2. "Mine eye and heart are at a mortal war
How to divide the conquest of thy sight"
William Shakespeare
After all, if thoughts can be "inserted,"
there must be a space "inside" where meaning can reside.
Michael Reddy
We act according to the way we consive of things
George Lakoff
3. CONTENTS
Definitions
Metaphor and Metonymy
Examples of metaphor
Examples of metonymy
The conduit metaphor
Some other views on the subject
Metaphtonymy
Exercises / further examples
Conclusions
Reference
4. DEFINITIONS
Merriam Webster dictionary
1 Metaphor: a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally
denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another
to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in
drowning in money); broadly : figurative language — compare
simile
2: an object, activity, or idea treated as a metaphor
“He was drowning in paperwork”
DEAD METAPHOR: word or phrase that has lost its metaphoric
force through common usage.
“as time is running out”
5. Webster Dictionary
METONYMY: a figure of speech consisting of the use
of the name of one thing for that of another of which
it is an attribute or with which it is associated
(as “crown” in “lands belonging to the crown”)
6. METAPHOR AND METONYMY
Philosophers and cognitive linguists have
shown that metaphors and metonymies are
powerful cognitive tools for our
conceptualization of abstract categories.
(Ungerer & Smith 1997)
Along the scholar tradition metaphor and
metonymy form part of the literary field,
among the studies of style and rethoric
thecniques (i.e. figures of speech).
7. Metaphor has traditionally been based on the notions
'similarity' or 'comparison' between the literal and the figurative
meaning of an expression.
Eye of heaven
EYE AND SUN
Metonymy involves a relation of 'contiguity' (i.e. nearnes or
neighbourhood) between what is denoted by the literal
meaning of the word and its figurative counterpart.
"The White House" to refer to the U.S. government
(Ungerer & Smith 1997)
8. The essence of metaphor lies in an interaction between a
metaphorical expression and the context in which it is
used:
9. TYPES OF CONTIGUITY-RELATIONS IN METONYMY
+PART FOR WHOLE+ all hands on deck
+WHOLE FOR PART+ to fill up the car
+CONTAINER FOR CONTENT+ I'll have a glass
+MATERIAL FOR OBJECT+ a glass, an iron
+PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT+ have a Lowenbraw, buy a Ford
+PLACE FOR INSTITUTION+ talks between Washington and Moscow
+PLACE FOR EVENT+ Watergate changed our politics
+CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER+ the buses are on strike
10. According to Ullmann (1962:21ff) and Leech (1969: 158), the
most frecuent types of conventionalized metaphors are:
concretive metaphors (the light of learning, a vicious circle)
animistic metaphors (and angry sky, killing half an hour)
humanizing metaphors (a charming river, a friendly city)
synaesthetic metaphors (a warm colour, a dull sound)
'Lexicalized´ (“over”)metaphors impose a multiple
categorization on the entities in the world (Lipka 1992: 123ff):
one word refers to several categories.
Conventionalized Metaphors
11. METAPHOR AND 'DEAD' METAPHOR
Metaphor and metonymy are not just figures of speech in
literature but also pervasive in everyday language.
There are metaphors related to style (i.e. Shakespeare´s style)
Those not related to style: 'dead' or lexicalized metaphor:
'the head-of-department‘
The (association of) meanings have become lexicalized.
The metaphorical force of the word is no longer active, the
metaphor is 'dead'.
(Ungerer & Smith 1997)
12. METAPHOR AS LEXICAL ENTRY AND COGNITIVE
PROBLEM
Metaphors are not just a way of expressing ideas by
means of language, but a way of thinking about things.
Lakoff and Johnsons (1980:7f) argue that we do not just
exploit the metaphor +time is money+ linguistically, but
we actually think of, or conceptualize, the so called 'target'
category 'TIME' via the 'source' category MONEY:
You're wasting my time.
Can you give me a few minutes.
How do you spend your time.
We are running out of time.
Is that worth your while?
13. METONYMY (FASS 1988)
In a metonymy, the name of one thing is substituted
for that of another related to it:
Container for Contents
Denise drank the bottle = the liquid in the bottle
Dave drank the glasses = the liquid in the glasses
The kettle is boiling. = the liquid in the kettle
(Waldron 1967, p.186; Yamanashi 1987, p.78)
14. Examples of Metaphor
ARGUMENT IS WAR
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right
on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him.
You disagree? Okay, shoot!
If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out. He shot down all of my
arguments.
TIME IS A VALUABLE COMODITY
I don't have the time to give you.
How do you spend your time these days? That flat tire cost me an hour.
I've invested a lot of time in her.
I don't have enough time to spare for that. You're running out of time.
You need to budget your time.
Put aside some time for ping pong. Is that worth your while?
15. The Conduit Metaphor (From M. Reddy, in Lakoff 2003)
IDEAS (Or MEANINGS) ARE OBJECTS.
LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS.
COMMUNICATION IS SENDING.
It's hard to get that idea across to him.
I gave you that idea.
Your reasons came through to us.
It's difficult to put my ideas into words.
When you have a good idea, try to capture it immediately in
words.
Try to pack more thought into fewer words.
16. Other examples: orientational metaphors
HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN
I'm feeling up. That boosted my spirits.
I'm feeling down. I'm depressed.
CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
Get up. Wake up. I'm up already.
He's under hypnosis. He sank into a coma.
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN
The number of books printed each year keeps going up.
His income fell last year. He is underage.
(Lakoff:2003)
17. Examples of metonymy
He likes to read the Marquis de Sade. (= the writings of the marquis)
He's in dance. (= the dancing profession)
Acrylic has taken over the art world. (= the use of acrylic paint)
The Times hasn't arrived at the press conference yet. (= the reporter
from the Times) Mrs. Grundy frowns on blue jeans. (= the wearing of
blue jeans)
New windshield wipers will satisfy him. (= the state of hav-ing new
wipers)
THE PART FOR THE WHOLE
The automobile is clogging our highways. (= the collection of
automobiles)
We need a couple of strong bodies for our team. (= strong people)
There are a lot of good heads in the university. (= intelligent people)
I've got a new set of wheels. (= car, motorcycle. etc.)
We need some new blood in the organization. (= new people)
18. Other examples of metonymy
THE FACE FOR THE PERSON.
She's just a pretty face.
We need some new faces around here.
THE PART FOR THE WHOLE
Get your butt over here! We don't hire longhairs.
The Giants need a stronger arm in right field.
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT
He bought a Ford.
He's got a Picasso in his den. I hate to read Heidegger.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE
Exxon has raised its prices again.
You'll never get the university to agree to that.
19. SADNESS IS DOWN METAPHOR
She's feeling down
I'm in low spirits
Mike was downhearted
but :
Mary has a long face
(“long" vertically, with dropping facial muscles).
John drooped his head (sadly)
She walked with drooping shoulders / downcast eyes after de
news of her child's death.
MAIN PROBLEM
"Metonymies are not to be regarded as necessarily restricted to
the act of reference"
20. EXERCISES/ FURTHER EXAMPLES
"If Clinton were the Titanic,
the iceberg would sink“
Turner, Mark & Fauconnier Gilles. 1998
(Blended mental spaces)
21.
22.
23. Conclusions
Most of our fundamental concepts are organized in terms of one or
more spatialization metaphors.
There is an internal systematicity to each spatialization metaphor.
There is an overall external systematicity among the various
spatialization metaphors, which defines coherence among them.
Spatialization metaphors are rooted in physical and cultural
experience; they are not randomly assigned. A metaphor can serve
as a vehicle for understanding a concept only by virtue of its
experiential basis.
There are many possible physical and social bases for metaphor.
Coherence within the overall system seems to be part of the reason
why one is chosen and not another.
So-called purely intellectual concepts, e.g., the concepts in a
scientific theory, are often—perhaps always—based on metaphors
that have a physical and/or cultural basis.
24. REFERENCES
Barcelona, A. 1997. Clarifying and Applying the Notions of Metaphor and
metonymy within cognitive linguistics. Universidad de Murcia. Atlantis XIX(1)
Evans V. & Green M. 2006. Cognitive Linguistics, an Introduction. Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. London.
FASS,Dan C. 1988. Metonymy and Metaphor: What´s the difference? Computing
Research Laboratory, New Mexico State University, USA.
Lakoff, George. 1998. Metaphor and Thought. Second Edition. Cambridge
University Press. United Kingdom.
Lakoff, G. Johnsen M. 2003 Metaphors we live by. London: The university of
Chicago press.
Reddy, M. 1978. The Conduit Metaphor- A Case of Frame Conflict in Our
Language about Language.
Turner, M. & Fauconnier G. 1998:Metaphor, Metonymy, and Binding. Antonio
Barcelona. A volume in the series Topics in English Linguistics.
