Matthew Richardson MA Dissertation

How do 19th and 20th century anarchists
parallel contemporary lone-wolf terrorists?
A dissertation submitted for the MA in History
at the University of Teesside
By
Matthew Alexander Richardson
28/8/2014

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I confirm that I am aware of the university Regulations on cheating and
plagiarism and state that this dissertation is my own and does not contain
any unacknowledged material from any other sources.
Name: Matthew Alexander Richardson
Dissertation Title: How do 19th and 20th century anarchists parallel
contemporary lone-wolf terrorists?
Signature: _______________________ Date: ______________________

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Dedication
I wouldlike to dedicate this work to my parents, who have inspired me and supported
me throughout my studies.

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Contents
Introduction p. 5
Anarchist Terrorism p. 25
Lone Wolf Terrorism p. 50
-Four Decades of Lone Wolf Terrorism (table) p.58
-Ideological Shifts of Lone Wolf Terrorism (chart) p.59
Conclusion p. 81
Bibliography p. 97

5
Chapter 1
Introduction
Direct action, having proven effective along economic lines, is equally potent in
the environment of the individual. There a hundred forces encroach upon his
being, and only persistent resistance to them will finally set him free. Direct
action against the authority in the shop, direct action against the authority of the
law, direct action against the invasive, meddlesome authority of our moral code,
is the logical, consistent method of Anarchism - Emma Goldman

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In the twenty first century lone wolf terrorism has emerged as one of the most
prominent terrorist threats. This is partly due to the increasing number of attacks
that have achieved widespread media coverage. Roger Bates writes that, 'in
February 2010 during a homeland security review to Congress, both the Director
of the FBI and the Director of the CIA indicated that lone wolf terrorism was
emerging as a major concern.'1 Alongside the recognition by the largest
government agencies even the US President, Barak Obama, has expressed his
concerns over the growing threat of lone wolf terror. In an interview for The
Situation Room in 2011, he stated that,
The biggest concern we have right now is not the launchingof a major terrorist
operation, although that risk is alwaysthere, the risk thatwe're especially concerned
over right now is the lone wolf terrorist, somebody with a singleweapon being ableto
carry out wide-scalemassacres of the sort that we saw in Norway recently. You know,
when you've got one person who is deranged or driven by a hateful ideology,they can
do a lot of damage, and it's a lot harder to trace those lone wolf operators.2
Alongside its recognition by security forces, the media and leading politicians,
lone wolf terrorism has become the focus of an increasing volume of academic
studies. Which have attempted to achieve a greater understanding of the
phenomenon. As the threat continues the level of academic research grows, as
Gruenewald, Chermak, and Freilich state; 'the study of loners is important
1 Roger Bates, 'DancingWith Wolves: Today's Lone Wolf Terrorists', The Journal of Public and
Professional Sociology(Volume 4, 2012),p.2.
2 'Obama: Biggest Terror Fear is the Lone Wolf',
[http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/08/16/obama-biggest-terror-fear-is-the-lone-wolf/]
Accessed 1/6/2014

7
because of the challenges in preventing such attacks'.3 The study of lone wolves
has thus far largely focused on recent examples. However the study of the
history of individual attacks is of equal importance, as modern lone wolf terror
appears to parallel the anarchistic wave of terrorism that occurred during the
19th and early 20th century.
Scott Stewart states that 'to say it is nothing new really means that it is an
inherent part of human conflict, a way for a weaker entity -- even a solitary one -
- to inflict pain upon and destabilize a much larger entity.'4 Anarchists during the
nineteenth and early twentieth century attempted to attack and de-stabilise
respective governments around the world. They found that working in a group
left them vulnerable to infiltration from the authorities who worked tirelessly to
stem the tide of terrorism. This led to individuals carrying out attacks on their
own initiative. In time the philosophy behind the attacks were less focused on
the ideology of anarchism and instead it became more of an anti-government
protest. These lone attacks have, despite ebbing for some time, resurged in the
late twentieth and early twenty first century. Lone wolf terrorism has existed as a
serious threat since the time of anarchism. Some other names for the
phenomenon include; individual terror, self-initiated terror, lone actor terror,
leaderless resistance and werewolf terrorism.
3Gruenewald, Chermak, and Freilich,'Distinguishing"Loner" Attacks from Other Domestic
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public Policy (Volume 12, 2013),p.68.
4'Cutting Through the Lone-Wolf Hype'[http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110921-cutting-
through-lone-wolf-hype#axzz36DkmYjR2] Accessed 1/7/2014.

8
This dissertation will examine the relationship between anarchism and lone wolf
terrorism. To do this I will draw on example case studies from anarchist terrorists
in the nineteenth and twentieth century. I will then examine case studies of lone
wolf terrorists evaluating the similarities and differences between the
movements. This study will identify what caused the rise of individual terror
within the anarchist movement and consequently see if there are common
factors that relate to the increased volume of modern lone wolf attacks. I expect
to find that lone wolf terrorism is a tactic derived from the terrorist wing of the
anarchist movement. Although anarchism did not comprise solely of acts of
individual terror, this style of leaderless resistance became an essential tool to
fight against repressive regimes throughout the world. The philosophy of
anarchism was not important to many of these individual terrorists who were
merely protesting the conditions that they were subjected to. They were not
supporting the political philosophy behind the movement. This rings true also for
lone wolf terrorists, many of whom act with their own personal motives vaguely
in the name of a greater political movement. In reality they are reacting in
accordance to their own conditions. Lone wolf terror has therefore become pan-
ideological. Pan-ideological means that it spans different ideologies, the lone
wolf tactic has been adopted and encouraged by individuals with different
ideological beliefs. Individual terrorism has proven an effective form of
resistance and has existed since the anarchist movement, yet it has subsequently
been overshadowed by other waves of organised terrorism.

9
Violence has been used as a political tool throughout history. It has always been
a key component of political struggle. In its most basic form, terrorism is the use
of violence to achieve a political goal, although there is no universally accepted
definition of terrorism. Ramon Spaaij states that, 'terrorism is clearly a contested
and intensely political concept, and there is no academic consensus on its
definition.'5Perhaps the only aspect that observers agree upon is that violence is
central to terrorism. As Bruce Hoffman states 'the only general characteristic of
terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the
threat of violence'.6The reason for the ambiguity of the term terrorism is as Amy
Zalman explains, 'the label "terrorism" or "terrorist" arises when there is
disagreement over whether an act of violence is justified (and those who justify
it label themselves "revolutionaries" or "freedom fighters," etc.)'.7As the saying
goes, 'one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter'.8The definition of
terrorism has evolved over time, and has been adapted to meet specific needs
and to target specific groups. As an example of the changing definition of
terrorism, Brian Whittaker states, 'the American definition of terrorism is a
reversal of the word's original meaning, given in the Oxford English Dictionary as
5 Ramon Spaaij 'The Enigma of Lone Wolf Terrorism: An Assessment' Studies in Conflict and
Terrorism(2010), p. 856.
6Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (Columbia:Columbia University Press,2006),p.34.
7[http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/ss/DefineTerrorism.htm].
8 Firstwritten by Gerald Seymour in Harry's Game, itwas used to describean IRA assassin who
murdered a British cabinetminister.The phraseis now commonly used, it captures perfectl y the
sentiment that terrorismis a purely subjectiveterm.

10
"government by intimidation". Today it usually refers to intimidation of
governments.'9
Lone wolf terrorism is equally as difficult to define. Generally it is recognised as
an act of political violence in the name of a greater political movement without
instruction or communication from a larger organisation. There is some debate
on whether lone wolves can have accomplices. The term 'lone wolf pack'10 has
been used to describe a small group of self radicalised individuals with no
organisational structure or leader. Scott Stewart gives a simple definition as, 'a
lone wolf isa personwhoacts onhis or herownwithoutordersfrom -- or even
connectionsto -- an organization.11
For the purpose of this study I will use the
parameters of Matthew Feldman's more precise definition,
self-directed political or religious violenceundertaken through the “terrorist attack
cycle” by individuals—typically perceived by its adherents to be an act of asymmetrical,
propagandisticwarfare—which derives froma variableamountof external influenceand
context (notably now online),rather than external command and control.12
Feldman's definition clearly states the parameters of lone wolf terrorists. The
important aspect of lone wolves is that they are separate from any political
organisation. Lone wolves working in a limited capacity together are still
recognised under the parameters of this definition. The definition could also
9 'The Definition of Terrorism' [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/may/07/terrorism]
Accessed 15/6/2014.
10 Ramon Spaaij, Understanding Lone Wolf Terrorism (London, 2012),p. 17.
11'The 'Lone Wolf' Disconnect'
[http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/lone_wolf_disconnect#axzz3Aec1Sxd3] Accessed 10/8/2014.
12Matthew Feldman, 'Comparative Lone Wolf Terrorism: Toward a Heuristic Definition',
Democracy and Security, (Volume 9, 2013), p.283.

11
easily be applied to individual anarchist terrorists. Anarchist and lone wolf
terrorists share many similarities and many consider anarchism to be the origin
of lone wolf terrorism.
Anarchism (in this context) is another ambiguous term. The political philosophy
of anarchism is far removed from the acts of anarchist terrorism. A working
definition of anarchism is the 'doctrine that society can and should be organised
without the cohesive authority of the state'13 The political philosophy behind
anarchism is a peaceful concept. The core of anarchism is a basic set of anti-
government principles. How the transition of power would take place divided
anarchists, some opting for violence. Given their general attitude to the state
anarchists were opposed to social change through parliamentary means. The
terrorist activity of anarchists created a 'climate of opinion in which perfectly
innocent anarchists would be thrown in gaol.'14 The anarchist movement,
therefore, was much more than that. Anarchist violence became a major theme
throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century. The aim of the anarchist
terrorists was to destroy the structures of traditional society in order to create
space for a new social order. Furthermore, it should be noted that the
movement consisted of self motivated individuals attacking various targets in
13 Miller,Coleman, Connolly,Ryan (ed)s, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought,
(Oxford, 1991),p.10
14 Miller,Coleman,Connolly,Ryan (ed)s, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought,
(Oxford, 1991),p.13

12
order to de-stabilise the state. Like lone wolves, anarchist terrorists often fought
alone in the name of a greater political movement.
Anarchist violence became a defining theme of the movement; leading
anarchists such as Emma Goldman encouraged violence through lectures and
written papers. She wrote,
Destruction and violence!How is the ordinary man to know that the most violent
element in society is ignorance;that its power of destruction is the very thing Anarchism
is combating? Nor is he aware that Anarchism,whose roots, as itwere, are partof
nature's forces, destroys, not healthful tissue,but the parasiticgrowths that feed on the
life's essenceof society. Itis merely clearingthe weeds and sagebrush,that itmay
eventually bear healthy fruit.15
Anarchist terrorists saw themselves as combating the negative parts of society.
Anarchist terrorists rallied behind anti-government ideology, which spanned into
a international movement. Anarchists around the world fought for separate
issues, the bonding factor was simply anti-government violence and ideologies.
Anarchism became the term given to any form of political violence that took
place. Some claimed to be anarchists though they were unlikely to have
understood the concept and others were dubbed anarchists because the word
15Emma Goldman, Anarchismand Other Essays (Minnesota,2005),p.11.

13
'anarchist' became indicative of political violence. Sebastian Faure describes the
definition of anarchist terrorism;
That which exists and constitutes what one might call the anarchistdoctrineis a cluster
of general principles,fundamental conceptions and practical applicationsregarding
which a consensus has been established amongindividuals whosethought is inimical to
Authority and who struggle, collectively or in isolation,againstall disciplines and
constraints,whether political,economic,intellectual or moral.16
Anarchists became the term for anybody who violently rejected the authority of
their government. Anarchism is a philosophy but 'anarchist terrorism' was the
name given to any form of anti-government political violence. This means that
anarchist terrorists operated in the name of other political goals and movements
in the same way, though to a lesser extent, as lone wolf terrorism; both
movements were essentially pan-ideological. The violence of anarchist terrorism
was more closely linked to the ideology of nihilism.
Nihilismis the rejection of all belief and values, 'a true nihilist would believe in
nothing, have no loyalties, and no purpose other than, perhaps, an impulse to
destroy'.17 Nihilism was a Russian movement that took place in the late
nineteenth century, it believed that in order for there to be a new social order
the current order must be destroyed. It was a philosophy of violence. Sergey
Neycheyev, a Russian nihilist met with Mikhail Bakunin (a leading anarchist) and
16 George Woodcock(ed), The AnarchistReader (Glasgow,1977), p.62.
17'Nihilism'[http://www.iep.utm.edu/nihilism/] Accessed 27/7/2014.

14
created the Catechisms of the Revolutionist (1869). The Catechisms of the
Revolutionist was a document that listed the 'principles by which the
revolutionary must be guided'.18 These principles relate directly to both anarchist
terrorists and modern lone wolf terrorists.
1. The revolutionary is a doomed man. He has no interests of his own, no affairs,no
feelings,no attachments, no belongings,not even a name. Everything about him is
absorbed by a singleexclusiveinterest,a singlethought, a singlepassion - the
revolution.
2. In the depths of his being, not only in words but also in deeds he has broken every tie
with the civil order and the entire cultured world,with all its laws,properties,social
conventions and its ethical rules.He is an implacableenemy of this world, and if he
continues to livein it,that is only to destroy itmore effectively.19
The Catechisms of the Revolutionist became the first terrorist manual. Neycheyev
designed a set of principles that one could follow to become an individual
terrorist. The points can find some significance in the lone wolves of today.
Anarchist and lone wolf terrorists often sacrificed their own lives in order to
carry out a terrorist attack. They felt so strongly about what they were protesting
that they were willing to make the ultimate sacrifice.
18 Walter Laqueuer, Voices of Terror (Naperville,2004),p.71 - citingSergey Nechaev'sCatechisms
of the Revolutionist.
19 'The Revolutionary Catechism'
[https://www.marxists.org/subject/anarchism/nechayev/catechism.htm] Accessed 15/7/2014

15
Anarchist terrorism has, on many occasions, been cited as the origin of lone wolf
terrorism. As Scott Stewart describes: 'modern lone-wolf terrorism is widely
considered to have emerged in the 1800s, when fanatical individuals bent on
effecting political change demonstrated that a solitary actor could impact
history'.20 However the level of influence the anarchist movement had on lone
wolf terrorism has not been fully understood. It could be argued that anarchism
was not just the inspiration to lone wolf terrorists, it was the beginning of the
movement and acts of lone wolf terrorism have been committed ever since its
emergence. What needs to be addressed is the increasing frequency and
intensity of lone wolf attacks that draw parallel with the danger first presented
by the anarchist movement.
Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century there have been waves of
terrorist violence. David Rapoport identifies four waves of terrorist violence
throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century. Rapoport believes that the
latest wave is the 'religious wave' that started in 1979 and he believes may finish
around 2025 when he speculates a 'new wave may appear'.21 Jeffrey Kaplan
believes that this wave would have to fill a certain criteria, the first of which
would be to 'radicalize and break away from the established terrorist wave'.22
Perhaps the newest wave is in fact the re-emergence of lone wolf terror. The
20 'Cutting Through the Lone-Wolf Hype'[http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110921-cutting-
through-lone-wolf-hype#axzz36DkmYjR2] Accessed 1/7/2014
21 'The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism' [http://international.ucla.edu/media/files/Rapoport-
Four-Waves-of-Modern-Terrorism.pdf] Accessed 10/7/2014.
22 Terrorism's Fifth Wave: a Theory a Conundrum and a Dilemma
[http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/26/html] Accessed
27/7/2014.

16
other waves of terrorism are characterised through ideology and lone wolf
terrorism is a pan-ideological tactic. Arguably some of the other waves were not
tied so closely to ideology either. The anarchist wave was accompanied by state
sponsored terror, the nationalist movement was accompanied by the communist
movement and the leftist movement of the sixties was countered by far rightists.
With increasing government pressure on terrorist organisations through modern
counter-terrorist agencies, lone wolves could be the next wave simply because of
the tactic of individual violence.
With the increasing pressure of anti-terrorist policing, extremist groups are
encouraging lone wolf terror as a way of maintaining the integrity of their
movement while combating authority, in the name of their cause (religious,
political or both). Lone wolf terror has become an increasing threat while other
forms of terror are coming under immense pressure with increased security
measures around the world. Though some are still sceptical about the threat
lone wolf terrorists really represent, it could be argued that the improved access
to information via the internet means that lone wolves are becoming self taught
and increasingly dangerous.
There is disagreement amongst experts to the level of threat posed by lone wolf
terrorism. Scott Stewart23, in his article Cutting Through the Lone Wolf Hype
disputes the fact that lone wolf terror is a serious threat. He believes that,
23A former special agentin the US state department.

17
'groups began to advocate "leaderless resistance" as a way to avoid government
pressure. They did not invent the concept, which is really quite old, but they
readily embraced it and used their status in the white supremacist movement to
advocate it.'24 In the 1990's white supremacists Tom Metzger and Alex Curtis
advocated the use of lone wolf terrorism because of the difficulty of detection.
In his Mini Manual on Survival Metzger describes the laws of the lone wolf;
Anyone is capableof being a Lone Wolf. Resistanceis a lifestyle;each performs to his or
her individual abilities.Success and experiencewill come in time. Always startoff small.
Many small victories arebetter than one huge blunder (which may be the end of your
career as a Lone Wolf).Every littlebit counts in a resistance.25
This call to action is similar to that of the anarchist writers who encouraged
others to attack the state. The potential audience for Metzger's manual was
much greater because it was published on the internet.
Though the threat of lone wolf terrorism is very real, until recently it has
remained only a small proportion of overall terrorist attacks. Spaaij states that
of; '15 countries under study, there were a total of 88 identified lone wolves
during the period 1968–2010'.26 For terrorist attacks this is a relatively small
number, it should be noted that this number is representative of clear cases of
25 'Mini Manual on Survival'
[http://www.resist.com/Articles/literature/MiniManualOnSurvivalByTomMetzger.htm] Accessed
27/7/2014.

18
lone wolf terror. The total percentage of terror attacks is just 1.8% of all terrorist
incidents from 1968 to 2010 (in these 15 countries).27 The lethality of these
attacks is also relatively smaller than that of attacks by organisations, lone wolf
terrorism averages 0.62 deaths per incident, others average roughly 1.6 deaths
per attack.28 It should be noted that Spaaij discounts lone wolves who worked
with accomplices. Lois Beam, a prominent white supremacist and proponent of
leaderless resistance, states that 'Leaderless Resistance is a child of necessity'.29
The proportion of lone wolf terrorism in the USA is significantly higher than the
other countries in the study. Lone wolf attacks in the United States make up 57%
of all terrorist attacks committed by individuals,30 this is due in part to effective
anti-terrorist policing. Though this percentage is high, lone wolf attacks make up
just 5% of all terrorist attacks (in the 15 countries) between 1968 and 2010.31
However, before lone wolf terrorism is discounted as a threat altogether, it is
important to recognise the recent increase. Spaaij states that, the total number
of lone wolf attacks has grown from 30 in the 1970s to 73 in the 2000s, an
increase of 143%.32 The casualties caused by Breivik were significantly higher
than his predecessors. Spaaij identifies the highest casualties of a lone wolf
attack prior to Breivik was 18.33That is until the more recent attack in Norway in
which Anders Breivik killed 77. This gives some insight into the increased
28 ibid, p. 28.
29 'Leaderless Resistance'[http://www.louisbeam.com/leaderless.htm] Accessed 27/7/2014.
31 ibid, p. 31.
32 ibid, p. 32.
33He discounts McVeigh, who killed 160 and injured 600 becausehe had an accomplice.

19
intensity of these lone wolf attacks and how they have the potential to become
more deadly.
Stewart believes that the very existence of lone wolf terror is an admission of
weakness.34That the tactic of individual terror is used because organisations
cannot withstand the pressure from anti-terrorists organisations. He believes
that, 'for every Eric Rudolph, Nidal Hasan and Anders Breivik there are scores of
half-baked lone-wolf wannabes who either botch their operations or are
uncovered before they can launch an attack.'35 However he fails to recognise the
level of danger the internet age provides to modern lone wolves. In the case of
Breivik he wrote a 1,500 page manifesto that described in detail how to plan and
conduct a lone attack. Stewart claimed that 'it is a rare individual who possesses
the requisite combination of will, discipline, adaptability, resourcefulness and
technical skill to make the leap from theory to practice and become a successful
lone wolf'.36 Stewart over-exaggerates the requirements of potential lone
wolves, relatively small attacks could be carried out by almost anyone. Stewart
concludes by stating that,
lone wolves -- or stray mutts -- do pose a threat, but that threat must be neither
overstated nor ignored. Lone attackers arenot mythical creatures that come out of
nowhere to inflictharm.They followa process and arevulnerableto detection at certain
times duringthat process.Cutting through the hype is an importantstep in dispelling
35ibid.
36 ibid.

20
the mystique and addressingtheproblems posed by such individualsin a realistic and
practical way.37
The threat of lone wolves should not be overstated, however it only takes one
resourceful individual to conduct a large attack and a lone wolf could appear
anywhere in the world.
Many see lone wolf terrorism as a growing threat that, if not understood, could
become a defining wave of international terrorism. As Grunewald, Chemak and
Freilich explain, 'the public and media are currently interested in extremist loners
because of recent cases of self-radicalized individuals with ideological agendas
who have committed spectacular acts of violence'.38 A few recent high profile
attacks have drawn more attention to lone wolf terror, although the attacks have
also become more frequent and more deadly. The problem with lone wolf
terrorists is the difficulty in preventing attacks. In Lone Wolves How to Prevent
this Phenomenon?, a paper for the International Centre for Counter Terrorism,
Baaker and De Graaf describe the problem of tackling lone wolf terror, 'these so-
called lone wolves are a nightmare for the police and intelligence community as
they are extremely difficult to detect and to defend against.'39 To make the
problem worse the internet is providing the necessary information to both
radicalise and train potential lone wolves, Jessica Stern writes that, 'the internet
37 ibid.
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public Policy (Volume 12, 2013) p.67
39 'Lone Wolves How to Prevent this Phenomenon' [http://www.icct.nl/download/file/ICCT-
Bakker-deGraaf-EM-Paper-Lone-Wolves.pdf] Accessed 16/7/2014.

21
has also greatly facilitated the spread of "virtual" subcultures and has
substantially increased the capacity of loosely networked terrorist
organizations.'40 It is the recognition of this growing threat that has sparked an
increased academic interest in lone wolf terrorism. The study of lone wolf
terrorism is important. Roger Bates states the importance of 'understanding lone
wolf terrorism and the social and psychological conditions that establish
environments conducive to its emergence (...) as a means of identifying areas of
action and response to lessen this growing threat.'41
Lone wolf terrorists and anarchist terrorists used violence as a form of protest, it
was not always violence against people. Both lone wolves and anarchists employ
the tactic of attacking symbolic targets. Attacking a target that is important for
the political motives of the movement they represent, as will be identified in
chapters 2 and 3. Environmental terrorists are a modern day representation of
this,
Extremists motivated by singleissues such as theenvironment or the animal rights
movement have also adopted the lone-wolf strategy. Radicalswithin thesetwo
movements have claimed responsibility for more than $100 million in damagein North
America duringthe pasttwo decades. Activists can become partof the eco-terror
movement simply by carryingout an illegal action on its behalf.David Barbarash,a
supporter of the Canadian Animal Liberation Front(ALF), claimed that the ALF "is not a
group or a club that you can join,but a concept which is only realized when an action
40'The Protean Enemy' [http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/58995/jessica-stern/the-protean-
enemy] Accessed 16/4/2014.
Professional Sociology(Volume 4, 2012) p.12

22
takes placeunder that name". Modelled after ALF, the Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
consists of peopledescribed on its website as "anonymous not only to the public but
also to one another".42
Both lone wolf and anarchist terrorists have sometimes opted for violence
without the murder of innocent people. Other forms such as arson and
vandalismare less violent forms of political protest, though they often attract
less media attention.
The success of these organisations is something that should be considered along
with the growing threat of lone wolf terror. The publicity that anarchist terrorists
received could (and did) encourage others to commit similar attacks. These loner
attacks work as propaganda by deed, a concept first used by anarchists. As
Iviansky explains,
Modern terror began with the slogan ’propaganda by the deed’, advocated in the
declaration of the delegates of the Italian Federation of the AnarchistInternational of 3
December 1876: The Italian Federation believes thatthe insurrectionary deed, which is
designed to promote the principlesof socialismby actions,is the most efficient means
of propaganda and the one most capableof breakingthrough to the deepest social
strata,and of attractingthe most vital forces of humanity to the struggleof the
Internationale.43
42Integrated Threat Assessment Centre, '"Lone Wolf"Attacks: A Developing IslamistExtremist
Strategy?' IntelligenceAssessment (29/6/2007),p.3.
43Ze'evIviansky 'Individual Terror:Concept and Typology' Journal of Contemporary History
(Volume 12, 1977),p.45

23
Propaganda of the deed encouraged acts designed to gain the attention of both
the government and the people. Grunewald, Chermak and Freilich state that ,'in
the United States, most violent loner attacks have been committed by far-
rightists, and many have argued that such attacks are increasing'.44 Recent media
coverage of terrorist threats have been more focused on extremist religious
groups such as Al Qaeda, however, 'the United States Extremist Crime Database
(ECDB) has identified close to 140 ideologically motivated homicides committed
by far-rightists between 1990 and 2010. In this same period, the ECDB has
documented only 30 total homicide incidents committed by supporters of Al
Qaeda or other violent Salafist movements'.45 (Salafisare fundamentalistswho
believeinareturnto the original waysof Islam46
) These statistics reveal the
incidence of lone-wolf terrorism amongst far right milieu and how, until recently,
it has been largely overlooked. To make matters worse, loner attacks have
recently been sanctioned by jihadist groups. Stewart states that, 'the jihadists
have also come to adopt the leaderless-resistance theory. Perhaps the first to
promote the concept in the jihadist realm was jihadist military theoretician Abu
Musab al-Suri'.47The adaptation of this style of attack is a testament to the
danger it poses.
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public PolicyVolume 12, 2013),p.66.
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public Policy (Volume 12, 2013),p. 67.
46 'What is Salafismand Should we be Worried?' [http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-
salafism-and-should-we-be-worried] Accessed 1/8/2014.
through-lone-wolf-hype#axzz36DkmYjR2], Accessed 1/7/2014.

24
In summary lone wolf terrorism is the name of a tactic that has existed since the
anarchist terrorists of the nineteenth century. The danger exists in the form of
unconnected entities attacking at any moment in the name of a larger
movement. It poses a real danger to authorities. According to Roger Bates,
Today, terrorismtakes many forms. However, the riseof the self-radicalized lonewolf
terroristhas created an increasingdilemma in today’s security environment. This type of
emerging terrorismis increasingly found amongright-wing reactionariesand religiously
radicalized jihadists.With increasingly effectivesecurity environments, leaderless
resistancehas emerged as a threat and tactic facilitated by the internet and other
modern information outlets.48
The rise of lone wolf terrorism is considered a real danger, as were anarchist
terrorists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century were. Random
attacks can and do happen worldwide under the guise of a greater political
movement. The increased efficiency of terrorist policing is likely to reduce the
attacks from terror organisations but lone wolf style attacks will become more
common.
Professional Sociology(Volume 4, 2012),p.12.

25
Chapter 2
Anarchist Terrorists
in giving dynamite to the downtrodden millions of the globe, science has done its
best work. - Gerhard Lizius

26
Lone wolf terrorism is a tactic of asymmetrical urban warfare,49 which originates
from the early anarchist movement. It has re-emerged as a result of specific
socio-political conditions. In order to compare individual terrorism employed by
anarchists at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century with lone wolf
terrorism today, this chapter will examine some case studies to identify the
similarities and the differences between the movements. Terrorism existed long
before the term 'terrorist' was even coined. It was in 1795, during the campaign
of terror initiated by the Revolutionary Government in France when the term
'Terrorist' and 'Terrorism' were coined. Though this was just the term, the true
origins of terrorism are much earlier, as Roger Bates describes, 'since the early
Jewish Zealots, the Ismaili Assassins, the Viking berserkers, and the bomb-
throwing anarchists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, terrorism has
emerged as both a tool and tactic in military, political, economic and religious
struggles'.50 Anarchist terrorists were the first to operate individually in the
modern world on behalf of a greater political goal. Individual acts of terror
became a tactic for the movement. As mentioned in chapter 1, the 'anarchist
movement' was a collective anti-authoritarian protest movement that had a
loosely connected set of values. Individual terror made anarchists more difficult
to detect and counter meaning that, theoretically, an attack could take place
without risking the political movement. Anarchists had become dissatisfied with
the modern political systems, and they opposed state repression. The frustration
49 A war between two entities who differ significantly in strength and tactics employed.
Professional Sociology(Volume 4, 2012) p.1.

27
of repression turned into violence that spanned the world. Anarchists around the
world used individual terrorism as a tactic. Lisbeth van der Heide states,
'Individual (lone operator) terrorism is often linked to the early anarchists at the
turn of the 19th century in Italy and France. These anarchist movements
interpreted propaganda by the deed as a means to convey their feelings to a
larger audience.'51 Anarchist terrorism shares many similarities with modern lone
wolf terrorism and this chapter will primarily analyse three anarchist case
studies, drawing on examples from others in order to identify the parallels
between the two phenomena.
Case Study 1 - Emile Henry
The first case study examined here is that of Emile Henry. Henry came from a
politically active background, his father was a leader in the Paris Commune 1871,
who escaped the executions that followed. Henry was born in Spain where he
lived for the first few years of his life.52John Merriman explains that, 'Henry had
been deeply affected by the state's increased repression of all dissidents. His
father had seen state terror up close, condemned to death in absentia for having
been a militant in the Paris Commune of 1871, after which at least 20,000
Parisians perished.'53 This is no doubt what started Henry on the path toward
revolutionary violence. Upon his return to Paris, Henry became a student at the
prestigious Ecole Polytechnique however he later abandoned his studies to
51Lisbeth van der Heide, Individual Terrorism Indicators of Lone Operators(Utrecht, 2011) p.17.
52 'The Dynamite Club (review)'
[https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_social_history/summary/v044/44.4.blatt.html ]
Accessed 10/7/2014.
53 'Was This Man the FirstTerroristof the Modern Age?'
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8263858.stm] Accessed 18/7/2014.

28
pursue the life of a political revolutionary. In an article for the BBC John
Merriman refers to Henry as the 'first terrorist of the modern age'.54This is due to
his indiscriminate attacks, as he considered all bourgeoisie his enemy. Henry
stated that 'the whole of the bourgeoisie lives by the exploitation of the
unfortunate, and should expiate its crimes together.'55Henry became an active
anarchist terrorist in a time of relatively frequent violent anarchist attacks in
France.
His first attack was on the Paris offices of the Carmaux Mining Company(1892).
The Carmaux Mining Company had crushed a miners' strike and this made it
Henry's first target. His bomb did not explode, so it was taken to a police station
where it later detonated killing five police officers. His second attack was the
bombing of Cafe Terminus(1894). Henry's attacks were different to earlier
anarchist attacks because they 'targeted 'innocent' civilians'.56 John Merriman
claims that this attack on innocent civilians is what 'ignited the age of modern
terrorism'.57 The case of Emile Henry has many similarities to modern lone wolf
terrorism. Henry made his attacks in the name of anarchism, he believed he was
combating social injustice. In fact his attack targeted innocent people on which
he had projected the blame for the inequalities of society. This targeting style is
similar to that of modern lone wolf terrorism. Henry, like modern lone wolves
54ibid Accessed 14/7/2014.
55 'Defence Speech' [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/henry/1894/defence-
speech.htm]Accessed 10/7/2014.
56 'Henry, Emile, 1872-1894'[https://libcom.org/history/henry-emile-1872-1894] Accessed
10/7/2014.
57 'Was This Man the FirstTerroristof the Modern Age?'
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8263858.stm] Accessed 18/7/2014.

29
such as Breivik (who will be discussed in chapter 3) attacked symbolic targets;
innocent civilians who, he rationalised, were part of the problem he was trying to
eradicate. John Merriman believes the attack on Cafe Terminus was a defining
moment in modern history, the day that ordinary people became the targets of
terrorists,58 (as the attack on Carmaux failed to explode until it was in possession
of the police).
Emile Henry gave a telling defence speech, in which he explained his rationale
behind the attacks. In his speech he does little to defend himself from the
crimes, only explains why he carried them out. Henry used his defence speech as
his manifesto, a tactic that has been adopted by anarchist and lone wolf
terrorists alike. The attacks themselves were the propaganda, but his trial was
the medium in which he could explain his actions. In his own words, Henry stated
that, 'it is not a defence that I present to you. I am not in any way seeking to
escape the reprisals of the society I have attacked'.59 Henry's defence speech was
an attempt to get others to follow his example. He did this by carrying out an
attack that would draw attention then used his defence speech to spread his
ideologies; using his attacks as propaganda to encourage others. Henry knew he
would be condemned to death. He claimed that his attacks were a response to
state repression over earlier anarchist attacks:
58
John Merriman, The Dynamite Club: How a Bombing in Fin-de-siècleParis Ignited the Age of
Modern Terror (Boston, 2009) p.5.

30
I had returned to Paris atthe time of the Vaillantaffair,and I witnessed the frightful
repression thatfollowed the explosion atthe PalaisBourbon.I sawthe draconian
measures which the government decided to take againstthe anarchists.Everywhere
there were spies,and searches,and arrests.A crowd of individualswere indiscriminately
rounded up, torn from their families,and thrown into prison.Nobody was concerned
about what happened to the wives and children of these comrades whilethey remained
in jail.60
The affair that Henry refers to was an earlier attack: Auguste Vaillant had thrown
a bomb in the Chamber of Deputies. Joel Blatt describes Vaillant as 'a desperately
poor worker who could not feed his family, he designed his bomb to protest
conditions, not to kill, only lightly wounding a small number.'61Emile Henry's
attack on Cafe Terminus was only one week after the execution of Vaillant. John
Merriman states that Vaillant was 'the first person in nineteenth-century France
to be executed, even though he had not killed anyone'.62 The state had taken a
repressive stance against anarchists, and in response, Henry retorted, 'the
anarchist was no longer regarded as a man, but as a wild beast to be hunted
everywhere while the bourgeois press, which is the vile slave of authority, loudly
demands his extermination.'63 Henry used individual terrorism, because the state
was putting heavy pressure on anarchist groups. To avoid detection he worked
alone to plot and carry out his attacks.
61 'The Dynamite Club (review)'
[https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_social_history/summary/v044/44.4.blatt.html ]
Accessed 10/7/2014.
62John Merriman, The Dynamite Club: How a Bombing in Fin-de-siècle Paris Ignited the Age of
Modern Terror (Boston, 2009) p. 145.

31
Mitch Abador claims that, 'Ravachol came to stand for the propagandists of the
deed; anarchists not interested in organizing mass movements to overthrew the
bourgeois order, but who felt that killing the representatives of that order, the
worst enemies of the proletariat, would bring about a better world'.64Ravachol
was another anarchist terrorist who became a 'romanticised symbol of desperate
revolt'.65 His capture and subsequent trial and execution along with that of
Valliant led to a wide scale anarchist persecution. Henry's attack was a response
to Valliant's execution and is an example of tit for tat political violence.
Throughout the history of terrorism the major contributing factor of violence is
the tit for tat attacks between terrorist organisations (or in this case individuals)
and government violence. Vaillant's attack was a response to the persecution the
anarchists faced after the earlier attacks of Ravachol. As Henry states:
Vaillant,amanon hisown,threw a bomb;nine-tenthsof the comradesdidnot
evenknowhim.Butthat meantnothing;the persecutionwasamass one,and
anyone withthe slightestanarchistlinkswashunteddown.Andsince youholda
whole partyresponsible forthe actionsof a single man,andstrike
indiscriminately,we alsostrikeindiscriminately.66
The actions of Emile Henry, Vaillant and Ravachol were all linked through a
common ideology, or at least a distain for what they perceived as an oppressive
and unfair society. They took it upon themselves to strike out and cause as much
64'Ravachol' [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/ravachol/biography.htm] Accessed
10/7/2014.
65 'Ravachol' [http://www.workersliberty.org/system/files/ravachol.pdf] Accessed 10/7/2014

32
damage as they could. John Merriman states that 'the extremely sensitive Emile
had evolved into a fanatic who believed that only terrorism could solve the deep
problems of society'.67 Henry was neither the first or last anarchist to turn to this
kind of extremism in the name of anarchism.
Anarchist terrorism, as with many forms of terrorism, was a response to
(perceived) state repression. The ideology behind anarchism made it dangerous
to the established social order. Therefore a strong approach was taken to deal
with the anarchists. In response the anarchists often attacked using individual
terror tactics. There is much more to anarchism as an ideology but the violence
behind anarchist terrorism is the most well known attribute. As Henry explained,
'I do not need to develop on this occasion the whole theory of anarchism. I
merely wish to emphasize its revolutionary aspect, the destructive and negative
aspect that brings me here before you'.68 'Propaganda of the deed' has remained
a integral part of the terrorist philosophy. Henry was one of the many anarchist
terrorists to strike in a similar way to modern lone wolves. Henry is integral to
this study because he was able to give a detailed statement about his
motivations. It is in his defence speech he professed his motivations in the same
way as modern lone wolf terrorists such as Anders Breivik. Henry claimed that;
You have hangedinChicago,decapitatedinGermany,garottedinJerez, - shotin
Barcelona,guillotinedinMontbrisonandParis,butwhatyouwill neverdestroy
67John Merriman, The Dynamite Club: How a Bombing in Fin-de-siècleParis Ignited the Age of
Modern Terror (Boston, 2009) p. 101

33
isanarchy. Its rootsare too deep.Itisborn inthe heart of a societythat is
rottingand fallingapart.Itisa violentreactionagainstthe establishedorder.It
representsall the egalitarianandlibertarianaspirationsthatstrike out against
authority.Itis everywhere,whichmakesitimpossible tocontain.Itwill endby
killingyou.69
Henry was describing both anarchism and the tactic of individual terrorism as a
weapon against 'state repression'. The importance of the anarchist movement
was the legacy of violence it produced. The anarchist movement was the origin
of early lone wolf style terrorism, a phenomenon that has existed ever since,
typically using indiscriminate violence and propaganda of the deed.
Case Study 2 - Leon Czolgosz
The anarchist terrorist movement, as with the lone wolf movement, was an
international phenomenon. The next case study I will look at is Leon Czolgosz and
his role in the assassination of US President McKinley. Czolgosz came from a poor
family and started work when he was just 10 years old. Working in the factories,
he and his brothers experienced the extreme social disparity between the rich
and poor. The 1880s and 1890s saw tensions run high and resulted in many high
profile strike movements. Czolgosz was witness to this, and to the brutality with
which these movements were often dealt with. It was this that deeply angered
him turning him toward socialist and anarchist teachings.70 Similar to many lone
70 'Leon Frank Czolgosz' [http://www.biography.com/people/leon-frank-czolgosz-235807]
Accessed 10/7/2014.

34
wolf terrorists (according to Dr.Meloy and Dr.Yakely71 ) it was possible that
Czolgosz had mental health issues. Dr Channing described Czolgosz as in 'a
physical and mental state of sickliness'.72 The Tribune reported that 'our first
thought must be that the murderous attack was the act of a madman'.73Czolgosz
reportedly tried to join several anarchist groups, but wasn’t accepted by any of
them.74He was therefore forced to work alone. It is thought that he found
inspiration for his future terrorist strike. On July 29, 1900, King Umberto I of Italy
was assassinated by anarchist Gaetano Bresci.75 The assassination of King
Umberto is what gave Czolgosz his inspiration. He soon set off on his own
mission to assassinate the American President. Propaganda by the deed had
brought the anarchist movement to a new age of political violence.
Czolgosz carried out his attack in Buffalo, New York, while President McKinley
was on a pan-American exposition. The president was meeting with members of
the public at the Temple of Music when Czolgosz attacked. It was a high profile
attack, that gained maximum media attention. The assassination like the attacks
of the anarchists Henry, Vaillant and Ravachol brought about strong
repercussions for the anarchist movement as a whole. The Times reported that;
71Dr.Meloy and Dr.Yakely, 'The Violent True Believer as a "Lone Wolf" - Psychoanalytical
Perspectives on Terrorism', Behavioural Sciences and the Law (Volume 32, 2014)
72 'Was CzolgoszInsane?'[http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-
am/exposition/law/czolgosz/insane.html] Accessed 10/7/2014
73 'Feeling in America', The Times, (Sep 09,1901)
Accessed 10/7/2014.
Accessed 10/7/2014.

35
'One result of Czolgosz's foul crime promises to be the curtailment, if not the
complete abandonment, of the old notion, deep-rooted as it is in this country,
that the head of the Government should always be personally accessible to any
body of citizens, no matter where they come from.'76 The words of this article
seem to hint at the anti-immigration policies that were a result of the
assassination. Emma Goldman was named by Czolgosz as his inspiration, and
Goldman and others were thought to have been involved in the assassination
plot. It was later determined that Czolgosz acted alone.77The Times wrote that
'the Anarchists of New York and Paterson are frightened at the public demand
that they should be treated severely, which is so great that it cannot be
ignored.'78The assassination of McKinley was one of many anarchist attacks
during this period. It was widely publicised and no doubt encouraged others just
as he himself was inspired by the assassination of King Umberto. A prime
example of propaganda by the deed.
The assassination took place in September 1901. The anarchist movement was
well established by this point and political violence had arisen in many places
around the globe. The US had experienced anarchist attacks before in the form
of the attempted assassination of Henry Clay Frick and the Haymarket affair.
Elisha Dixon describes;
76 Latest IntelligencePresidentMcKinley,The Times September 09 1901
77'Leon Frank Czolgosz' [http://www.biography.com/people/leon-frank-czolgosz-235807]
Accessed 10/7/2014.
78 Latest IntelligencePresidentMcKinley, The Times September 09 1901

36
The “first terroristact inAmerica,”asits perpetratordescribedit,
occurredon July23, 1892. AlexanderBerkman,knownasSasha,a 20-
year-oldRussianimmigrantoutragedatthe brutal suppressionof the
strike at Carnegie Steel’sHomesteadplant,burst intothe office of Henry
ClayFrick,the plant’smanager,shothimtwice,thentriedtostabhim.
The attemptedassassination,or attentat, wasmeanttoinspire workers
at Homesteadandelsewhere tomove beyondtheirfightforbetter
wagesintofull revoltagainstthe capitalistsystem:itwas“anact of
liberation,”Berkmansaid.
The first attack was an admitted 'propaganda by the deed' style attack. Berkman
carried out the attack in order to encourage others, not just striking workers but
individuals willing to carry out similar attacks. It was carried out so that other
individuals could follow the lead, inspiring individual terrorism as part of the
anarchist movement. The Haymarket affair of 1886 was an earlier anarchist
attack. It was an organised anarchist attack on Chicago's Haymarket Square that
killed a policeman and wounded several others. The difference is that, though
the Haymarket affair was widely known, it was committed by an organised group
of anarchists.
The aftermath of the assassination brought about measures which attempted to
prevent further anarchist attacks. Buffalo University's website states that
'Czolgosz's deed and the attitude towards anarchism was most certainly an

37
integral part of the passing of the Alien Immigration Act in 1903.'79 The Alien
immigration act was designed to combat anarchists and immigrants. The first
recommendation to congress by Theodore Roosevelt;
I earnestly recommend to Congress that in the exerciseof its wisediscretion itshould
take into consideration the comingto this country of anarchists or persons professing
hostility to all government and justifyingthe murder of those placed in authority.Such
individualsas thosewho not longago gathered in open meeting to glorify the murder of
KingHumbert of Italy perpetrate a crime, and the lawshould ensure their rigorous
punishment. They and those likethem should be kept out of this country; and if found
here they should be promptly deported to the country whence they came80
As a result of this act Anarchists such as Goldman and Berkman were deported.
Yet the violence in America continued. Modern lone wolf terror is a phenomenon
that has occurred in America more than anywhere else in the world.
Czolgosz had led an impoverished life and witnessed the inequalities of society.
Czolgosz claimed that his inspiration was Emma Goldman. Upon hearing her
speak, Czolgosz considered himself an Anarchist.81 Emma Goldman was a highly
influential anarchist writer and public speaker. The Times reported that Czolgosz
said 'a lecture by Emma Goldman at Cleveland "set me on fire. Her doctrine that
all rulers should be exterminated was what set me thinking so that my head
79'Anarchy at the Turn of the Century' [http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-
am/exposition/law/anarchy.html] Accessed 12/7/2014.
80'Triumphs of the Roosevelt Administration'
[https://archive.org/stream/triumphsofroosev00howl/triumphsofroosev00howl_djvu.txt]
Accessed 12/7/2014.
81 'Leon Czolgosz and the Trial' [http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-am/exposition/law/czolgosz/]
Accessed 11/8/2014.

38
nearly split with pain". As a result, 'he made up his mind to do something for the
cause he loved.82 This statement led to the implication of Emma Goldman in the
plot and though she was not involved it probably played a major role in her later
deportation. Czolgosz's famous confession was; 'I killed President McKinley
because I done my duty. I didn’t believe one man should have so much service
and another man should have none'.83
Czolgosz initially gave his name to police as Fred Neiman. Neiman means
'nobody' in German. This suggests the ideals of nihilism; namely, that Czolgosz's
beliefs were ideologically nihilist rather than anarchist. Nihilismis a revolutionary
movement of mid19th-century Russia that scorned authority and tradition and
believed in reason, materialism, and radical change in society and government
through terrorism and assassination.84 Most anti-establishment ideologies were
classed as anarchismat the turn of the twentieth century. Commenting on
Czolgosz, Goldman claimed:
I did not know the man [Czolgosz]; no one as far as I amaware seems to have known
him, but from his attitude and behaviour so far (I hope that no reader of "Free Society"
82Latest IntelligencePresidentMcKinley, The Times (September 9 1901)
83 'Presidential Assassin'[http://www.biography.com/people/leon-frank-czolgosz-
235807#presidential-assassin] Accessed 11/7/2014.
84'Nihilism' [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/nihilism] Accessed 1/7/2014.

39
has believed the newspaper lies),I feel that he was a soul in pain,a soul thatcould find
no abode in this cruel world of ours.85
Goldman echoed the despair that appears in everything written about Czolgosz
and though he implicated her, albeit unintentionally, she expressed her
sympathies at his predicament.
And my heart goes out to him in deep sympathy, and to all the victims of a system of
inequality,and the many who will diethe forerunners of a better, nobler, grander life.86
Czolgosz's attack was called 'anarchist' but in reality he was just protesting the
poor conditions he had been subject to. Anarchism as an ideology is as absent
from this assassination as it is in modern forms of lone wolf terrorism. It was
labelled anarchism because it had become a synonym for domestic terrorism.
Anarchist terrorism has been carried out time and again as a separate entity
completely from the ideologies of anarchism. One is a form of political protest
and the other, a form of political philosophy.
Case Study 3 - Marinus van der Lubbe
The third study this paper will examine is Marinus van der Lubbe and his role in
the Reichstag fire. Like the other attacks examined here, this was not associated
with larger anarchist groups, in fact, by the time of this attack the major political
threat throughout Europe was communism and fascism. Marinus van der Lubbe,
85'Anarchy at the Turn of the Century' [http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-
am/exposition/law/anarchy.html] Accessed 12/7/2014.
86ibid.

40
at the time, was not linked with any communist organisation. However, if we
refer back to the definition of anarchismoffered in the introduction, anarchism
(or at least anarchist terrorism) is a 'cluster of general principles'.87Marinus van
der Lubbe offers an insight into the transition from anarchist terrorism to lone
wolf terrorism, reinforcing the idea that the phenomena of individual terror
never ended. Generally speaking communists (and anarchists) do not believe in
small scale violence, only large scale movements. Van der Lubbe denied having
any connection with the Communist Party in Germany.88 Furthermore after the
fire the Nazis tried to implicate other communists in the plot, however the others
put on trial were acquitted. Although highly debated there is evidence to suggest
that the Reichstag fire was an act of lone wolf terrorism.
The Reichstag fire is a major source of conspiracy theory because it was the very
incident the Nazis needed to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree in order to
consolidate their power. Much of the Nazis’ election campaign revolved around
the threat of communism and it is for this reason that, in hindsight, the burning
the of Reichstag looked like a Nazi plot. For a long time it was accepted as truth
that the Nazis had orchestrated the attack. As AJP Taylor states, 'the case against
the Nazis rested on two arguments or rather assumptions: the first that van der
Lubbe was a physical degenerate who was incapable of starting fires alone; the
second that it was impossible, in any case, for the fires to have been started by a
87 George Woodcock(ed), The Anarchist Reader (Glasgow, 1977) p.62.
88 Fritz Tobias,The Reichstag Fire (Toronto, 1964) p.32.

41
single man.'89 Of course this study is about identifying lone terrorists and Fritz
Tobias, author of The Reichstag Fire, presents a convincing case that van der
Lubbe acted alone. AJP Taylor states that 'there is no firm evidence that the
Nazis had anything to do with the fire. There is much evidence that van der
Lubbe did it alone, as he claimed.'90 So it is for this reason that van der Lubbe can
be included in this study. As he told the German high court:"I did it alone. I was
there. I know."91
Marinus van der Lubbe and the story of the Reichstag fire has been the subject of
much manipulation. His story has been adapted to suit the various accusers who
attempt to marginalise his role in the Reichstag fire. He was born in Holland and
raised in extreme poverty. He was intelligent and articulate and interested in
utopian politics. After an accident working as a bricklayer, which led to his eyes
being damaged, he was given a small invalidity pension. It was at this point he
became more heavily involved in politics, joining the Dutch Communist
Party(1926).92 He left for Germany in 1933 where he became involved in protests
against the Nazi Government. Detective-Inspector Zirpins described van der
Lubbe as 'endowed with a great deal of intelligence (...) he had, as it were, a
genius for numbers'.93Zirpins claimed that van der Lubbe had an incredible
89 Fritz Tobias,The ReichstagFire (Toronto, 1964) p.14.
90ibid, p.15.
91ibid, p.14.
92 'Marinus van der Lubbe' [http://spartacus-educational.com/GERlubbe.htm] Accessed
11/7/2014.

42
memory; for example, he was able to draw a detailed plan of the Reichstag and a
Welfare Office he had attacked two days prior.94 Conspiracy theories dominate
much of the literature on the Reichstag fire because of the opportunity it gave
the Nazis to increase their foothold on German politics. Van der Lubbe was
affiliated with Dutch communists but acted alone in his series of arson attacks in
Berlin. Van der Lubbe stated that, "I myself am a Leftist, and was a member of
the Communist Party until 1929. What I did not like about the Party is the way
they lord it over the workers, instead of letting the workers decide for
themselves."95 Though van der Lubbe believed in the left wing politics of the
communist party, he did not accept their methods of gaining political control.
Van der Lubbe carried out two solo arson attacks in Berlin. The first was an
attack on the Welfare Office in Neukolln, two days later the second was the
attack on the Reichstag in which he burned the Chamber of Deputies. Though
conflicting theories exist with regards to who started the fire, there is sufficient
evidence to support the claimthat van der Lubbe acted alone. As Richard Evans
states, 'a former anarcho-syndicalist, he had already tried unsuccessfully to set
fire to a series of public buildings in protest against the political and social system
he held responsible for mass unemployment'.96 Nobody was killed in the
94ibid, p.34.
95ibid,p.35.
96 'The Conspiracists' [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n09/richard-j-evans/the-conspiracists] Accessed
1/7/2014.

43
attacks.97It was instead a form of violent vandalismwhich is a tactic also used by
some modern lone wolves.98 This was a form of violent political protest that
deliberately avoided killing (or even wounding in this case). The act itself and the
political message it brought was largely overshadowed by the Nazi response to
the fire. As Evans states, 'the Nazis did their best to make political capital out of
the verdict'.99 What followed for the Nazis was their consolidation of power
through emergency decree. It is for this reason that conspiracy theory surrounds
this event. The effective way the Nazis capitalised on the attack was what made
it appear to be a conspiracy. The charges against the other men put on trial were
dropped, but there was evidence enough to implicate van der Lubbe. This
suggests that the Nazis did not have a controlling influence in the courts to sway
a verdict, yet there was sufficient evidence to convict van der Lubbe.
The Nazis had been steadily increasing their political influence while the
successive chancellors of the Reichstag could not effectively hold together a
majority. What makes van der Lubbe's attack a pivotal point in history was not
the act itself. The attack, once blamed on the Communist threat, meant that the
Communist deputies were excluded from the Reichstag as part of a conspiracy.
Hitler and the Nazis used the threat of terrorism, as it has been used many times
since, to instil fear and increase their political authority. The threat of terrorism
97Although van der Lubbe was executed as a result.
98 Groups such as ALF and ELF which encourage lonewolf terror but areagainstharmingpeople.
99 'The Conspiracists' [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n09/richard-j-evans/the-conspiracists] Accessed
1/7/2014.

44
is a strong political tool, as when an arson attack is turned into something of
much greater political significance. Fritz Tobias wrote that, 'not one of them was
prepared to listen to him, partly because of his theories transcended their
narrow political horizons, and partly because of their hatred of anything that
smacked of communism'.100 Communism in Germany in the 1930s was used as a
blanket term for anti-government activity just as anarchismwas at the turn of
the century. It mattered not to the government what politics these terrorists
truly represented, they were categorised in order to simplify it for the people, so
that they knew which politics were evil and which politics would protect them
from these lone wolf terrorist attacks.
Van der Lubbe attacked the Reichstag because he was a left wing radical who
wanted to inspire others to rise up against the Nazis. Fritz Tobias states that, 'Van
der Lubbe despaired at the lack of fight shown by the Communists and other
opponents of Hitler. He wished to give a signal of revolt.'101 Van der Lubbe had
left the Communist Party because he believed they were not doing enough for
the workers. He believed more had to be done for the workers by the workers,
rather than submitting to a party that did not effectively represent them. In a
police report van der Lubbe said: 'Since the workers would do nothing, I had to
do something myself. I considered arson a suitable method. I did not wish to
101ibid, p.14.

45
harm private people but something that belonged to the systemitself'.102 Van
der Lubbe's choice of target was highly political and highly symbolic. This attack
was designed to gain maximum publicity in order to encourage others to do the
same. As Tobias explains, 'in his police interview his motives had been political:
he wanted to encourage the German workers to fight for their freedom. His deed
was meant as an example.'103 The message of van der Lubbe's attack has been
largely forgotten due to the events that followed, yet it is perhaps one of the
most important protest actions against the Nazis.
Van der Lubbe was not affiliated with a larger organisation at the time of the
attack. He was politically left wing and believed that more extreme action had to
be taken to cause a stir within society. He wanted to ignite a larger scale
movement through small acts of violence to promote the cause through
propaganda of the deed and to discredit the strength of the government and its
ability to prevent terrorism. The attack was carried out by van der Lubbe alone
and it appears that the larger conspiracy was down to fabrication. In van der
Lubbe's own words, 'as to the question whether I acted alone, I declare
emphatically that this was the case. No one at all helped me, nor did I meet a
single person in the Reichstag.'.104 Van der Lubbe would have been considered
an anarchist had the communists not become the next greatest political threat.
Anarchy was earlier used as an umbrella term for anti-government protesters,
102ibid, p.35.
103ibid, p.32.
104ibid, p.36.

46
van der Lubbe would have fitted this category perfectly. He is an example of the
transition from anarchist terrorism to lone wolf terrorism.
Anarchism was in many ways the beginning of the lone wolf terrorist
phenomenon. Lone wolf terror was used as a tactic in which anti-government
feeling was expressed through violence. Those dubbed 'anarchist terrorists' were
not always politically aligned to anarchism, though most were fighting against
perceived repression within their countries. President Theodore Roosevelt
claimed that, 'anarchy is no more an expression of 'social discontent' than
picking pockets or wife beating. The anarchist, and especially the anarchist in the
United States, is merely one type of criminal, more dangerous than any other,
because he represents the same depravity in a greater degree'.105 Anarchist
terrorism had little to do with the philosophy of anarchism. It was the term used
to describe anti-government violence and there was so much of it at the turn of
the twentieth century that it was considered the first major wave of terrorism.
Its danger, like that of lone wolf terrorism, was that it could appear anywhere
and unleash terrorist forms of violence. Anarchist terrorists attacked because of
smaller, more personal issues than that of the global anarchist movement. Henry
was an anarchist, his attacks were as a protest against the violent repercussions
of the Vaillant affair. He stated, 'I had been told that our social institutions were
founded on justice and equality; I observed all around me nothing but lies and
105'Triumphs of the Roosevelt Administration'
[https://archive.org/stream/triumphsofroosev00howl/triumphsofroosev00howl_djvu.txt]
Accessed 12/7/2014.

47
impostures.'106 Leon Czolgosz had turned to anarchism. As a man that had
witnessed injustice and inequality, he was inspired by a lecture by Emma
Goldman and acted on it. Van der Lubbe was a radical communist, his attack was
against the authoritarian regime that was starting to dominate German politics.
All three of these cases were attacking authoritarianism in one form or another.
However they all took separate approaches, they were all protesting different
things, the only common aspect was the use of individual terrorism.
Van der Lubbe's destruction of property shares a common factor with some
contemporary lone wolves, who act on behalf of the environment (such as
extremists with ALF and ELF):
The concept of leaderless resistancealso has been picked up as a tactical component by
a number of other groups. The Animal Liberation Front and the Earth Liberation Front
have stressed this concept as a part of their operational philosophies.CarlosMarighella,
the left-wing champion of urban terrorismin the 1960s,advocated this policy in his Mini
manual of the Urban Guerrilla.107
Van de Lubbe's sentiments of, 'I did not wish to harm private people but
something that belonged to the system itself',108 share similar characteristics
with these modern organisations. Van de Lubbe's attack also shares similar
characteristics with the case of August Vaillant who threw a bomb in the

48
chamber of deputies but 'he wanted to wound and not kill, had put nails and not
pellets.'109These attacks were a political protest and they had limited their
violence. It is perhaps important to note that both van der Lubbe and Vaillant
were both executed despite not having killed anyone, giving some indication of
the governments they were attacking.
Leon Czolgosz was inspired by other political assassinations such as King
Umberto. Lisbeth van der Heide explains: 'What distinguished this form of
anarchist assassination from other, earlier, forms of individual terrorism is that it
was carried out by lone operators' and that 'the act of rebellion was an end in
itself; the only aim was rebellion.'110 This is where we find the distinguishing
feature between anarchist and lone wolf terrorists. Anarchist terrorists attacked
with the hope that it would inspire large scale revolution, that their act would
trigger something bigger. Modern lone wolves attack as a form of protest. The
new terrorists, as van der Heide explains, 'seek a change throughout the whole
world, not something that can be accomplished on a short term.'111 Lone wolf
terrorism is often found in groups that are looking for a fundamental change in
the world. They are often religious and are not simply trying to create a
revolution and restructure the government or society. The so-called anarchist
109 'The Interrogation of Emile Henry'
[https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/henry/1894/interrogation.htm] Accessed
10/7/2014.
110Lisbeth van der Heide, Individual Terrorism Indicators of Lone Operators(Utrecht, 2011), p.18-
19.
111Lisbeth van der Heide, Individual Terrorism Indicators of Lone Operators(Utrecht, 2011), p.21.

49
terrorists of the nineteenth and twentieth century were conducting attacks
against what perceived as authoritarian governments. Modern lone wolf
terrorists rarely operate with the goal of a revolution. Individual acts of terror
came from countries that had experienced larger scale terrorist movements that
had been effectively combated by the government, the result was that potential
terrorists were unable to organise without government intervention. Leading to
the adoption of individual terror in order to encourage others through
propaganda of the deed. If any of these cases had happened in the twenty first
century, they would most certainly be called lone wolf terrorists.

50
Chapter 3
Lone Wolf Terrorism
We are in the very beginning of a very bloody cultural war, a war between
nationalism and internationalism and we intend to win it. - Anders Breivik

51
Leaderless resistance was turned to as the tactic of choice among American
white supremacists in the 1980s, after it was influentially encouraged by The
Turner Diaries(1978). The New York times called the novel by WilliamPierce –
founder of the American neo-Nazi movement, the National Alliance – as an
'explicitly racist and anti-Semitic work of political fiction'; and moreover, 'no
other book has so influenced the culture of the extremist right'.112 Since the
1980s other white supremacist leaders have also advocated the tactic.
In the USA most cases of lone wolf terrorism have been the result of white
supremacist groups that encourage lone actors to orchestrate attacks. After 9/11
these groups have seen growing support. Leaderless resistance was popularised
by Louis Beam a former member of the KKK. In an essay titled Leaderless
Resistance first published in 1983 he wrote that,
It is clear,therefore, that it is time to rethink traditional strategy and tactics when it
comes to opposinga modern policestate. America is quickly movinginto a longdark
night of policestate tyranny, where the rights now accepted by most as being
inalienablewill disappear.Let the comingnight be filled with a thousand points of
resistance.Like the fog which forms when conditions arerightand disappearswhen
they are not, so must the resistanceto tyranny be.113
Louis Beam was just one of many who advocated this tactic. It was used, first and
foremost, because of its effectiveness. It meant that a violent operation could be
112 'Terror in Oklahoma', The New York Times, April 26th 1995
113 'Leaderless Resistance'[http://www.louisbeam.com/leaderless.htm] Accessed 27/7/2014.

52
conducted without harming the greater organisations. Fraser Glenn Miller, a
former grand dragon of the Carolina Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, repeatedly tried
to establish a white supremacist movement in the image of Hitler's Brown Shirts.
He stated that, “I would try to emulate Hitler’s methods of attracting members
and supporters”.114 Miller's attempts at setting up a paramilitary group were
repeatedly shut down, in frustration he published a document called the
Declaration of War115 in which he encouraged the use of lone wolf terrorism on a
points system:
“Aryan warriors of The Order” to kill “our enemies,” and established a pointsystem for
each kill.Thetargets were: “Niggers (1), White race traitors (10),Jews (10), Judges (50)
Morris Seligman Dees (888).” He signed the statement “Glenn Miller,loyal member of
‘The Order.'"
These influences were strong in America but the white supremacist movement
has spread to other countries in part due to the philosophy of these men.
Alex Curtis also played a major role in the popularisation of lone wolf terror.
Spaaij explains that he;
employed the internet and his Nationalist Observer magazine to popularizethe concept
of the lone wolf terrorist(ADL,2011). In 1993, Curtis encouraged other white
supremacists to actalonein committing violentacts so that they would not incriminate
114'Frazier Glenn Miller'
[http://www.splcenter.org/get%20informed/intelligence%20files/profiles/Glenn%20Miller]
Accessed 10/8/2014.
115'Declaration of War' [http://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/declaration_of_war.pdf]
Accessed 8/8/2014.

53
others. Curtis even posted on his web-site a “Lone Wolf Points System” that awarded
scores for assassinationsbased upon the potential significanceof the victims'116
After the arrest and incarceration of Curtis he made a deal for a reduced
sentence, a reversal of his previously held views, as a result of which he was
heavily criticised by other neo-Nazis. One highly influential white supremacist,
Tom Metzger, criticised Curtis' resolve:
Some racists pointed to the Curtis deal as proof that "Lone Wolf does not work." In fact,
Metzger asserted, "the opposite is true," for if Curtis "had adhered to strictLone Wolf
methods" he might not have been apprehended and prosecuted in the firstplace."I
regret Alex Curtis has taken himself out of the game way [too] early,"Metzger wrote.
"The best times haven't even started yet for the Lone Wolf."117
The influence these advocates of lone wolf terror had on the white supremacist
movement is evident, for 'the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB)
has identified close to 140 ideologically motivated homicides committed by far-
rightists between 1990 and 2010'.118 These men were highly significant to the
resurgence of individual terror. They encouraged the use of lone wolf terrorism,
through literature and influence, the scale of the white supremacist individual
terror had not been seen since the anarchist 'wave'.
117 'Alex Curtis' [http://archive.adl.org/learn/ext_us/curtis.html?LEARN_Cat=Extremism]
Accessed 10/8/2014.
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public Policy (Volume 12, 2013) p. 67

54
Jeffrey Kaplan states that lone wolf terrorism is 'more a mark of despair than a
revolutionary strategy, leaderless resistance as it was formulated and
disseminated to the far right faithful sought to make a virtue of weakness and
political isolation.'119 Though this may be true, it has become the tactic of choice
for other political activists. In some cases effective policing of potential terrorists
has meant that organisations were much easier to detect and therefore
ideological leaders encouraged the idea of lone wolf terror. Gruendwald
Chermak and Freilich explain that,
Racistleader Louis Beam publicized the concept of “leaderless resistance”widely in the
early 1980s.He argued that organizational hierarchies arecumbersome and open to law
enforcement infiltration,and thatcriminal activities need to be isolated fromlarger
organizations to limitthe criminal and civil liability of the group.120
On the other hand lone wolf terror is not just a last resort. It is a frightening
method of political violence advocated and carried out by an individual in order
to publicise their political cause. It is essentially the continuation of 'propaganda
by the deed'. The tactic of individual terror has been widely used by the white
supremacist movement, seeing some success in the US. It has, more recently,
seen other political groups adopting it. The similarities between anarchist and
lone wolf terrorism are evident.
119Jeffrey Kaplan,'Leaderless Resistance', Terrorism and Political Violence, (Volume 9, 2007), p.80.
Extremist Violence.' Criminology & Public Policy (Volume 12, 2013) p. 67

55
Lone wolf terrorism, like individual anarchist terrorism is a self-initiated terror
campaign. Roger Bates identifies the two forms of lone wolf terrorism as: chaos
or career.121 Chaos is represented by the case of Anders Breivik, who went on a
shooting rampage after bombing government buildings in the heart of Oslo.
Breivik's attack was devastating, killing 77 people in all, and gained him
worldwide infamy. Alternatively a lone wolf would conduct a number of smaller
scale attacks, designed to avoid detection. George Metesky is an example of a
career lone wolf terrorist. Metesky planted 33 pipe bombs over 17 years injuring
15 but none were fatal. Metesky's campaign was more careful, he used smaller
attacks to avoid detection and the lethality of the attacks was meant to create
fear rather than kill his targets. These different approaches go some way to
explain the diversity of lone wolf attacks. Similar diversity can be found within
anarchist attacks: both Henry and van der Lubbe were caught during their
second attack and both of which were captured while trying to escape. They
were trying to embark on a campaign of terror, though they lacked the necessary
skills to avoid detection. Leon Czolgosz was an example of a 'chaos' lone wolf, he
almost certainly knew that he would not escape from his attempt on President
McKinley's life, yet carried out his attack anyway in a way that would cause
widespread panic and gain him notoriety.
Stewart claims that the lone wolf tactic is not a major threat:

56
Whilethis operational model offers security advantages regardingcommunications and
makes it impossiblefor the authorities to plantan informant in a group, it also increases
operational security risks by exposingthe lone operator atmultiplepoints of the
planningprocess.122
This point holds some truth, a successful lone wolf attack would mean that the
individual would require a certain skill set and perhaps some luck. Accordingly, it
seems that individual terrorists often make no escape plan or are captured after
an attack. Modern anti-terrorist policing relies heavily on the interception of
communications. A number of small scale lone wolf terror attacks are equally as
significant as one large scale attack. Anarchist terrorists employed individual
terror because, like modern lone wolves, it was much harder for the authorities
to detect. Jensen explains that '(individual anarchist terrorists) posed a big
problem for governments and law enforcement agencies since they had a
difficult time trying to monitor lone potential assassins and bomb throwers who
were often unknown and who belonged to no known group'.123
Lone wolf terrorism and anarchist terrorists differ from hierarchical terrorist
organisations. Though they typically sympathise with a larger political movement
their actions are conducted alone, without outside command and control. Spaaij
claims it is 'a variable combination of political and personal motives.'124Anarchist
123 Richard Bach Jensen, 'The Pre-1914 Anarchist"Lone Wolf"Terroristand Government
Responses' Terrorism and Political Violence (Volume 26, 2013),p. 87.

57
terrorists and lone wolf terrorists employ 'propaganda of the deed'. The attacks
are supposed to effect their target audience psychologically, as Roger Griffin
explains:
the psychological effect of 'terror‘ or of debilitating fear which deliberate acts of
violence (or the threat they pose) are designed to have on those not directly caught up
in them but their target audience (rulers, politicians, the military, the public whose
opinion and 'mood‘ is to be changed). But its ambiguous, 'polysemic‘ nature has little to
do with its unusual formation or the nature of terrorist violence as such.125
Terrorism is usually used by lone wolves in order to publicise their cause; to
create a climate of fear within society and the government; to inspire others into
revolutionary fervour; and to damage the strength of the established
government and/or political system. Most agree that lone attacks are usually less
effective than those carried out by an organisation, however Michael believes
that 'leaderless resistance could be waged as part of a war of a thousand cuts.'126
The attacks are smaller and less lethal but they can appear anywhere at any time
by any radicalised individual.
To critically analyse the parallels between anarchism and lone wolf terrorism I
will now examine a selection of lone wolf case studies. These instances range in
date, political motivation, region and circumstances. The range of case studies
has been chosen to reinforce the point that lone wolf terror is a tactic used by
125 Roger Griffin, The Terrorist’s Creed (Basingstoke,2012), p. 11.
126 George Michael,'Counterinsurgency and Lone Wolf Terrorism', Terrorism and Political
Violence (Volume 26, 2013),p. 54.

58
various ideological extremists. As Roger Bates rightly notes, 'lone wolf terrorism
is not restricted to a single political or religious orientation'.127 Cases of individual
terror have occurred throughout the nineteenth, twentieth and now the twenty
first century. Modern cases of lone wolf terror have often taken place in
America, which Spaaij claims witness 57% of all terrorist attacks committed by
individuals.128 The graph below shows the location of lone wolf attacks in Spaaij's
study over four decades.
1. Four decades of lone wolf terrorism129
The graph shows that until the twenty first century the majority of attacks took
place in the US. It also shows the rise of lone wolf terrorism throughout the
world since the 1970s.
128 Spaaij conducted a study of 15 countries between 1968- 2010. Ramon Spaaij, Understanding
Lone Wolf Terrorism (London, 2012),p. 30.

59
These attacks have many political motivations but the largest group (of which the
political motivation is known) are white supremacists. The chart below shows the
ideological sources of lone wolf terrorism in Spaaij's study.
2. Ideological sources of lone wolf terrorism130
The chart shows that the highest concentration of attacks are carried out by
'unknown' and 'other'. These sections could represent individuals who have
committed acts of terrorism due to a single issue. The largest represented
ideology is white supremacists.
Jeffrey Simon states that 'lone wolf attacks in recent years have ranged from
terrorists motivated by single issues and antigovernment ideology to those
inspired by Islamic extremism and white supremacy'.131 A special issue of
Terrorism and Political Violence looked at lone wolf terrorism. Articles included
lone wolf terrorism and the jihadist movement, the anti-jihadist movement the
potential of lone wolf terrorism and also its links to the anarchist movement. The
131 Jeffrey Simon, Lone Wolf Terrorism Understanding the Growing Threat (New York, 2013) p.24

60
articles identify the diverse nature of the lone wolf terror phenomenon. The
following studies will look at a range of individual terror attacks motivated by a
range of ideologies.
Case Study 1 - Ted Kaczynski
Ted Kaczynski was a promising academic who studied mathematics at Harvard
University, and was considered something of a mathematics prodigy. He taught
at the University of California before leaving to live a survivalist lifestyle in the
Montana woods.132 His brother, David, described him has having an "aversion to
people", an attribute as a child that was overlooked.133In Alston Chase’s words:
'During his college years he had fantasies of living a primitive life and fantasized
himself as "an agitator, rousing mobs to frenzies of revolutionary violence." He
claims that during that time he started to think about breaking away from
normal society.'134 Chase was a Harvard graduate who Kaczynski has kept in
contact with since his incarceration. Kaczynski was spared the death sentence
after being diagnosed with schizophrenia. This perhaps raises some questions
about lone wolf terrorism and mental illness, something that will be looked at in
the final chapter. The Guardian wrote, 'The threatened capital punishment was
only dropped after Ted was diagnosed with schizophrenia and pleaded guilty to
132 'Ted Kaczynski' [http://www.biography.com/people/ted-kaczynski-578450] Accessed
31/7/2014.
133 'My Brother the Unabomber' [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/15/my-brother-
the-unabomber] Accessed 30/7/2014.
134 'Harvard and the Makingof the Unabomber'
[http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2000/06/chase.htm]Accessed 22/7/2014.

61
all charges'135. Kaczynski was a neo-luddite who hated technology because he
thought it was destroying the planet. His campaign of terror, for which he was
dubbed ‘the Unabomber’, focused on attacking establishments which he thought
promoted technology. His attacks came as a result of his increasing isolation
from society, including a falling out with his family. Kaczynski had taken up a job
at a factory where his brother worked and was forced to fire him. Kaczynski was
found as a result of the publishing of his manifesto in which his brother had
recognised his rambling and angry style of writing and reported him.
Kaczynski led a long and dangerous terror campaign. The Guardian described him
as 'the "neo-Luddite" murderer who, over 17 years, waged a twisted campaign of
mail bombings against targets including American universities and airlines'.136 He
was dubbed the 'Unabomber' because of his focus on universities and airlines.
Throughout his seventeen year campaign Kaczynski killed three and injured
twenty seven others.137 Under Roger Bates' definition Kaczynski would be
considered a 'career lone wolf'. Kaczynski believed that 'the Industrial Revolution
and its consequences have been a disaster for the human race.'138 As a result he
targeted people linked to modern technology. He led a campaign of small and
well-planned attacks to avoid detection but became increasingly confident. In
135 'My Brother the Unabomber' [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/15/my-brother-
the-unabomber] Accessed 30/7/2014.
136ibid
137'Targeting Children:PoliceHunt For Italian "Unabomber"'
[http://www.spiegel.de/international/targeting-children-police-hunt-for-italian-unabomber-a-
415275.html] Accessed 31/7/2014.
138 'Unabomber's Manifesto'[http://cyber.eserver.org/unabom.txt] Accessed 30/7/2014.

62
the end it was his manifesto that left him vulnerable to identification. Peter
Phillips claims that, 'the social and political views of Theodore Kaczynski (a.k.a.
“the Unabomber”) appear closest to anarchism and contain elements of
Luddism.'139 What Phillips really means is that this attack was similar to those of
the earlier anarchist terrorists. Kaczynski was protesting the modernisation of
society because of the technology he believed would be required. Kaczynski was
a neo-luddite, not an anarchist, this was the focus of his political beliefs.
However his actions throughout this campaign, as with anarchist terrorists, were
similar to nihilism. In Will to Power Nietzsche wrote that nihilismis, 'not only the
belief that everything deserves to perish; but one actually puts one’s shoulder to
the plough; one destroys.'140Kaczynski's attacks created fear, which were an
effective terrorist tool. Spaaij states that, 'at the point of his becoming inactive,
his attacks had generated 0.21 fatalities and injuries per attack per year'.141 This
is significantly lower than the average for lone wolves, which is… Kaczynski
showed that for a terrorist attack to create fear it did not need to create a high
death rate, only the threat of violence.
In his manifesto Kaczynski wrote that, 'almost everyone will agree that we live in
a deeply troubled society.'142 He was unhappy about the technological advances
139 Peter Phillips 'LoneWolf Terrorism' Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy (Volume
17, 2010),p. 861.
140 'Freidrich Nietzscheand Nihilism'[http://www.iep.utm.edu/nihilism/#H2] Accessed
30/7/2014.

63
that were taking place. His actions were the inspiration to later terrorists,
perhaps most notably, Anders Breivik who copied some of Kaczynski's manifesto.
The example is as follows:
Kaczynski wrote: "One of the most widespread manifestations of the craziness of our
world is leftism,so a discussion of the psychology of leftismcan serve as an introduction
to the discussion of the problems of modern society in general."
Breivik's manifesto reads:"One of the most widespread manifestations of the craziness
of our world is multiculturalism,so a discussion of the psychology of multiculturalists
can serve as an introduction to the discussion of the problems of Western Europe in
general."143
Kaczynski is also thought to be the inspiration behind the Italian Unabomber. The
Italian Unabomber left bombs in small contraptions designed to injure whoever
came into contact with them but showed no political motivation. Kaczynski's
political goals were more clear because of his manifesto. Kaczynski had his
manifesto published by newspapers because, unlike Breivik, he could not upload
his political beliefs to the internet. It was his only option to communicate them
anonymously to the public. His main focus was anti-technology, though his other
political alignments were confused. In his manifesto he claimed that 'we have
portrayed leftism in its modern form as a phenomenon peculiar to our time and
as a symptom of the disruption of the power process'.144 Throughout his
manifesto he complains about 'leftism', just as Breivik complains about 'cultural
Marxism' in his manifesto; 2083 a European Declaration of Independence.
Kaczynski stated that 'one of the most widespread manifestations of the
143 'Suspect Anders Behring Breivik's Manifesto Plagiarized from the Unabomber'
[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/25/suspect-anders-behring-br_n_909022.html]
Accessed 25/8/2014.

64
craziness of our world is leftism, so a discussion of the psychology of leftismcan
serve as an introduction to the discussion of the problems of modern society in
general'.145Kaczynski's 'leftism' and Breivik's 'cultural Marxism' work only as an
umbrella term for social concepts they dislike. Kaczynski's aversion to 'leftism'
came from the idea that 'you can't have a united world without rapid
transportation and communication, you can't make all people love one another
without sophisticated psychological techniques, you can't have a "planned
society" without the necessary technological base'.146
The reason that Kaczynski carried out his attacks is now very well documented.
With the publication of his manifesto, others who knew him have written about
him. He even gave an interview to The Earth First! Journal. In his interview to The
Earth First! Journal, at the Administrative Maximum Facility Prison, Florence,
Colorado, USA, June 1999,he stated that, 'what first motivated me wasn’t
anything I read. I just got mad seeing the machines ripping up the woods and so
forth...'147Kaczynski was first and foremost a neo-luddite, the rest of his political
views were less clear, his ranting about 'leftism' showed that his political
alignment was more right wing. In his interview for Earth First! Journal he stated;
The honest truth is that I am not really politically oriented.I would have really rather just
be livingoutin the woods. If nobody had started cutting roads through there and cutting
the trees down and come buzzing around in helicopters and snowmobiles I would still
145Ibid
146 Ibid
147'Interview with Ted Kaczynski' [http://www.primitivism.com/kaczynski.htm] Accessed
2/8/2014.

65
justbe livingthereand the rest of the world could justtake careof itself.I got involved
in political issues becauseI was driven to it, so to speak. I'm not really inclined in that
direction.148
Kaczynski was motivated primarily by a single political issue, this is true of many
lone wolves. However in his 35,000 word manifesto he explained in detail his
further political views. Kaczynski attacked, what he called, 'leftism':
Maybe the best diagnostic traitof the leftistis his tendency to sympathize with the
followingmovements: feminism, gay rights,ethnic rights,disability rights, animal rights,
political correctness.Anyonewho strongly sympathizes with ALL of these movements is
almostcertainly a leftist.149
Kaczynski attacked 'leftism' because he believed a socialist society would require
modern technologies. His further political beliefs were really just an extension of
his single issue, neo-luddite beliefs. Kaczynski further blamed 'leftism' for 'the
decisive role played by feelings of inferiority, low self-esteem, powerlessness,
identification with victims by people who are not themselves victims, is a
peculiarity of modern leftism'.150 He mentions these feelings several times in his
manifesto, it is possible that these were a projection of his feelings and that
there was a psychological factor to his motives.
148ibid.
150ibid.

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