This document contains 11 exam questions on various topics related to health and disease. Question 1 asks about amyloid deposits found in a patient with renal failure, including the chemical composition and staining properties of amyloid. Question 2 asks about how molecular mimicry can cause autoimmune diseases, using rheumatic fever as an example. Question 3 discusses problems associated with neoplasia such as anemia, infection, malnutrition, and paraneoplastic syndromes.
Pathophysiology B Pharm 2nd semester
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Course Description
3. Course Outcomes
4. Text and Reference Books
5. Syllabus
6. Question Paper Pattern
7. Evaluation Scheme
Pathophysiology is the study of causes of diseases and reactions of the body to such disease producing causes.
This course is designed to impart a thorough knowledge of the relevant aspects of pathology of various conditions with reference to its pharmacological applications, and understanding of basic pathophysiological mechanisms.
Expected outcomes
1. Describe the etiology and pathogenesis of the selected disease states
2. Name the signs and symptoms of the diseases
3. Mention the complications of the diseases.
SYLLABUS
Basic principles of Cell injury and Adaptation
Introduction, definitions, Homeostasis, Components and Types of Feedback systems, Causes of cellular injury, Pathogenesis (Cell membrane damage, Mitochondrial damage, Ribosome damage, Nuclear damage), Morphology of cell injury – Adaptive changes (Atrophy, Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, Metaplasia, Dysplasia), Cell swelling, Intra cellular accumulation, Calcification, Enzyme leakage and Cell Death Acidosis & Alkalosis, Electrolyte imbalance.
Basic mechanism involved in the process of Inflammation and Repair
Introduction, Clinical signs of inflammation, Different types of Inflammation, Mechanism of Inflammation – Alteration in vascular permeability and blood flow, migration of WBC’s, Mediators of inflammation, Basic principles of wound healing in the skin, Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis
Cardiovascular System
Hypertension, congestive heart failure, ischemic heart disease (angina, myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis)
Respiratory system
Asthma, Chronic obstructive airways diseases.
Renal system
Acute and chronic renal failure
Haematological Diseases
Iron deficiency, megaloblastic anemia (Vit B12 and folic acid), sickle cell anemia, thalasemia, hereditary acquired anemia, hemophilia
Nervous system
Epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, psychiatric disorders: depression, schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Endocrine system
Diabetes, thyroid diseases, disorders of sex hormones
Gastrointestinal system
Peptic Ulcer
Inflammatory bowel diseases,
jaundice, hepatitis (A,B,C,D,E,F) alcoholic liver disease
Diseases of bones and joints
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Gout
Principles of cancer
classification, etiology and pathogenesis of cancer
Infectious diseases
Meningitis, Typhoid, Leprosy, Tuberculosis, Urinary tract infections
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
AIDS, Syphilis, Gonorrhea
#rohitkumartrivedi
Basic principles of Cell injury and AdaptationAkshayYadav176
Basic principles of Cell injury and Adaptation:
(As per new syllabus of PCI)
Introduction, definitions, Homeostasis, Components and Types of Feedback systems, Causes of cellular injury,Pathogenesis (Cell membrane damage, Mitochondrial damage, Ribosome damage, Nuclear damage),Morphology of cell injury – Adaptive changes (Atrophy, Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, Metaplasia, Dysplasia),Cell swelling, Intra cellular accumulation, Calcification, Enzyme leakage and Cell Death Acidosis & Alkalosis,Electrolyte imbalance.
Pathophysiology B Pharm 2nd semester
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Course Description
3. Course Outcomes
4. Text and Reference Books
5. Syllabus
6. Question Paper Pattern
7. Evaluation Scheme
Pathophysiology is the study of causes of diseases and reactions of the body to such disease producing causes.
This course is designed to impart a thorough knowledge of the relevant aspects of pathology of various conditions with reference to its pharmacological applications, and understanding of basic pathophysiological mechanisms.
Expected outcomes
1. Describe the etiology and pathogenesis of the selected disease states
2. Name the signs and symptoms of the diseases
3. Mention the complications of the diseases.
SYLLABUS
Basic principles of Cell injury and Adaptation
Introduction, definitions, Homeostasis, Components and Types of Feedback systems, Causes of cellular injury, Pathogenesis (Cell membrane damage, Mitochondrial damage, Ribosome damage, Nuclear damage), Morphology of cell injury – Adaptive changes (Atrophy, Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, Metaplasia, Dysplasia), Cell swelling, Intra cellular accumulation, Calcification, Enzyme leakage and Cell Death Acidosis & Alkalosis, Electrolyte imbalance.
Basic mechanism involved in the process of Inflammation and Repair
Introduction, Clinical signs of inflammation, Different types of Inflammation, Mechanism of Inflammation – Alteration in vascular permeability and blood flow, migration of WBC’s, Mediators of inflammation, Basic principles of wound healing in the skin, Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis
Cardiovascular System
Hypertension, congestive heart failure, ischemic heart disease (angina, myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis)
Respiratory system
Asthma, Chronic obstructive airways diseases.
Renal system
Acute and chronic renal failure
Haematological Diseases
Iron deficiency, megaloblastic anemia (Vit B12 and folic acid), sickle cell anemia, thalasemia, hereditary acquired anemia, hemophilia
Nervous system
Epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, psychiatric disorders: depression, schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Endocrine system
Diabetes, thyroid diseases, disorders of sex hormones
Gastrointestinal system
Peptic Ulcer
Inflammatory bowel diseases,
jaundice, hepatitis (A,B,C,D,E,F) alcoholic liver disease
Diseases of bones and joints
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Gout
Principles of cancer
classification, etiology and pathogenesis of cancer
Infectious diseases
Meningitis, Typhoid, Leprosy, Tuberculosis, Urinary tract infections
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
AIDS, Syphilis, Gonorrhea
#rohitkumartrivedi
Basic principles of Cell injury and AdaptationAkshayYadav176
Basic principles of Cell injury and Adaptation:
(As per new syllabus of PCI)
Introduction, definitions, Homeostasis, Components and Types of Feedback systems, Causes of cellular injury,Pathogenesis (Cell membrane damage, Mitochondrial damage, Ribosome damage, Nuclear damage),Morphology of cell injury – Adaptive changes (Atrophy, Hypertrophy, hyperplasia, Metaplasia, Dysplasia),Cell swelling, Intra cellular accumulation, Calcification, Enzyme leakage and Cell Death Acidosis & Alkalosis,Electrolyte imbalance.
Cellular adaptation
Adjustments which the cells make in response to stresses.
Adjustments may be for physiologic need or response to non-lethal pathogenic injury (Pathologic adaptation).
Adaptive responses are reversible on withdrawal of stimulus.
If the irritant stimulus persists for longer duration or is more lethal, the cell may not be able to survive.
“Survival of the Adaptable”
TYPES OF CELLULAR ADAPTATION:
Atrophy
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Dysplasia
Cell Injury in hindi
Cell injury is defined as the functional and morphologic effects of a variety of stresses on the cell from various etiologic agents which result in change in its internal and external environment.
The term cell injury is used to indicate a state in which the capacity for physiological adaptation is exceeded.
This may occur when the stimulus is excessive or when the cell is no longer capable to adapt without suffering some form of damage.
Cellular response to stress may vary depending upon following two factors:
Host Factors: Type of cell, Nutritional status of cell etc.
Factors pertaining to injurious agent: Its type, dose etc.
Etiology/Causes
Hypoxia and Ischaemia
Physical Agents
Chemicals and Drugs
Microbial Agents
Immunologic Causes
Nutritional Derangements
Ageing
Psychogenic Cause
Iatrogenic Cause
Idiopathic Disease
#rohitkumartrivedi
#cellinjury
#cellinjurypathology
Cellular adaptations, injury and death.. Lecture 1Ashish Jawarkar
This is a series of lectures on general pathology useful for undergraduate and postgraduate pathology students. The ppts here have are enriched with explanatory pictures as well as useful video links.. hope you find them useful
Homeostasis, feedback mechanism,cellular adaptations
cell injry..etiology...types and its pathogenesis..
morphology of cellinjury
necrosis
calcification
multiple myloma
By: Nader Amir Al-assadi
Supervised by : Dr/ Ghazi Alariqe
taiz university
Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell malignancy in which monoclonal plasma cells proliferate in bone marrow, resulting in an over abundance of monoclonal para protein (M protein), destruction of bone, and displacement of other hematopoietic cell lines.
The precise etiology of MM has not yet been established.
Roles have been suggested for a variety of factors, including genetic causes, environmental or occupational causes,radiation, chronic inflammation, and infection .
Cellular adaptation
Adjustments which the cells make in response to stresses.
Adjustments may be for physiologic need or response to non-lethal pathogenic injury (Pathologic adaptation).
Adaptive responses are reversible on withdrawal of stimulus.
If the irritant stimulus persists for longer duration or is more lethal, the cell may not be able to survive.
“Survival of the Adaptable”
TYPES OF CELLULAR ADAPTATION:
Atrophy
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Dysplasia
Cell Injury in hindi
Cell injury is defined as the functional and morphologic effects of a variety of stresses on the cell from various etiologic agents which result in change in its internal and external environment.
The term cell injury is used to indicate a state in which the capacity for physiological adaptation is exceeded.
This may occur when the stimulus is excessive or when the cell is no longer capable to adapt without suffering some form of damage.
Cellular response to stress may vary depending upon following two factors:
Host Factors: Type of cell, Nutritional status of cell etc.
Factors pertaining to injurious agent: Its type, dose etc.
Etiology/Causes
Hypoxia and Ischaemia
Physical Agents
Chemicals and Drugs
Microbial Agents
Immunologic Causes
Nutritional Derangements
Ageing
Psychogenic Cause
Iatrogenic Cause
Idiopathic Disease
#rohitkumartrivedi
#cellinjury
#cellinjurypathology
Cellular adaptations, injury and death.. Lecture 1Ashish Jawarkar
This is a series of lectures on general pathology useful for undergraduate and postgraduate pathology students. The ppts here have are enriched with explanatory pictures as well as useful video links.. hope you find them useful
Homeostasis, feedback mechanism,cellular adaptations
cell injry..etiology...types and its pathogenesis..
morphology of cellinjury
necrosis
calcification
multiple myloma
By: Nader Amir Al-assadi
Supervised by : Dr/ Ghazi Alariqe
taiz university
Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell malignancy in which monoclonal plasma cells proliferate in bone marrow, resulting in an over abundance of monoclonal para protein (M protein), destruction of bone, and displacement of other hematopoietic cell lines.
The precise etiology of MM has not yet been established.
Roles have been suggested for a variety of factors, including genetic causes, environmental or occupational causes,radiation, chronic inflammation, and infection .
Cellular Adaptation
as cells encounter stresses they undergo functional or structural adaptations to maintain viability / homeostasis.
Injury - altered homeostasis
if limits of the adaptive response are exceeded or if adaptation not possible, a sequence of events called cell injury occurs.
Reversible Cell Injury
removal of stress results in complete restoration of structural & functional integrity.
b) Irreversible Cell Injury / Cell Death
if stimulus persists or is severe enough from the start, the cell suffers irreversible cell injury and death.
2 main morphologic patterns: necrosis & apoptosis.
Adaptations are reversible changes in the size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity, or functions of cells in response to changes in their environment.
Physiologic adaptations are responses of cells to normal stimulation by hormones or endogenous chemical mediators
Pathologic adaptations are responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure and function and thus escape injury.
Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of cells, that results in an increase in the size of the affected organ
The hypertrophied organ has no new cells, just larger cells.
Types:
a) physiologic b) pathologic
Causes:
a) increased functional demand b) hormonal stimulation
1. WHAT IS HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS
2. STAGES OF HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS
3. HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS ASSOCIATED COMORBIDITIES
4. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS
5. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN LIVER FIBROGENESIS
6. FREE RADICALS
7. HOW DO FREE RADICALS CAUSE HEPATIC FIBROSIS/ CIRRHOSIS
8. POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC COMPOUNDS BASED ON ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Many ways to support street children.pptxSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Understanding the Challenges of Street ChildrenSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
This session provides a comprehensive overview of the latest updates to the Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards (commonly known as the Uniform Guidance) outlined in the 2 CFR 200.
With a focus on the 2024 revisions issued by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), participants will gain insight into the key changes affecting federal grant recipients. The session will delve into critical regulatory updates, providing attendees with the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate and comply with the evolving landscape of federal grant management.
Learning Objectives:
- Understand the rationale behind the 2024 updates to the Uniform Guidance outlined in 2 CFR 200, and their implications for federal grant recipients.
- Identify the key changes and revisions introduced by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in the 2024 edition of 2 CFR 200.
- Gain proficiency in applying the updated regulations to ensure compliance with federal grant requirements and avoid potential audit findings.
- Develop strategies for effectively implementing the new guidelines within the grant management processes of their respective organizations, fostering efficiency and accountability in federal grant administration.
Russian anarchist and anti-war movement in the third year of full-scale warAntti Rautiainen
Anarchist group ANA Regensburg hosted my online-presentation on 16th of May 2024, in which I discussed tactics of anti-war activism in Russia, and reasons why the anti-war movement has not been able to make an impact to change the course of events yet. Cases of anarchists repressed for anti-war activities are presented, as well as strategies of support for political prisoners, and modest successes in supporting their struggles.
Thumbnail picture is by MediaZona, you may read their report on anti-war arson attacks in Russia here: https://en.zona.media/article/2022/10/13/burn-map
Links:
Autonomous Action
http://Avtonom.org
Anarchist Black Cross Moscow
http://Avtonom.org/abc
Solidarity Zone
https://t.me/solidarity_zone
Memorial
https://memopzk.org/, https://t.me/pzk_memorial
OVD-Info
https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar-ovd-info-guide
RosUznik
https://rosuznik.org/
Uznik Online
http://uznikonline.tilda.ws/
Russian Reader
https://therussianreader.com/
ABC Irkutsk
https://abc38.noblogs.org/
Send mail to prisoners from abroad:
http://Prisonmail.online
YouTube: https://youtu.be/c5nSOdU48O8
Spotify: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/libertarianlifecoach/episodes/Russian-anarchist-and-anti-war-movement-in-the-third-year-of-full-scale-war-e2k8ai4
2. 2
Q1 : A female patient with rheumatoid arthritis suffers from renal
failure. Renal biopsy shows deposition of eosinophilic material in the
wall of renal arterioles. This material appears as non-branching fibrils
by electron microscopy.
a. what is the name of this material and what is its chemical
composition?
its name is amyloid, its chemical composition:
Approximately 95% of amyloid deposits are made up of fibrillar
proteins. The remaining 5% are glycoproteins.
Two chemically distinct major classes of amyloid fibrillar proteins
have been identified:
1. amyloid light chain (AL) : it is derived form plasma cells (
immimocytes) and contains Ig light chains.
2. Amyloid associated (AA) is a non immunoglobulin protein
synthesized by the liver.
Other proteins are transthyretin, B2 –macroglobulin and B2 –
amyloid proteins.
b. Mention the special stains specific for this material?
1.Cogno red : appears pink or red by light microscope. A green
birefringeness is seen by polarized light.
2.Methyl violet (metachromatic stain): appears pink.
3.Immunohistochemistry: appears brown using antibodies specific to
various amyloid subtypes of fibrils.
c. Describe the gross picture of the kidney in such condition and
mention a stain that demonstrates it grossly?
3. 3
It is enlarged, pale grey, waxy and firm. Later on, it becomes
contracted due to chronic vascular occlusion by amyloid deposits.
The stain is iodine, when added to fresh specimen containing amyloid a
brown coloration is developed, that turns to bluish violet when
sulphuric acid is added.
Q2 :Explain how molecular mimicry can cause autoimmune diseases.
Give an example.
Some infections share the same epitopes (antigenic determinants)
with self antigens. Thus an immune response against such
microbes may produce tissue damaging reactions against self
antigens. E.g. rheumatic fever which follows streptococcal
infection, the antibody against the streptococcal M protein cross
react with cardiac glycoproteins.
Q3 :Give a short account on the problems associated with Neoplasia.
1. Anemia: it is due to chronic blood loss ( usually associated with
gastrointestinal or genitourinary neoplasms) , an iron deficiency
anemia may be responsible for the initial symptoms of cancer such as
weakness and fatigue. Anemia may also result from poor nutrition
especially in oral and esophageal cancers or from metastatic
replacement of the red-cell producing bone marrow.
2. loss of function: can result from the mass effect of cancer or from
replacement of normal tissue.
3. Malnutrition and cachexia:
Cachexia is defined as a state of general weakness, wasting and loss of
body fat.
Malnutrition: is due to loss of appetite especially noticed in cancer of
head and neck or upper gastrointestinal tract. Some times malnutrition
is due to nausea and vomiting resulting from radiotherapy and /or
4. 4
chemotherapy. Furthermore, carcinoma may produce substances that
interfere with intestinal absorption or produce diarrhea. Recently novel
proteoglycans that cause breakdown of skeletal muscle proteins have
been detected in the urine of cancer patients.
4. Infections: are common among cancer patients. Sit is due to
obstructive neoplasms which cause obstruction of a bronchus leading
to post-obstructive infection such as bronchiactasis and/or pneumonia.
Also, altered host resistance ma permit relatively avirulent organisms
e.g. normal bacterial flora, as well as common viruses and fungi to
cause infection and death.
5. paraneoplastic syndromes: these are symptom complexes seen in
cancer patients. These symptoms are neither caused by the tumor
itself nor by its metastases or by hormones secreted by the tumor
tissue of origin, but it is due to ectopic hormonal production (e.g. ACTH
may be increased in some forms of lung cancer leading to Cushing's
syndrome) that may be a life threatening clinical problem.
Q4 :List the types of acute suppurative inflammation.
a. Localized: abscess, boil, stye, carbuncle.
b. Diffuse: cellulitis, phlegmonous, empyema.
Q5 :Enumerated complications of wound healing.
1. Keloid.
2. Exuberant granulation or proud flesh.
3. Contracture.
4. Wound dehiscence (split-apart/ rupture of a wound).
5. Weak scars.
6. Painful.
7. Implantations.
8. Neoplasia.
5. 5
Q6 ) Enumerate the mechanisms of conversion of proto-oncogens
to oncogenes with an example.
1. Point mutation. E.g. epidermal gross factor receptor (EGFR)
2. Gene amplification
3. chromosome rearrangement.
Q7)Explain the role of p53 tumor suppressor gene.
It is a nuclear phosphoprotein and acts as a transcriptional
regulator ( regulating certain genes that participate in cell cycle)
The level of p53 increases after exposure to agents that damage
DNA.
Two main types of effects of activated p53:
a. G1 specific stop/regulation of cell cycle and allows time for DNA
repair to occur.
b. Induction of apoptosis if the damage is massive and cannot be
repaired.
In this way ot acts as the guardian of the genome or molecular
policeman.
Absence or mutations of p53 is associated with genome instability
and increases the occurrence of tumors.
Q8)List causes of hypernatremia.
1. Rapid administration of sodium salts by intravenous route.
2. Cushing disease.
3. Rapid loss of water in cases of diabetes inspidus.
4. During pregnancy due to placental hormones.
Q9 : Suggest two situations where community health education is
needed.
1. when a problem affects many or all people in the community,
6. 6
and when the cooperation of everyone is required to solve the
problem.
2. in emergencies.
3. When the problem requires pooling of resources and efforts.
Q10: Mention uses of health indicators.
They are required :
1. To measure the health status of a community.
2. To make comparisons between areas, regions and nations.
3. For assessment of health care needs.
4. For allocation of scarce (limited) resources.
5. For monitoring and evaluation of health services, activities and
program. Indicators help to measure the extent to which
objectives and targets of a problem are being attained.
Q11: Discuss in brief causes of water quality deterioration in a
community.
1. Population growth ـــ an increase in the number of people
generating waste.
2. Widespread and increasing chemical manufacture and usage of
synthetic products.
3. Gross mismanagement and irresponsible disposal of hazardous
wastes.
4. Reckless land-use practices that result in runoff of pollutants
into waterways.