes theorem.
• Bayes theorem and concept learning.
• MDL principle.
• Bayesian belief networks
• EM algorithm
2 Dept. of ISE, SJBIT
3. INTRODUCTION
Bayesian learning methods are relevant to study of machine learning for two
different reasons.
• First, Bayesian learning algorithms that calculate explicit probabilities for
hypotheses, such as the naive Bayes classifier, are among the most practical
approaches to certain types of learning problems
• The second reason is that they provide a useful perspective for understanding
many learning algorithms that do not explicitly manipulate probabilities.
4. Features of Bayesian Learning Methods
• Each observed training example can incrementally decrease or increase the estimated
probability that a hypothesis is correct. This provides a more flexible approach to
learning than algorithms that completely eliminate a hypothesis if it is found to be
inconsistent with any single example
• Prior knowledge can be combined with observed data to determine the final
probability of a hypothesis. In Bayesian learning, prior knowledge is provided by
asserting (1) a prior probability for each candidate hypothesis, and (2) a probability
distribution over observed data for each possible hypothesis.
• Bayesian methods can accommodate hypotheses that make probabilistic predictions
• New instances can be classified by combining the predictions of multiple hypotheses,
weighted by their probabilities.
• Even in cases where Bayesian methods prove computationally intractable, they can
provide a standard of optimal decision making against which other practical methods
can be measured.
5. Practical difficulty in applying Bayesian methods
• One practical difficulty in applying Bayesian methods is that they typically require
initial knowledge of many probabilities. When these probabilities are not known
in advance they are often estimated based on background knowledge, previously
available data, and assumptions about the form of the underlying distributions.
• A second practical difficulty is the significant computational cost required to
determine the Bayes optimal hypothesis in the general case. In certain specialized
situations, this computational cost can be significantly reduced.
6. BAYESTHEOREM
Bayes theorem provides a way to calculate the probability of a hypothesis based on
its prior probability, the probabilities of observing various data given the hypothesis,
and the observed data itself.
Notations
• P(h) prior probability of h, reflects any background knowledge about the chance
that h is correct
• P(D) prior probability of D, probability that D will be observed
• P(D|h) probability of observing D given a world in which h holds
• P(h|D) posterior probability of h, reflects confidence that h holds after D has been
observed
7. Bayes theorem is the cornerstone of Bayesian learning methods because it
provides a way to calculate the posterior probability P(h|D), from the prior
probability P(h), together with P(D) and P(D(h).
P(h|D) increases with P(h) and with P(D|h) according to Bayes theorem.
P(h|D) decreases as P(D) increases, because the more probable it is that D will be
observed independent of h, the less evidence D provides in support of h.
8. Maximum a Posteriori (MAP) Hypothesis
• In many learning scenarios, the learner considers some set of candidate hypotheses
H and is interested in finding the most probable hypothesis h ∈
H given the
observed data D. Any such maximally probable hypothesis is called a maximum a
posteriori (MAP) hypothesis.
• Bayes theorem to calculate the posterior probability of each candidate hypothesis is hMAP
is a MAP hypothesis provided
• P(D) can be dropped, because it is a constant independent of h
9. Maximum Likelihood (ML) Hypothesis
In some cases, it is assumed that every hypothesis in H is equally probable a priori
(P(hi) = P(hj) for all hi and hj inH).
In this case the below equation can be simplified and need only consider the term
P(D|h) to find the most probable hypothesis.
P(D|h) is often called the likelihood of the data D given h, and any hypothesis that
maximizes P(D|h) is called a maximum likelihood (ML) hypothesis
10. Example
Consider a medical diagnosis problem in which there are two alternative hypotheses
• The patient has a particular form of cancer (denoted by cancer)
• The patient does not (denoted by ¬ cancer)
The available data is from a particular laboratory with two possible outcomes: +
(positive) and - (negative)
11. • Suppose a new patient is observed for whom the lab test returns a positive (+)
result.
• Should we diagnose the patient as having cancer or not?
12. BAYESTHEOREM AND CONCEPTLEARNING
What is the relationship between Bayes theorem and the problem of concept
learning?
Since Bayes theorem provides a principled way to calculate the posterior probability
of each hypothesis given the training data, and can use it as the basis for a
straightforward learning algorithm that calculates the probability for each possible
hypothesis, then outputs the most probable.
13. Brute-Force Bayes Concept Learning
We can design a straightforward concept learning algorithm to output the maximum
a posteriori hypothesis, based on Bayes theorem, as follows:
14. In order specify a learning problem for the BRUTE-FORCE MAP
LEARNING
algorithm we must specify what values are to be used for P(h) and for
P(D|h) ?
Lets choose P(h) and for P(D|h) to be consistent with the following assumptions:
• The training data D is noise free (i.e., di = c(xi))
• The target concept c is contained in the hypothesis space H
• We have no a priori reason to believe that any hypothesis is more probable than any other.
15. What values should we specify for P(h)?
• Given no prior knowledge that one hypothesis is more likely than another, it is
reasonable to assign the same prior probability to every hypothesis h in H.
• Assume the target concept is contained in H and require that these prior
probabilities sum to 1.
16. What choice shall we make for P(D|h)?
• P(D|h) is the probability of observing the target values D = (d1 . . .dm) for the
fixed set of instances (x1 . . . xm), given a world in which hypothesis hholds
• Since we assume noise-free training data, the probability of observing
classification di given h is just 1 if di = h(xi) and 0 if di# h(xi). Therefore,
17. Given these choices for P(h) and for P(D|h) we now have
a fully-defined problem for the above BRUTE-FORCE
MAP LEARNING algorithm.
In a first step, we have to determine the probabilities for P(h|D)
18. To summarize, Bayes theorem implies that the posterior probability
P(h|D) under our assumed P(h) and P(D|h) is
where |VSH,D| is the number of hypotheses from H consistent with D
19. The Evolution of Probabilities Associated with Hypotheses
• Figure (a) all hypotheses have the same probability.
• Figures (b) and (c), As training data accumulates, the posterior probability for
inconsistent hypotheses becomes zero while the total probability summing to 1 is
shared equally among the remaining consistent hypotheses.
20. MAP Hypotheses and Consistent Learners
A learning algorithm is a consistent learner if it outputs a hypothesis that commits zero errors over the
training examples.
Every consistent learner outputs a MAP hypothesis, if we assume a uniform prior probability
distribution over H (P(hi) = P(hj) for all i, j), and deterministic, noise free training data (P(D|h) =1 if
D and h are consistent, and 0 otherwise).
Example:
• FIND-S outputs a consistent hypothesis, it will output a MAP hypothesis under the probability
distributions P(h) and P(D|h) defined above.
• Are there other probability distributions for P(h) and P(D|h) under which FIND-S outputs MAP
hypotheses? Yes.
• Because FIND-S outputs a maximally specific hypothesis from the version space, its output
hypothesis will be a MAP hypothesis relative to any prior probability distribution that favours more
specific hypotheses.
21. • Bayesian framework is a way to characterize the behaviour of learning algorithms
• By identifying probability distributions P(h) and P(D|h) under which the output is
a optimal hypothesis, implicit assumptions of the algorithm can be characterized
(Inductive Bias)
• Inductive inference is modelled by an equivalent probabilistic reasoning system
based on Bayes theorem
22. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD AND LEAST-SQUARED
ERROR HYPOTHESES
Consider the problem of learning a continuous-valued target function such as neural
network learning, linear regression, and polynomial curve fitting
A straightforward Bayesian analysis will show that under certain assumptions any
learning algorithm that minimizes the squared error between the output hypothesis
predictions and the training data will output a maximum likelihood (ML) hypothesis
23. Learning A Continuous-Valued TargetFunction
• Learner L considers an instance space X and a hypothesis space H consisting of some class ofreal-
valued functions defined over X, i.e., (∀ h ∈
H)[ h : X → R] and training examples of theform
<xi,di>
• The problem faced by L is to learn an unknown target function f : X →R
• A set of m training examples is provided, where the target value of each example is corruptedby
random noise drawn according to a Normal probability distribution with zero mean (di = f(xi) + ei)
• Each training example is a pair of the form (xi ,di ) where di = f (xi ) + ei .
– Here f(xi) is the noise-free value of the target function and ei is a random variable representing
the noise.
–It is assumed that the values of the ei are drawn independently and that they are distributed
according to a Normal distribution with zero mean.
• The task of the learner is to output a maximum likelihood hypothesis, or, equivalently, aMAP
hypothesis assuming all hypotheses are equally probable a priori.
24. Learning A LinearFunction
• The target function f corresponds to the solid
line.
• The training examples (xi , di ) are assumed to
have Normally distributed noise ei with zero
mean added to the true target value f (xi ).
• The dashed line corresponds to the hypothesis
hML with least-squared training error, hence the
maximum likelihood hypothesis.
• Notice that the maximum likelihood hypothesis is
not necessarily identical to the correct
hypothesis, f, because it is inferred from only a
limited sample of noisy training data
25. Before showing why a
hypothesis that minimizes the
sum of squared errors in this
setting is also a maximum
likelihood hypothesis, let us
quickly review probability
densities and Normal distributions
Probability Density for continuous variables
e: a random noise variable generated by a Normal probabilitydistribution
<x1 . . . xm>: the sequence of instances (asbefore)
<d1 . . . dm>: the sequence of target values with di = f(xi) + ei
26. Normal Probability Distribution (Gaussian Distribution)
A Normal distribution is a smooth, bell-shaped distribution that can be completely
characterized by its mean μ and its standard deviation σ
26
27.
28. previous
definition of hML
we have
Assuming training examples are mutually independent given h, we can write P(D|h) as the product of
the various (di|h)
Given the noise ei obeys a Normal distribution with zero mean and unknown variance σ2 , each di
must also obey a Normal distribution around the true targetvalue f(xi). Because we are writing the
expression for P(D|h), we assume h is the correct description of f. Hence, µ = f(xi) =h(xi)
29. It is common to maximize the
less complicated logarithm,
which is justified because of
the monotonicity of function p.
The first term in this expression is a constant independent of h and can therefore bediscarded
Maximizing this negative term is equivalent to minimizing the corresponding positiveterm.
30. Finally Discard constants that are independent ofh
• the hML is one that minimizes the sum of the squared errors
Why is it reasonable to choose the Normal distribution to characterizenoise?
• good approximation of many types of noise in physical systems
• Central Limit Theorem shows that the sum of a sufficiently large number ofindependent,
identically distributed random variables itself obeys a Normal distribution
Only noise in the target value is considered, not in the attributes describing theinstances
themselves
31. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD HYPOTHESES
FOR PREDICTING PROBABILITIES
Consider the setting in which we wish to learn a nondeterministic (probabilistic)
function f : X → {0, 1}, which has two discrete output values.
We want a function approximator whose output is the probability that f(x) = 1
In other words , learn the target function
f’ : X → [0, 1] such that f’(x) = P(f(x) = 1)
How can we learn f' using a neural network?
Use of brute force way would be to first collect the observed frequencies of 1's and
0's for each possible value of x and to then train the neural network to output the
target frequency for each x.
32. What criterion should we optimize in order to find a maximum
likelihood hypothesis for f' in this setting?
• First obtain an expression for P(D|h)
• Assume the training data D is of the
form D = {(x1, d1) . . . (xm, dm)}, where di is the observed 0
or 1 value for f (xi).
• Both xi and di as random variables, and assuming
that each training example is drawn independently, we
can write P(D|h) as
Applying the product rule
33. The probability P(di|h, xi)
Re-express it in a more mathematically manipulable form, as
Equation (4) to substitute for P(di |h, xi) in Equation (5) to obtain
34. We write an expression for the maximum likelihood hypothesis
The last term is a constant independent of h, so it can be dropped
It easier to work with the log of the likelihood, yielding
Equation (7) describes the quantity that must be maximized in order to obtain themaximum
likelihood hypothesis in our current problemsetting
35. Gradient Search to Maximize Likelihood in a Neural Net
Derive a weight-training rule for neural network learning that seeks to maximize G(h, D)using
gradient ascent
• The gradient of G(h, D) is given by the vector of partial derivatives of G(h, D) with respect tothe
various network weights that define the hypothesis h represented by the learnednetwork
• In this case, the partial derivative of G(h, D) with respect to weight wjk from input k to unit j is
36. Suppose our neural network is constructed from a single layer of sigmoid units. Then,
where xijk is the kth input to unit j for the ith training example, and d(x) is the derivative of the sigmoid
squashing function.
Finally, substituting this expression into Equation (1), we obtain a simple expression forthe
derivatives that constitute the gradient
37. Because we seek to maximize
rather than minimize P(D|h), we
perform gradient ascent rather than
gradient descent search. On each
iteration of the search the weight
vector is adjusted in the direction
of the gradient, using the weight
update rule
where η is a small positive constant that determines the step size of the i gradient ascent search
38. It is interesting to compare this weight-update rule to the weight-update rule used by the
BACKPROPAGATION algorithm to minimize the sum of squared errors between predicted and
observed network outputs.
The BACKPROPAGATION update rule for output unit weights, re-expressed using our current
notation, is
39. MINIMUM DESCRIPTION LENGTH PRINCIPLE
• A Bayesian perspective on Occam’s razor
• Motivated by interpreting the definition of hMAP in the light of basic concepts from information
theory.
which can be equivalently expressed in terms of maximizing the log2
or alternatively, minimizing the negative of this quantity
• This equation can be interpreted as a statement that short hypotheses are preferred, assuming a
particular representation scheme for encoding hypotheses and data
40. Introduction to a basic result of information theory
• Consider the problem of designing a code to transmit messages drawn at random
• i is the message
• The probability of encountering message i is pi
• Interested in the most compact code; that is, interested in the code that minimizes the
expected number of bits we must transmit in order to encode a message drawn at random
• To minimize the expected code length we should assign shorter codes to messages that are
more probable
• Shannon and Weaver (1949) showed that the optimal code (i.e., the code that minimizes
the expected message length) assigns - log, pi bitst to encode message i.
• The number of bits required to encode message i using code C as the description length
of message i with respect to C, which we denote by Lc(i).
41. ing the
equatio
n
• -log2P(h): the description length of h under the optimal encoding for the hypothesis space H
LCH (h) = −log2P(h), where CH is the optimal code for hypothesis space H.
• -log2P(D | h): the description length of the training data D given hypothesis h, under the
optimal encoding fro the hypothesis space H: LCH (D|h) = −log2P(D| h) , where C D|h is the
optimal code for describing data D assuming that both the sender and receiver know the
hypothesis h.
Rewrite Equation (1) to show that hMAP is the hypothesis h that minimizes the sum given by the
description length of the hypothesis plus the description length of the data given thehypothesis.
where CH and CD|h are the optimal encodings for H and for D given h
42. The Minimum Description Length
(MDL) principle recommends
choosing the hypothesis that
minimizes the sum of these two
description lengths of equ.
Minimum Description Length principle:
Where, codes C1 and C2 to represent the hypothesis and the data given the hypothesis
The above analysis shows that if we choose C1 to be the optimal encoding of hypotheses CH, and if
we choose C2 to be the optimal encoding CD|h, then hMDL = hMAP
43. References/Bibliography
Dept. of ISE, SJBIT
43
1) Machine Learning by Tom M. Mitchell, McGraw Hill India.
2) Introduction to machine learning by Ethem Alpaydın, MIT press second edition.