The paper examines the work participation rate (WPR) of women in Indian states based on the census
conducted in 2001. As per 2001 census, the WPR of women was 25.6% in India though they constituted
48.27% of the total population. It was well documented that the educational condition of women has
improved in the past few decades but their WPR is still low. Here, the paper tried to see reasons behind
this anomaly. There are many determinants of WPR but the author limit this paper to education. The
paper is based on the hypothesis of increasing women WPR with educational development. The
correlation matrix between occupational composition and educational development shows significant
relation. This implies that education is one of the reasons for increasing WPR. In addition, it was found
that women with primary education are actively engaged in agricultural sector. Finally, the paper
concludes with some general observations and suggestions.
My contact address
Dr Shahnaj Parveen
Professor
Department of Agricultural Extension Education
Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU)
Mymensingh-2202
Bangladesh
Mobile: ++88-01715 340215
Email: shahnaj1969@gmail.com
3 Unpaid Women Worker as Disguised Exclusion: The Indian Perspective, Wendy O...The Impact Initiative
This document summarizes research on unpaid women workers in rural India. It discusses how women's labor force participation has declined in India despite economic growth and increasing education among women. This is partly because much of women's work, such as agricultural and domestic tasks, goes unrecorded and unpaid. The research presented aimed to collect primary data on rural households' time use and assign an economic value to unpaid work, especially that performed by women. It analyzed trends in female labor supply definitions and participation rates over time, while also considering the socio-cultural contexts that influence gender roles and women's work in India.
11.socio economic obstacles of women empowerment in rural bangladeshAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the socio-economic obstacles to women's empowerment in rural Bangladesh. The study was conducted in Puthia Upazila of Rajshahi District. It found that many women face restrictions from their families, including 24% not being allowed to go to school. Additionally, 30.40% of women are victims of early marriage. The study also examined women's access to land and income, finding that while some have surplus income, over 60% do not have surplus income in the study area. The document provides context on women's roles and empowerment in Bangladeshi society, and the rationale for this particular study.
The economic prosperity of a nation depends on the quality of its workforce. The present study attempts to describe the work force participation rates in India. This study illustrates the spatial and temporal change in the work force participation of persons (males and females) in India, highlighting important differences due to sex, age, place of residence. A striking feature has been a rising trend in the rural female work force participation rates after liberalization (1991) but declining trend in the last decade (2011). This work force distribution also presents data regarding number of main and marginal workers. The time series data on work force distribution by category of workers like cultivators, agricultural laborers, workers in rural Household industries, etc. also presents a picture of structural change occurring in the economy. The temporal analysis of total workers of India explains that the work participation rate has registered continuous increase in the last three decades.
The document discusses various problems faced by women, including: lack of education opportunities which limits prospects; eve teasing or harassment; the dowry system which oppresses women and leads to abuse; high unemployment rates among women; gender inequality resulting in women lagging behind men in many areas; female feticide due to son preference; sexual assault and violence against women occurring worldwide; and trafficking which exploits over 70% of victims who are women and girls. Rural women face additional challenges compared to urban women. While laws exist, many of these problems remain ongoing issues impacting women's empowerment and equality globally.
Role of pakistani women in home & fieldXeshan Kassana
Women play important roles both at home and in agriculture according to the document. Biologically, women's role is as mothers, bearing and rearing children. Economically, women are income earners through activities like agriculture, livestock rearing, and non-farm work. Socially, women serve as housewives, taking care of domestic tasks like cooking, cleaning, and child rearing. In rural areas, traditional women had extensive workloads with responsibilities both at home and in farm work. Modern rural women still work heavily in agriculture and allied sectors, making up 89.5% of the female labor force. The document discusses women's multi-dimensional roles in agriculture, technology developed to support their work, and their continued importance in
Working Women and Their Professional Life in Modern SocietyAnuragSingh1049
India is a traditional country and there is diversity in religions, culture and customs. Role of the women in India mostly is household and limited to domestic issues. In some cases women can find employment as nurses, doctors, teachers the caring and nurturing sectors. But even if well qualified women engineers or managers or geologists are available, preference will be given to a male of equal qualification. The present study investigated to identify the factors preventing women employees from aspiring for higher post and challenges & problems faced by women workers. Further the study try to explain the real condition of Indian working women and also make an effort to clear main problems of working women.
women empowerment is a process of giving rights to women. if women are involve in decision making role in tourism is called women empowerment in tourism.
My contact address
Dr Shahnaj Parveen
Professor
Department of Agricultural Extension Education
Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU)
Mymensingh-2202
Bangladesh
Mobile: ++88-01715 340215
Email: shahnaj1969@gmail.com
3 Unpaid Women Worker as Disguised Exclusion: The Indian Perspective, Wendy O...The Impact Initiative
This document summarizes research on unpaid women workers in rural India. It discusses how women's labor force participation has declined in India despite economic growth and increasing education among women. This is partly because much of women's work, such as agricultural and domestic tasks, goes unrecorded and unpaid. The research presented aimed to collect primary data on rural households' time use and assign an economic value to unpaid work, especially that performed by women. It analyzed trends in female labor supply definitions and participation rates over time, while also considering the socio-cultural contexts that influence gender roles and women's work in India.
11.socio economic obstacles of women empowerment in rural bangladeshAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the socio-economic obstacles to women's empowerment in rural Bangladesh. The study was conducted in Puthia Upazila of Rajshahi District. It found that many women face restrictions from their families, including 24% not being allowed to go to school. Additionally, 30.40% of women are victims of early marriage. The study also examined women's access to land and income, finding that while some have surplus income, over 60% do not have surplus income in the study area. The document provides context on women's roles and empowerment in Bangladeshi society, and the rationale for this particular study.
The economic prosperity of a nation depends on the quality of its workforce. The present study attempts to describe the work force participation rates in India. This study illustrates the spatial and temporal change in the work force participation of persons (males and females) in India, highlighting important differences due to sex, age, place of residence. A striking feature has been a rising trend in the rural female work force participation rates after liberalization (1991) but declining trend in the last decade (2011). This work force distribution also presents data regarding number of main and marginal workers. The time series data on work force distribution by category of workers like cultivators, agricultural laborers, workers in rural Household industries, etc. also presents a picture of structural change occurring in the economy. The temporal analysis of total workers of India explains that the work participation rate has registered continuous increase in the last three decades.
The document discusses various problems faced by women, including: lack of education opportunities which limits prospects; eve teasing or harassment; the dowry system which oppresses women and leads to abuse; high unemployment rates among women; gender inequality resulting in women lagging behind men in many areas; female feticide due to son preference; sexual assault and violence against women occurring worldwide; and trafficking which exploits over 70% of victims who are women and girls. Rural women face additional challenges compared to urban women. While laws exist, many of these problems remain ongoing issues impacting women's empowerment and equality globally.
Role of pakistani women in home & fieldXeshan Kassana
Women play important roles both at home and in agriculture according to the document. Biologically, women's role is as mothers, bearing and rearing children. Economically, women are income earners through activities like agriculture, livestock rearing, and non-farm work. Socially, women serve as housewives, taking care of domestic tasks like cooking, cleaning, and child rearing. In rural areas, traditional women had extensive workloads with responsibilities both at home and in farm work. Modern rural women still work heavily in agriculture and allied sectors, making up 89.5% of the female labor force. The document discusses women's multi-dimensional roles in agriculture, technology developed to support their work, and their continued importance in
Working Women and Their Professional Life in Modern SocietyAnuragSingh1049
India is a traditional country and there is diversity in religions, culture and customs. Role of the women in India mostly is household and limited to domestic issues. In some cases women can find employment as nurses, doctors, teachers the caring and nurturing sectors. But even if well qualified women engineers or managers or geologists are available, preference will be given to a male of equal qualification. The present study investigated to identify the factors preventing women employees from aspiring for higher post and challenges & problems faced by women workers. Further the study try to explain the real condition of Indian working women and also make an effort to clear main problems of working women.
women empowerment is a process of giving rights to women. if women are involve in decision making role in tourism is called women empowerment in tourism.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
India ranks 134th out of 182 countries on the Human Development Index, with over 170 million rural and 49.6 million urban people living in severe poverty. The Ashraya program was introduced in 2003 in Kerala to help destitute families access basic necessities and opportunities to become self-reliant. A study of 70 Ashraya beneficiary families in Ernakulam District found that 75% lived in rural areas, with 48% below the poverty line, 38% earning less than 1000 rupees per month, and only 30% self-employed.
Contribution of women empowerment towards the development in Rwanda: Case of ...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes a study on the contribution of women's empowerment to development in Rwanda through the case of the Duhaguruke Kora cooperative. The study found that economic activities empower women by allowing them to contribute financially through incomes from jobs, paying for children's education, healthcare, and taxes. However, women still face challenges like high fertility rates, gender inequality, low education, and unreliable men that affect loan management. The study recommends increasing women's education and participation in associations as well as equitable family relationships to further empower women.
Women empowerment unit-iii- Problems and Challenges in indiaDr. Mani Madhavan
Women and Education
Women and Health
Women and Economy
Women and Politics
A woman’s lack of education also has a negative impact on the health and wellbeing of her children. For instance, a recent survey in India found that infant mortality was inversely related to mother’s educational level
this ppt tells about womens empowerment,anccient women and struggles and also today womens life and their struggles.
and also about the womens who are makes india to be an proud country
how to we stop that crimes
organitation for women empowerment
This document summarizes a study on determinants of rural poverty in Trishal Upazila, Bangladesh. It finds that about 68% of villagers are illiterate and 50% depend directly on agriculture. The average monthly income, family size, land holdings, and number of earning family members significantly influence household income. To reduce poverty, the study suggests generating more agro-based employment through integrated family farming and increasing land productivity. It used a log-linear regression model and survey data from 185 households to analyze factors affecting income.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document summarizes a lecture on gender and the economy. The key points are:
1) The status of women in a country is fundamentally linked to that country's prosperity and security, yet women's contributions are often overlooked.
2) Gender equality is essential for smart economic growth, as evidenced by statistics showing its impact on GDP, poverty reduction, education outcomes, and more.
3) While Nepal has made progress toward gender equality through women's participation in government and improvements in legal protections, full gender equality remains a long-term project critical to ensuring national prosperity and security.
The document provides an overview of women empowerment in India. It discusses the importance of women in society, defines key terms like gender and empowerment. It outlines the current status of women in India, their roles in various fields, and government initiatives to promote empowerment. However, it notes that despite various schemes and laws, social and economic status of women needs more improvement for desired change. The document covers women empowerment in a comprehensive manner from different perspectives.
1. The document discusses rural women empowerment in India and measures to strengthen their economic opportunities and development.
2. It notes that historically, women have had lower status than men and lacked rights to inherit property, education, credit, and decision making. Empowerment programs alone are not enough to improve women's quality of life.
3. The document proposes several measures to promote rural women's empowerment through self-employment opportunities and generating additional income, including identifying suitable income-generating activities, training to develop entrepreneurial skills, encouraging part-time work, and establishing support services.
Women role A Presentation ByMr. Allah dad KhanVisiting Professor the Univer...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
This document discusses the role of women in agriculture in Pakistan. It notes that women comprise 41% of the global agricultural workforce and play a vital role in crop production activities from preparation to harvesting. In Pakistan, rural women contribute to all crop production operations while also handling domestic responsibilities. However, their efforts often go unrecognized. Major constraints faced by women include poor health, lack of safety, discriminatory attitudes, domestic violence, limited access to training, education, credit, and technology. The document outlines several ways to empower women such as improving support services, collecting gender-disaggregated data, enhancing education and training opportunities, and developing women's entrepreneurial skills.
Globalisation & its impact on women workforceShingla Prabha
This document discusses the impact of globalization on women in India. It notes that while globalization has opened up some economic opportunities for women, it has also negatively impacted women and increased their vulnerabilities in several ways. Women represent a large portion of unpaid and informal workers. They face greater risks of poverty and make lower wages than men. Despite making up over half the workforce, women have less economic and social rights and autonomy. Overall, while some women have benefited from new opportunities, globalization has tended to exacerbate existing inequalities facing women in India.
Women play an important economic role in Bangladesh, particularly in agriculture, the garment industry, and small and medium enterprises. In agriculture, women make up 46.75% of the population engaged in the sector and perform tasks from seed selection to crop harvesting and storage. They are also heavily involved in livestock, poultry, and home gardening. The garment industry employs over 2.88 million women, comprising 78% of the workforce. SMEs employ over 87% of the industrial workforce but women entrepreneurs currently own less than 10% of businesses. The document examines the contributions and challenges women face in these three key economic sectors.
Education and FLMP in the Middle East - Pattersonawap
This document analyzes the relationship between education and female labor market participation (FLMP) in the Middle East, focusing on Turkey and Saudi Arabia. It finds that while female education has increased tremendously over the last 40 years in the region, FLMP rates remain the lowest in the world despite expectations of growth. Education alone is not sufficient to increase FLMP, as other factors like labor market segmentation, traditional gender norms, and limited economic opportunities for women act as barriers. Increased FLMP could boost economic growth, but these structural barriers have kept the economic returns to female education low in the Middle East.
Bangladesh is a developing country half of the total population is women whose socio-economic condition is very low. Struggle for modernity, tradition, men-women equality, social dignity, security and for multilateral pressure the position of women in the family is very complex. Here men and women do not participate in social development is not equal. Many indoor and out door activities of women are not treated as work. The devaluation of women labor in labor market also hinders women right. But in market economy women of Bangladesh are always facing new challenges. Though women work in educational institution, medical, factories, police, even in the uneven areas, women are neglected, tortured and persecuted.
Women empowerment refers to increasing the social, political, and economic strength of women. It has five components: sense of self-worth, ability to make choices, access to opportunities, control over one's life, and ability to influence social change. Women in India face many issues like gender discrimination, lack of education, child marriage, domestic violence, and low participation in the workforce and decision making. Several government programs aim to empower women through self-help groups, education, skill development, microfinance, and encouraging political participation. Empowering women is necessary for overall development and realizing human rights.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Women's Labor Force Participation in PakistanTania Saleem
Women's labor force participation in Pakistan is the lowest in South Asia, at around 19% compared to 35-50% elsewhere in the region. This is due to numerous cultural, social, and economic barriers that limit women's employment opportunities and mobility. Traditional gender norms that confine women to domestic duties, lack of childcare support, sexual harassment, and religious misconceptions that prohibit women from working are some of the key factors responsible for the low participation rate. Policymakers need to address these issues and promote inclusive policies to encourage greater female participation in the workforce, which is essential for Pakistan's development.
Educational empowerment of women and their sustainability in 21st century wit...mohammad Rafee
This document discusses educational empowerment of women in urban India in the 21st century. It provides background on the history of women's education in India. The literacy rate has risen from 8.6% at independence to 65.5% currently, though it has not reached the global average. Studies discussed found that access to education and employment enable empowerment, but societal attitudes are most important. Government programs aim to encourage women's education. Higher education allows women to utilize their skills and contribute to the economy. The study aims to assess women's empowerment status and how government schemes contribute. It analyzes the relationship between women's income, education spending, health spending, and food spending. A positive correlation was found between spending on
1. The document examines macroeconomic implications of gender gaps in labor force participation.
2. Female labor force participation rates remain low globally at 50% on average, with significant cross-regional differences.
3. Closing gender gaps in labor markets could boost GDP substantially in many countries by enabling women to develop their full economic potential.
Rights women and girls at workplace Trade Union Perspective UNCSW59NetwerkRozeFNV
This document provides information about connecting with trade union organizations representing women workers at the UN Commission on the Status of Women. It lists the social media accounts and websites of these organizations, as well as events they are organizing or speaking at during the UNCSW59 conference. The events focus on issues like expanding women's access to paid employment, building a care economy, implementing commitments from the Beijing Platform for Action, and promoting international labor policies and standards to protect women's rights at work.
This document outlines steps that trade unions can take to promote gender equality. It recommends that trade unions adopt strong policies in support of gender equality, set targets for achieving parity in leadership and bargaining teams, and establish gender equality departments, officers, and women's structures. It also suggests providing training to empower and educate women leaders, conducting gender audits, and developing collective bargaining guidelines and checklists that focus on gender equality issues. Finally, it states that establishing women's structures at all levels with dedicated budgets and resources can help networking, research, communication, and campaigning to further advance women in trade unions.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
Subjects/Areas We Cover:
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
India ranks 134th out of 182 countries on the Human Development Index, with over 170 million rural and 49.6 million urban people living in severe poverty. The Ashraya program was introduced in 2003 in Kerala to help destitute families access basic necessities and opportunities to become self-reliant. A study of 70 Ashraya beneficiary families in Ernakulam District found that 75% lived in rural areas, with 48% below the poverty line, 38% earning less than 1000 rupees per month, and only 30% self-employed.
Contribution of women empowerment towards the development in Rwanda: Case of ...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes a study on the contribution of women's empowerment to development in Rwanda through the case of the Duhaguruke Kora cooperative. The study found that economic activities empower women by allowing them to contribute financially through incomes from jobs, paying for children's education, healthcare, and taxes. However, women still face challenges like high fertility rates, gender inequality, low education, and unreliable men that affect loan management. The study recommends increasing women's education and participation in associations as well as equitable family relationships to further empower women.
Women empowerment unit-iii- Problems and Challenges in indiaDr. Mani Madhavan
Women and Education
Women and Health
Women and Economy
Women and Politics
A woman’s lack of education also has a negative impact on the health and wellbeing of her children. For instance, a recent survey in India found that infant mortality was inversely related to mother’s educational level
this ppt tells about womens empowerment,anccient women and struggles and also today womens life and their struggles.
and also about the womens who are makes india to be an proud country
how to we stop that crimes
organitation for women empowerment
This document summarizes a study on determinants of rural poverty in Trishal Upazila, Bangladesh. It finds that about 68% of villagers are illiterate and 50% depend directly on agriculture. The average monthly income, family size, land holdings, and number of earning family members significantly influence household income. To reduce poverty, the study suggests generating more agro-based employment through integrated family farming and increasing land productivity. It used a log-linear regression model and survey data from 185 households to analyze factors affecting income.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document summarizes a lecture on gender and the economy. The key points are:
1) The status of women in a country is fundamentally linked to that country's prosperity and security, yet women's contributions are often overlooked.
2) Gender equality is essential for smart economic growth, as evidenced by statistics showing its impact on GDP, poverty reduction, education outcomes, and more.
3) While Nepal has made progress toward gender equality through women's participation in government and improvements in legal protections, full gender equality remains a long-term project critical to ensuring national prosperity and security.
The document provides an overview of women empowerment in India. It discusses the importance of women in society, defines key terms like gender and empowerment. It outlines the current status of women in India, their roles in various fields, and government initiatives to promote empowerment. However, it notes that despite various schemes and laws, social and economic status of women needs more improvement for desired change. The document covers women empowerment in a comprehensive manner from different perspectives.
1. The document discusses rural women empowerment in India and measures to strengthen their economic opportunities and development.
2. It notes that historically, women have had lower status than men and lacked rights to inherit property, education, credit, and decision making. Empowerment programs alone are not enough to improve women's quality of life.
3. The document proposes several measures to promote rural women's empowerment through self-employment opportunities and generating additional income, including identifying suitable income-generating activities, training to develop entrepreneurial skills, encouraging part-time work, and establishing support services.
Women role A Presentation ByMr. Allah dad KhanVisiting Professor the Univer...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
This document discusses the role of women in agriculture in Pakistan. It notes that women comprise 41% of the global agricultural workforce and play a vital role in crop production activities from preparation to harvesting. In Pakistan, rural women contribute to all crop production operations while also handling domestic responsibilities. However, their efforts often go unrecognized. Major constraints faced by women include poor health, lack of safety, discriminatory attitudes, domestic violence, limited access to training, education, credit, and technology. The document outlines several ways to empower women such as improving support services, collecting gender-disaggregated data, enhancing education and training opportunities, and developing women's entrepreneurial skills.
Globalisation & its impact on women workforceShingla Prabha
This document discusses the impact of globalization on women in India. It notes that while globalization has opened up some economic opportunities for women, it has also negatively impacted women and increased their vulnerabilities in several ways. Women represent a large portion of unpaid and informal workers. They face greater risks of poverty and make lower wages than men. Despite making up over half the workforce, women have less economic and social rights and autonomy. Overall, while some women have benefited from new opportunities, globalization has tended to exacerbate existing inequalities facing women in India.
Women play an important economic role in Bangladesh, particularly in agriculture, the garment industry, and small and medium enterprises. In agriculture, women make up 46.75% of the population engaged in the sector and perform tasks from seed selection to crop harvesting and storage. They are also heavily involved in livestock, poultry, and home gardening. The garment industry employs over 2.88 million women, comprising 78% of the workforce. SMEs employ over 87% of the industrial workforce but women entrepreneurs currently own less than 10% of businesses. The document examines the contributions and challenges women face in these three key economic sectors.
Education and FLMP in the Middle East - Pattersonawap
This document analyzes the relationship between education and female labor market participation (FLMP) in the Middle East, focusing on Turkey and Saudi Arabia. It finds that while female education has increased tremendously over the last 40 years in the region, FLMP rates remain the lowest in the world despite expectations of growth. Education alone is not sufficient to increase FLMP, as other factors like labor market segmentation, traditional gender norms, and limited economic opportunities for women act as barriers. Increased FLMP could boost economic growth, but these structural barriers have kept the economic returns to female education low in the Middle East.
Bangladesh is a developing country half of the total population is women whose socio-economic condition is very low. Struggle for modernity, tradition, men-women equality, social dignity, security and for multilateral pressure the position of women in the family is very complex. Here men and women do not participate in social development is not equal. Many indoor and out door activities of women are not treated as work. The devaluation of women labor in labor market also hinders women right. But in market economy women of Bangladesh are always facing new challenges. Though women work in educational institution, medical, factories, police, even in the uneven areas, women are neglected, tortured and persecuted.
Women empowerment refers to increasing the social, political, and economic strength of women. It has five components: sense of self-worth, ability to make choices, access to opportunities, control over one's life, and ability to influence social change. Women in India face many issues like gender discrimination, lack of education, child marriage, domestic violence, and low participation in the workforce and decision making. Several government programs aim to empower women through self-help groups, education, skill development, microfinance, and encouraging political participation. Empowering women is necessary for overall development and realizing human rights.
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission:
To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision:
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer's aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements:
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
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We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world.
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Women's Labor Force Participation in PakistanTania Saleem
Women's labor force participation in Pakistan is the lowest in South Asia, at around 19% compared to 35-50% elsewhere in the region. This is due to numerous cultural, social, and economic barriers that limit women's employment opportunities and mobility. Traditional gender norms that confine women to domestic duties, lack of childcare support, sexual harassment, and religious misconceptions that prohibit women from working are some of the key factors responsible for the low participation rate. Policymakers need to address these issues and promote inclusive policies to encourage greater female participation in the workforce, which is essential for Pakistan's development.
Educational empowerment of women and their sustainability in 21st century wit...mohammad Rafee
This document discusses educational empowerment of women in urban India in the 21st century. It provides background on the history of women's education in India. The literacy rate has risen from 8.6% at independence to 65.5% currently, though it has not reached the global average. Studies discussed found that access to education and employment enable empowerment, but societal attitudes are most important. Government programs aim to encourage women's education. Higher education allows women to utilize their skills and contribute to the economy. The study aims to assess women's empowerment status and how government schemes contribute. It analyzes the relationship between women's income, education spending, health spending, and food spending. A positive correlation was found between spending on
1. The document examines macroeconomic implications of gender gaps in labor force participation.
2. Female labor force participation rates remain low globally at 50% on average, with significant cross-regional differences.
3. Closing gender gaps in labor markets could boost GDP substantially in many countries by enabling women to develop their full economic potential.
Rights women and girls at workplace Trade Union Perspective UNCSW59NetwerkRozeFNV
This document provides information about connecting with trade union organizations representing women workers at the UN Commission on the Status of Women. It lists the social media accounts and websites of these organizations, as well as events they are organizing or speaking at during the UNCSW59 conference. The events focus on issues like expanding women's access to paid employment, building a care economy, implementing commitments from the Beijing Platform for Action, and promoting international labor policies and standards to protect women's rights at work.
This document outlines steps that trade unions can take to promote gender equality. It recommends that trade unions adopt strong policies in support of gender equality, set targets for achieving parity in leadership and bargaining teams, and establish gender equality departments, officers, and women's structures. It also suggests providing training to empower and educate women leaders, conducting gender audits, and developing collective bargaining guidelines and checklists that focus on gender equality issues. Finally, it states that establishing women's structures at all levels with dedicated budgets and resources can help networking, research, communication, and campaigning to further advance women in trade unions.
The document examines gender balance in senior leadership positions across six international trade organizations. It provides the total staff size and number of senior managers for each organization, and the number and percentage of women in senior roles. The percentages of women in senior management range from 63% for the World Bank Group's Trade & Competitiveness Global Practice to 12% for both the World Trade Organization and OECD Trade and Agriculture Directorate.
Policies & programmes for women in indiaPawan Sharma
The document discusses policies and programs aimed at empowering women farmers in India. It notes that women make up a large portion of the agricultural workforce but face numerous constraints including lack of land rights, access to credit and technology. Key government programs discussed include the National Rural Livelihood Mission which promotes self-help groups for women, and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act which aims to generate rural employment, especially for women. The document also provides recommendations to strengthen women farmers' roles, such as improving land access, providing gender-sensitive agricultural support and encouraging group-based approaches to empowerment.
The document discusses challenges to achieving gender equality in trade unions and ways to overcome them. It addresses making both women and men feel comfortable and integrated, involving women in discussions of issues to work on, having elected women's groups, collecting regular feedback, and committing to an equality policy. Barriers include institutionalized culture, lack of political will, lack of gender awareness, job segregation, equal pay, and maternity issues. Overcoming these challenges requires welcoming all members, removing practical barriers, and monitoring participation.
Abstract MA_ Gender Equality in Trade UnionsJude Fernando
This study examines gender equality in two Sri Lankan trade unions: the Government Medical Officers Association (GMOA) and the Public Services United Nurses' Union (PSUNU). While women make up a large portion of membership in both unions, they are underrepresented in leadership positions and decision-making. The study aims to understand why women are less active than men in the unions and to identify challenges and opportunities for promoting gender equality. In-depth interviews were conducted with union leaders and members. The findings show that in both unions, women rarely hold leadership roles. Key reasons for lack of women in leadership include women having to balance domestic responsibilities with union activities, and prevailing gender ideologies that discourage women from political involvement.
Critically review the role and function of Trade Unions in the current econom...Shiva Kirti Garimella
Trade union membership and influence has declined significantly in recent decades in the UK. Union density fell from 55.6% in 1979 to 27% in 2010, especially in the private sector. This is due to economic changes reducing unionized industries, legal changes weakening unions, and fewer workers seeing the need to join. Unions are trying to reinvent themselves through greater cooperation with employers, providing new services to members, and community organizing to regain relevance and membership. However, unions still face challenges gaining influence in a less union-friendly climate with more diverse and fragmented work arrangements.
The document discusses how the labour market is constantly changing. It describes some key trends, including the decline of UK manufacturing, rise of mobile technology, and regional and industry fluctuations. Additionally, some changes are unpredictable due to varying policies and world events. Three fundamental changes are the growing global economy, rapid technology advances, and changing demographics as the population ages. These changes mean young people now face a more difficult job market but can improve their prospects through education, skills development, and work experience.
Indian Women in the Labour Force
Dr. Vibhuti Patel
Reader, Centre for Women’s Studies
Department of Economics,
University of Mumbai, Kalina,
Santacruz (East), Mumbai-400098
E mail-vibhuti@vsnl.net Ph®-6770227
Ph(W)-6527956,57Ext.553,Fax-6528198
Statistical Profile of Women
• Women constitute ½ of the world’s population, 2/3 of the world’s labour force but get 1/10th of the world’s income and 1% of the world’s Wealth.
• As per 2001 Census, 23% of women are in the work force. 94% of all working women are in the informal sector.
Work participation rate
Major Findings of Time use Survey
– “Women carry a disproportionately greater burden of work than men and since women are responsible for a greater share of non-SNA
( system of National Accounts) work in the care economy , they enter labour market already overburdened with work.” Report of Gender Diagnosis and Budgeting in India of National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, NIPFP. December, 2001.
WORK PARTICIPATION RATES 1991
The Female Economic Activity Rate (FEAR)
Census of India, 2001, Series 1
Distribution of Women Employees Across Industries
Women in the organized Sector
Women constitute only 14% of the total employment in the organized sector. It is concentrated in Maharashtra, Delhi, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu.
In the urban areas, FEAR in tertiary sector has increased, from 37.6 % in 1983 to 52.9 % in 1999. (Economic Survey, 2002, GOI).
Here, women workers and employees get relatively better wages, standard working hours, and the protection of labour laws.
Women in the Informal Sector
Factors Affecting Women’s Labour Force Participation
• Changes in age-structure, urbanisation, level & nature of economic development, infrastructure, government policies, labour laws, nature of work, structure of family, culture & tradition affecting autonomy and control, fertility levels and childbearing practices, nature of housework,women’s property rights, education, age at marriage, migration, access to technology.
Segmentation in the labour market
• Nature of wage differentials (WD)-for identical tasks women are paid less. And women are confined to relatively inferior tasks, casual work.
• Causes of WD-patriarchal attitude, myths
• Effects of WD- subordination of women, son preference, man is treated as a “bread winner”- Head of the Household (HoH)
Affirmative Action to remove
Wage Differential
*Legislative measures
*Equal Remuneration Act
*Formation of women’s union
*Constitutional guarantees
*Job reservation for women
*Self Help Groups(SHGs)
Demands of the Women’s Groups
Labour Legislations
Special Facilities for Women
Women and Trade Unions(T.U.)
Women’s Action Plan for T.U.s
Role of Human Rights Organisations
Women and Development Debate
Development Alternatives With Women
Human Development With Distributive Justice
Implications of Development Process on Women
Use of conservative ideology to retrench and lay off women
Women’s Challenges to the T.U.s
Role of the UN System-ILO, UNICEF
This document summarizes a lecture on women's participation in the labor market. It discusses women's roles in different economic ages from agro-economy to knowledge economy. It provides an overview of women in the labor market globally and characteristics like predominantly unpaid work and part-time work. It then focuses on women in the labor market in Asia, South Asia, and Nepal specifically. It outlines trends in different sectors like agriculture, industry and services. It also discusses the large rates of women in vulnerable employment and informal work. Overall, the lecture analyzes patterns of women's participation in the labor market across economic contexts and regions.
This document summarizes the concept of empowerment and discusses women's economic empowerment. Empowerment has two dimensions: resources and agency. Resources include tangible assets like material goods and finances as well as intangible assets like skills and social networks. Agency refers to people's ability to define goals and act upon them. Empowerment requires action at multiple levels - individual, interpersonal, and through social and political change. While economic resources are important for empowering women, simply increasing access to resources may not be sufficient without also addressing agency and structural barriers at different levels of society.
Women have historically been undervalued in development policies and seen only as mothers and housewives. However, women have always played important economic roles. In Islamic societies, early Muslim women were active in business, trade, and even battles. Today, women perform most of the world's work but earn only 10% of income and own less than 1% of property.
In Pakistan, women have made progress in many fields like politics, education, the economy, and sports. They hold high positions in government and the private sector. Rural women are major contributors to agriculture and livestock. Urban women have careers in diverse fields like engineering, medicine, and sports. Women play a key role in economic development by producing most of the world
The document discusses women empowerment, defining it as challenging patriarchal ideology and male dominance. It is the process of changing systematic forces that marginalize women. Empowerment involves decision-making power, access to resources, options/choices, assertiveness, positive thinking, skill development, changing others' perceptions, involvement in growth/changes, and positive self-image. It discusses crimes against women, pre-requisites for empowerment, facilitating/constraining factors, advantages, rights of women, and legislative acts supporting empowerment in India like quotas and laws against violence and discrimination. It also outlines government programs and policies aimed at economic, social, political, cultural, and educational empowerment of women.
The document discusses the concept, characteristics, and functions of trade unions. It states that trade unions emerged to protect workers from exploitation as industrial establishments grew larger. They are voluntary associations formed by workers to promote their economic, social, and vocational interests through collective action. Trade unions negotiate with management on issues like wages and working conditions and provide job security to employees. The document also outlines different theories on why trade unions formed and discusses their structures at national and industry levels in India.
Economic Contribution of Women in Self Help Groups: Village Level Evidence fr...iosrjce
Women in Self Help Groups (SHGs) have made their mark in the rural economy in a quite nontraditional
way. This paper examines the economic contribution of SHG women drawing on a field survey
conducted in 20 villages by canvassing a structured schedule among 150 sample respondents of two blocks of
Balasore district in Odisha, India. The findings show that women in SHG’s have made a significantly positive
contribution to employment, income, expenditure and saving at the household level. An increase in the demand
for SHG products is required for improving productivity of women and enhancing their economic contribution
in a sustainable way. A reorientation in policy is suggested for generating awareness, upgrading skills and
expanding markets in order to augment their contribution and raise their empowerment level for the benefit of
the households as well as for transforming the rural economy in a big way.
This document summarizes a study on the role of women in the education sector in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It finds that women make up a large portion of the teaching workforce and teaching provides important income opportunities for many women. However, women face several challenges including lack of family and workplace support as well as unsuitable environments. The study recommends increasing quotas for women in teaching, raising family awareness, improving working conditions, providing training, and recognizing women's contributions to address these issues. It aims to fill gaps in research on women's role in socioeconomic development through education services.
Rural women’s contribution in family budget a case study of district layyahAlexander Decker
This document summarizes previous research on rural women's contributions to family budgets. Studies have found that women's outside work, wages, education level, and family poverty level directly influence their contributions. Meanwhile, family size, number of children, total household income, and women's expenditures are inversely related. Research recommends increasing women's wages, providing financial incentives, credit, and scholarships to empower rural women economically and increase their contributions to family budgets.
Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Ar...ijtsrd
Women’s Empowerment is a holistic and sustainable goal for development of a society. They are the resources of family, society, community and nation. They are the greatest asset of an economy. Urbanization processes are not properly guided their roles in this society. Transformation of gender roles in urban contexts will require wider community involvement as well as administration. They are disadvantaged in income poverty, asset poverty, time and power. This paper is properly focused on features of empowerment of women in this society, their educational status, employment opportunities, social and economic status, as well as future strategies. Suchana Banerjee | Ayan Kumar Maity "Basic Features and Strategies of Women’s Empowerment of a Developing Urban Area – A Case Study of Memari Municipality, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38263.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/38263/basic-features-and-strategies-of-women’s-empowerment-of-a-developing-urban-area-– -a-case-study-of-memari-municipality-purba-bardhaman-west-bengal-india/suchana-banerjee
Socio economic obstacles of women empowerment in rural bangladeshAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the socio-economic obstacles to women's empowerment in rural Bangladesh. Some key findings of the study include:
1) 24% of families restrict women from attending school and 40% of adolescent women have their higher education threatened by family restrictions.
2) 30.4% of women face early marriage which prevents their education.
3) 53.6% of guardians in the study area are illiterate and lack knowledge about the importance of women's empowerment and education.
4) Various social, religious, and economic factors obstruct women's empowerment in the rural area studied. The document aims to identify obstacles and inform policies to promote women's education and
Educational Empowerment of Women and their Sustainability in 21st Century wit...Mohammad Rafee
This document discusses educational empowerment of women in urban India in the 21st century. It provides background on the history of women's education in India. The literacy rate has risen significantly but remains below the global average. Studies have found that access to education and employment empower women but societal attitudes are also important. Government programs aim to encourage women's education but factors like domestic violence, gender inequality, and restrictions in some communities still hinder literacy. The document presents objectives to assess women's empowerment and the impact of schemes in urban India through a study analyzing the relationship between income, education spending, health spending, and food spending.
Youth population and the labour market of pakistan a micro level studyAdam Azad
This document analyzes youth labor market participation in Pakistan using microdata from the 2006-07 Labor Force Survey. Some key findings include:
1) A significant number of Pakistani youth start working at a young age, which can negatively impact future productivity and earnings.
2) Unemployment rates are highest for youth just entering the labor market and gradually decrease with age.
3) There are significant gender differences in labor market outcomes for youth across Pakistan's regions, with female youth facing much higher unemployment.
4) Youth in Balochistan are more willing to work but less likely to find employment compared to other provinces.
Enhancing Women Education:A step Towards EqualityZaraB5
Education is the powerful sword which can conquer any obstacle.Women can change the face of the world , if given the major opportunities of education and other human rights.
- The document discusses economic empowerment of women through self-help groups (SHGs) in Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu. It analyzes profiles of tribal women respondents and their participation and awareness of SHG functions.
- The study found that most respondents were between 36-45 years old, had primary education, were married, lived in nuclear families with less than 4 members. Experience in SHGs and leadership positions were associated with higher socioeconomic status.
- Awareness of SHG activities was also linked to greater socioeconomic empowerment. The study concludes that while SHGs can empower tribal women, more work is needed to systematically involve all tribal women in Kolli Hills through SHGs.
Present Situation of Women Empowerment in Bangladeshinventionjournals
The total development of Bangladesh will undoubtedly be hampered if the empowerment status of women, constituting about fifty percent of the country’s population will not be increased or remains as low as it nowadays. In this study an attempt has been made to analyze and determine the nature and extent of women’s empowerment and factors influencing it in Bangladesh using the data of Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2007. The findings reveal that the overall mean values of Economic Decision Making Index (EDMI) are 0.661, 0.697, and 0.669 and the overall mean values of Household Decision Making Index (HDMI) are 0.604, 0.646, and 0.613 for rural, urban and combined group respectively. It is observed that lowest age group has lowest mean values of EDMI and HDMI for all three (rural, urban and combined) groups. The mean EDMI is the highest when respondents age at marriage is <14 for both rural and urban areas and for combined groups. It is found that household head has negative significant effect on both EDMI and HDMI. Women living in urban area, involved with income generating activities are more empowered than their counterpart. The mean value of EDMI is larger than that of HDMI which indicates that women are less empowered in household decision making purpose than economic decision making. Between the two dimensions of empowerment, obviously urban women are relatively more empowered than that of rural women.
Present Situation of Women Empowerment in Bangladeshinventionjournals
The total development of Bangladesh will undoubtedly be hampered if the empowerment status of women, constituting about fifty percent of the country’s population will not be increased or remains as low as it nowadays. In this study an attempt has been made to analyze and determine the nature and extent of women’s empowerment and factors influencing it in Bangladesh using the data of Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2007. The findings reveal that the overall mean values of Economic Decision Making Index (EDMI) are 0.661, 0.697, and 0.669 and the overall mean values of Household Decision Making Index (HDMI) are 0.604, 0.646, and 0.613 for rural, urban and combined group respectively. It is observed that lowest age group has lowest mean values of EDMI and HDMI for all three (rural, urban and combined) groups. The mean EDMI is the highest when respondents age at marriage is <14 for both rural and urban areas and for combined groups. It is found that household head has negative significant effect on both EDMI and HDMI. Women living in urban area, involved with income generating activities are more empowered than their counterpart. The mean value of EDMI is larger than that of HDMI which indicates that women are less empowered in household decision making purpose than economic decision making. Between the two dimensions of empowerment, obviously urban women are relatively more empowered than that of rural women.
Socio-Economic Status Of Working Women In NalgondaKam Raju
Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others.
When analysing a family's SES, the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, whereas for an individual's SES only their own attributes are assessed.
However, SES is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.
Achieving Gender Equality in India English Lesson and Summary.adinochina
This document discusses gender inequality in India and strategies to promote gender equality. It notes that while India's economic growth has been rapid, progress on gender equality measured by indexes has been disappointing. Female labor force participation has declined from 34% to 27% in the past decade. Cultural practices like son preference and the dowry system perpetuate gender discrimination and inferior status of women. However, some policies show promise, like reserving one-third of local leadership positions for women or establishing equal land inheritance rights. Providing job training and opportunities to rural women can increase their economic independence and autonomy. Overall, concerted efforts at all levels along with shifts in attitudes are needed to achieve true gender parity.
The Government of India declared 2001 as the Women's Empowerment Year to promote gender equality and view women as equal partners to men. This process has accelerated efforts to address discrimination faced by women in various areas of family and public life. Empowerment of women is vital for India's future and involves ensuring women have access to education, information, and the ability to make independent decisions about their physical health and socioeconomic conditions. Currently, many women in India remain ill equipped to improve their traditionally unsatisfactory conditions due to lack of education, domestic violence, and cultural preferences for male children.
Economic empowerment of women through shg in kolli hillsRAVICHANDIRANG
Empowerment, as a social process has challenged the fundamental imbalances of power distribution and relations. It was redistribution of power within and between families, society’s process aiming at social equality which could be achieved through disempowering some structures, systems and institutions. Social empowerment has promoted sustainable rural structure for dissemination of knowledge about health, nutrition, literacy, education, freedom and opportunities for realizing women’s potentialities and adoption of new
agricultural practices. The present paper discussed about the profile of the respondents, Participat ion of Women in SHG functions and awareness towards SHGs.
The document is a seminar paper on women's empowerment in India presented by Kuheli Das. It discusses the need for women's empowerment, approaches to empowerment, and steps taken in India such as government schemes and laws. It also examines social, economic and political empowerment of women as well as challenges like violence and inequality. Data and case studies are presented on increasing women's participation in various sectors like politics, workforce and education to support women's empowerment in India.
DETERMINANTS OF FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN FAM AND NON FARM LIVELIH...Hudu Zakaria
This document summarizes a study that examined determinants of female labor participation in farm and non-farm livelihood enterprises in northern Ghana. The study used survey data from over 13,000 individuals in northern Ghana to analyze gender differences in labor participation. Chi-square analysis found significant gender disparities in participation in crop production, livestock, non-farm self-employment, and paid work. Probit regression identified location, household status, marital status, literacy, participation in decision making, income, and control over resources as significant determinants of female participation in farm and non-farm enterprises and paid work. The study recommends empowering females through education, decision making, and control over resources to facilitate their participation.
This document summarizes a study on the importance of women's empowerment for societal development in Chennai, India. The study collected survey responses from 203 participants using online convenient sampling. Graphs in the document show responses by age, income, education level, and occupation on issues like gender pay gaps, women's contributions, and the perceived impacts of empowerment. The discussion section analyzes response trends, finding that highly educated middle-aged respondents generally saw positive impacts of empowerment. Limitations included a small sample size that over-represented certain demographics. The conclusion is that empowering women through education, economic independence, and equal opportunities can promote gender equality and societal progress.
1) The document discusses gender bias and lack of opportunities for women in the workforce and society in Pakistan. Social and cultural perceptions view women as weak and less capable of handling stress.
2) These perceptions lead to unequal distribution of resources and limited growth opportunities for women. While women's participation in the labor force is increasing, they are often restricted to lower-paying jobs and face barriers to advancement.
3) Corporate social responsibility could help address gender biases and strengthen women's positions professionally and socially, though challenges remain due to social and educational inequities as well as occupational segregation in Pakistan.
Quality of Work Life of Women Employee Problems in Banking Sector: A Study in...IJAEMSJORNAL
This document summarizes a study on the quality of work life for women employees in the banking sector in Warangal District, Telangana, India. It finds that most women employees have a graduate level education and hold officer or clerk positions. The majority earn between 36,000-45,000 rupees per month and have over 15 years of experience. The biggest problems women face are physical strain from long hours, balancing family responsibilities, and fear of transfers disrupting family life. While women play an important role in caring for children and parents, balancing work and family remains challenging.
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2. raising the status of women and for ensuring their full
participation and integration in the development at all
levels, helped at least to focus attention on the problems
specific to women such as steadily declining trend of their
participation in the workforce in India (Ibid). A study
focused on the effect of economic development on the
women participation in economic activity and concluded
that female participation rate falls with the economic
development although this is true at district level only.
The most important conclusion is that the whole process
of social change and modernization planned through
social welfare scheme will slow down because educated
women have a key role in these programmes and their
participation in economic activity show a downward trend.
Hence, the study indicates that there is a need to educate
the women so that the economic growth will be possible
to desired level (Nath, 1970b). The lower participation of
women in education also affects their participation in the
economic activities. Ramachandran (1964) on the basis
of a survey in the greater Bombay found that higher
proportion of women who were in the labour force were
non-collegiate and belong from low household income
group. In contrast, a high proportion of women who were
not seeking employment was collegiate and was from
household where the per capita income is medium or
high. He further emphasized that the work participation
rate (WPR) of educated women (matriculation or above)
is already low; more than 70% of educated women are
non-workers in 1961. If the overall trend of falling the
WPR of women continues, WPR of educated women low
as it is might reduce further. Another study examined the
effect of certain development variables like marital status,
income, literacy on female participation rates and
concludes that socio-cultural factors have a significant
bearing on the levels of female participation rate (Patel
and Dholakia, 1978). It is necessary to relate labour
participation rates, income and literacy to have clear idea
of the groups with high female labour participation rate
(Rao, 1978). Women’s work and contribution to the
economy is either undervalued or outright dismissed. As
a result, they are perceived as being a drain on family
and societal resources. Their skill, knowledge and
abilities are mostly undervalued (Ramchandran, 2000).
The above studies did present a holistic understanding of
women’s participation in labour force with economic
perspective and less on how education influence the
participation of women in the economic activities. Hence,
this study primarily engaged to explore how education
influence women’s contributions in the working force of
the country considering the fact that education is one of
the strong agent of human development.
In India, women’s WPR is low though the education
condition of women has improved in the last few
decades. Paradoxically, it has not affected their low
participation in the work force. In the initial few decades
of independence, women’s WPR was 28% in 1961, 14%
in 1971, 20% in 1981 and 22% in 1991. Correspondingly,
Mainuddin 37
the figure for males also have fluctuated but within the
smaller range, between 52 and 57% (Dev, 2004).
According to the 2001 census, female work participation
in India is only 25.63%. While the national average of
WPR is 39.10% and male contribute 59.68%.
Conceptual framework: Women’s work participation
rate
Measuring of women’s work force participation is
complicated for the reasons of both perception and
methods (Sudarshan and Bhattacharya, 2009). Since the
concept of work is inadequate or methodological problem
in collection of data because of all women work in
agricultural sector or household sector, women work
force participation rate is so low in South Asian countries
(Bose, 2004). As an example, the 1971 census defines a
‘worker’ as a person whose main activity is participation
in any economically productive work by his physical or
mental activity. The census goes on to explain that a man
or woman who is engaged primarily in household duties
such as cooking for own household should not be treated
as a worker for the main activity (Gulati, 1975). Thus, if a
person engages in an economically productive work but
only as his secondary activity, he is not considered as a
worker. This definition of a worker is much stricter than
the 1961 census definition whereby even secondary
economic activities are qualified for a person to be
considered as a worker. On contrary, 2001 census,
defined work as “participation in any economically
productive activity with or without compensation, wages
or profit. Such participation may be physical and/or
mental in nature. Work involves not only actual work but
also includes effective supervision and direction of work.
It even includes part time help or unpaid work on farm,
family enterprise or in any other economic activity. All
persons engaged in 'work' as defined above are workers”
(Census of India, 2001). Methodologically, female work
participation rate (FWPR) is calculated as the proportion
of total workers (main plus marginal) among female
workers above 6 years.
At all the India level, this rate is substantially low to the
extent of 26% only as shown in Table 1. Yet, there is a
fluctuation among the states. Female work participation is
lower among the states and Union Territories of
Lakshadweep and Kerala, while it is the highest in
Mizoram. In most of the states of Northeast India,
Himachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, FWPR are quite
high. This high level of women’s labour participation is
due to the fact that community based organization of
subsistence production are practiced. This form of
engagement encourages greater participation of women.
In addition, the southern states have relatively higher
WPRs as women’s work participation is encouraged.
Opposite to the others, in the northern states the work
participation of women is very low; a primary reason
3. 38 J. Geogr. Reg. Plann.
Table 1. Women’s work participation rate in India.
S/N India/States/UT Person Male Female
00 India 39.10 51.68 25.63
01 Jammu and Kashmir 37.01 49.99 22.45
02 Himachal Pradesh 49.24 54.62 43.67
03 Punjab 37.47 53.60 19.05
04 Chandigarh 37.80 56.11 14.22
05 Uttaranchal 36.92 46.14 27.33
06 Haryana 39.62 50.30 27.22
07 Delhi 32.82 52.06 9.37
08 Rajasthan 42.06 49.95 33.49
09 Uttar Pradesh 32.48 46.80 16.54
10 Bihar 33.70 47.37 18.84
11 Sikkim 48.64 57.44 38.57
12 Arunachal Pradesh 43.98 50.63 36.54
13 Nagaland 42.60 46.70 38.06
14 Manipur(Excl. 3 sub-divisions) 43.62 48.12 39.02
15 Mizoram 52.57 57.29 47.54
16 Tripura 36.25 50.62 21.08
17 Meghalaya 41.84 48.34 35.15
18 Assam 35.78 49.87 20.71
19 West Bengal 36.77 53.99 18.32
20 Jharkhand 37.52 47.96 26.41
21 Orissa 38.79 52.53 24.66
22 Chhattisgarh 46.46 52.81 40.04
23 Madhya Pradesh 42.74 51.50 33.21
24 Gujarat 41.95 54.87 27.91
25 Daman and Diu 46.01 65.47 18.61
26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 51.76 62.33 38.74
27 Maharashtra 42.50 53.28 30.81
28 Andhra Pradesh 45.79 56.23 35.11
29 Karnataka 44.53 56.64 31.98
30 Goa 38.80 54.60 22.36
31 Lakshadweep 25.32 42.41 7.28
32 Kerala 32.30 50.20 15.38
33 Tamil Nadu 44.67 57.64 31.54
34 Pondicherry 35.17 17.25 1.98
35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 38.26 56.57 16.60
Source: Census of India (2001
being the subjugation and denial of women to engage in
social and family life. Apart from the sociological factors,
factor that is associated with better work participation has
been literacy or the levels of educational attainment.
However, it has been observed that instead of higher
level of literacy and educational level the share of women
in the labour force is poor. For example, states of Punjab
and Kerela with high levels of female literacy are found to
have low FWPRs. With these factors, the questions that
are being raised is why there is low participation of
women in the economic activities? Is there any relation
between work participation and education? And how they
influence each other?
METHODOLOGY
The questions raised above shall be addressed through the
analysis of state-wise census data for the year 2001, from the 35
states including Union Territories, pertaining to WPR across sex
and residence, main workers and marginal workers with educational
level, women literacy rate and categories of economic activities that
have been derived from the census of India 2001. The data has
been computed and compared by author as require. It shall be
followed by an analysis of relation between women’s work
participation rate and the educational development in last decades.
4. Finally, the paper concludes with some general observations and
suggestions. Work participation rate is defined as the percentage of
total workers (main and marginal) to total population.
Work participation rate = Total workers (main + marginal)/ total
population × 100
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
State wise women participation rate
There have been a number of studies on female work
participation and its determinants. The studies found that
participation of women in the working force is low and
mostly concentrated in the agriculture and cultivation in
the rural areas (Nath, 1968a, 1970b; Pandey, 1973;
Nayyar, 1987). But recently, few studies have come up
on the basis of census 2001 data (Dev, 2004). This being
the backdrop shows the analysis of women participation
in the working force of India levels that there is a variation
in the women’s WPR across the state and Union
Territories. Among the Union Territories and states, the
lowest WPR are Pondicherry (1.98%) and Kerala
(15.38%). And the states with highest WPR are Dadra
and Nagar Haveli (38.74%) and Mizoram (47.54%). Over
all, there are 11 states where women’s WPR ranges from
0 to 20%. In this category, states like Delhi, Kerala, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Bihar are the
prominent ones. While there are 22 states and Union
Territories that have women’s participation rate ranges
between 20 and 40%. Some of these prominent states
include Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu including Union Territories like
Goa, Daman and Diu. The three remaining states,
Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh and Mizoram have
women WPR that is slightly more than 40% but less than
45%.
Gender disparity
India has made commendable progress in the economic
sphere but it has not trickled down to the masses as a
result we find inequality still existing in the society in
terms of gender, caste, religion etc. This section of the
paper took the existing gender inequality in Indian
society. As an outcome, women are lacking behind in
different sectors of employment. At the national level,
WPR of women’s stands at 26% point less than the male
members. Among all the states and Union Territories, the
largest gap of WPR between women and male are found
in the state of Daman and Diu with 46% point, Delhi with
42% point and also the Northern states. Women
participation in the country’s economic activities is poor
as compared to the male members. Indian society is
believed that male dominated and lower value for women
in the society or family is the reasons of their invisibility in
Mainuddin 39
Table 2. Difference in male-women WPR in India.
S/N India/States/UT Difference (%)
0 India 26.05
1 Nagaland 8.64
2 Manipur (Excl. 3 sub-divisions) 9.1
3 Mizoram 9.75
4 Himachal Pradesh 10.95
5 Chhattisgarh 12.77
6 Meghalaya 13.19
7 Arunachal Pradesh 14.09
8 Pondicherry 15.27
9 Rajasthan 16.46
10 Madhya Pradesh 18.29
11 Uttaranchal 18.81
12 Sikkim 18.88
13 Andhra Pradesh 21.11
14 Jharkhand 21.56
15 Maharashtra 22.46
16 Haryana 23.08
17 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 23.59
18 Karnataka 24.66
19 Tamil Nadu 26.11
20 Gujarat 26.96
21 Jammu and Kashmir 27.54
22 Orissa 27.87
23 Bihar 28.52
24 Assam 29.16
25 Tripura 29.54
26 Uttar Pradesh 30.27
27 Goa 32.24
28 Punjab 34.55
29 Kerala 34.82
30 Lakshadweep 35.13
31 West Bengal 35.67
32 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 39.97
33 Chandigarh 41.88
34 Delhi 42.68
35 Daman and Diu 46.87
Source: Census of India (2001).
economic activities of the country. This shows the need
for further micro level study to explore the socio-cultural
dimension of the present low status of women. From
Table 2, it is clear that the lowest gap (8.64%) was found
in the state of Nagaland.
The highest gender inequality was found in Daman and
Diu followed by Delhi being the capital of India. This
implies that a woman deprivation is not dependent on the
level of holistic development of the state. Rather the
reasons of this inequality are more to do with the existing
social structure of the society.
There were 32 states including Union Territories where
5. 40 J. Geogr. Reg. Plann.
Table 3. State wise rural-urban WPR in India.
State code India/State/Union Territories/Districts
Male Female
Urban Rural Urban Rural
00 India 50.60 52.11 11.88 30.79
01 Jammu and Kashmir 51.43 49.49 10.39 26.20
02 Himachal Pradesh 54.22 54.67 15.23 46.42
03 Punjab 53.06 53.88 10.44 23.37
04 Chandigarh 55.12 63.88 14.54 11.08
05 Uttaranchal 47.36 45.69 7.59 33.55
06 Haryana 49.23 50.73 10.55 33.91
07 Delhi 52.25 49.42 9.31 10.18
08 Rajasthan 47.42 50.74 9.55 40.63
09 Uttar Pradesh 44.61 47.39 6.80 19.05
10 Bihar 41.69 48.05 7.04 20.18
11 Sikkim 55.51 57.69 21.67 40.60
12 Arunachal Pradesh 50.53 50.66 17.15 41.33
13 Nagaland 43.81 47.32 15.61 42.48
14 Manipur (Excl. 3 sub-divisions) 44.94 49.25 32.25 41.53
15 Mizoram 54.84 59.66 40.52 54.55
16 Tripura 51.64 50.42 12.45 22.87
17 Meghalaya 43.82 49.43 20.98 38.62
18 Assam 52.90 49.41 10.61 22.15
19 West Bengal 53.74 54.09 11.57 20.86
20 Jharkhand 42.36 49.65 6.52 31.81
21 Orissa 49.06 53.17 10.02 27.12
22 Chhattisgarh 47.81 54.12 13.19 46.54
23 Madhya Pradesh 47.41 53.00 11.98 40.72
24 Gujarat 53.91 55.46 9.41 38.54
25 Daman and Diu 53.80 70.78 16.74 20.03
26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 65.63 61.26 14.54 45.13
27 Maharashtra 52.43 53.93 12.57 43.61
28 Andhra Pradesh 50.76 58.30 13.17 43.28
29 Karnataka 53.85 58.10 16.37 39.87
30 Goa 54.68 54.51 18.17 26.39
31 Lakshadweep 44.62 40.63 8.65 6.20
32 Kerala 50.61 50.06 13.64 15.99
33 Tamil Nadu 55.80 59.10 18.94 41.40
34 Pondicherry 13.98 23.69 0.54 4.87
35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 55.95 56.88 12.24 18.65
Source: Census of India (2001).
the gender gap lies in between 10 and 47% point. This
strongly proves that there was still gender inequality in
Indian society.
Rural - urban differentials in work participation rate
Table 3 showed that the inter-state disparities for rural
males were lower than for rural females. In the rural
areas, more women participated in the low paying menial
works. The disparities are also low for male across urban
to rural. But for females, the disparities in urban to rural is
large. In other words, the participation of women workers
is higher in rural areas than the urban areas. The male
WPR in urban areas varies from 65.63% in Dadra and
Nagar Haveli to 13.98% in Pondicherry. While male WPR
in rural areas varies from 63.88% in Chandigarh to
23.69% in Pondicherry. In other words, WPR is high in
both urban as well as rural areas. On the contrary, the
WPR of women is higher in rural areas (30.79%) as
compare to urban (11.8%) areas. Many research studies
have shown that women in rural areas are engaged in
6. Mainuddin 41
Table 4. WPR by level of education.
Variable
Main worker Marginal worker
Person Male Female Person Male Female
Total 30.43 45.13 14.68 28.51 14.52 74.62
Illiterate 24.35 35.27 16.50 43.02 17.58 82.11
Literate 35.51 50.85 12.46 20.20 13.29 62.57
Literate but below matric/secondary 29.84 43.78 10.75 25.15 15.90 76.72
Matric/secondary but below graduate 43.44 60.95 11.26 14.69 10.93 52.10
Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree 60.87 64.59 46.80 6.84 6.95 6.26
Graduate and above other than technical degree 57.02 73.43 23.52 6.84 6.05 11.88
Technical degree or diploma equal to degree or
post-graduate degree
65.57 72.17 48.56 3.51 3.26 4.47
Rural
Total 30.87 44.31 16.65 35.24 17.59 84.93
Illiterate 25.89 36.87 18.09 46.55 18.44 87.23
Literate 36.10 49.58 14.32 26.71 17.14 80.26
Literate but below matric/secondary 31.53 44.31 12.86 29.70 18.39 86.61
Matric/secondary but below graduate 46.92 60.94 14.79 21.09 15.38 74.96
Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree 58.33 60.73 49.17 11.49 11.87 9.69
Graduate and above other than technical degree 59.59 69.58 23.75 13.82 12.02 32.76
Technical degree or diploma equal to degree or
post-graduate degree
68.12 72.48 52.24 7.17 6.71 9.47
Urban
Total 29.29 47.19 9.42 10.09 7.22 26.08
Illiterate 17.63 28.58 9.35 20.41 12.90 37.74
Literate 34.42 53.38 9.46 7.77 6.21 19.41
Literate but below matric/secondary 25.69 42.36 6.19 11.48 8.88 32.29
Matric/secondary but below graduate 39.51 60.97 8.28 6.12 5.03 17.72
Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree 62.84 67.58 44.99 3.49 3.51 3.39
Graduate and above other than technical degree 55.76 75.83 23.45 3.19 2.65 5.99
Technical degree or diploma equal to degree or
post-graduate degree
64.55 72.03 47.53 1.97 1.70 2.93
Source: Census of India (2001).
agricultural activities hence their participation is high in
villages (Nayyar, 1987; Banerjee, 1989). This is validated
by the fact that women WPR in rural areas is highest in
the state of Mizoram 54.55%, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
Rajasthan, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur
and lowest in Delhi 10.18% followed by Punjab 11.08%.
Occupational composition
Division of work force or economically active population
into various occupational compositions is a primary
aspect of economic development. The regional variation
in the work participation under occupational group is quite
notable to determine the work participation. And they are
classified into four categories that is, cultivators,
agricultural workers, household industry workers and
other workers. The women’s WPR are discussed in four
categories of workers as follows.
Cultivators
It is found that there is a close relationship between the
occupation of cultivation and women work participation.
In states where agriculture is a major source of capital
generation, women tend to engage themselves in the
production process of agricultural products. State like
Himachal Pradesh (85.8%) (Appendix 1), Uttaranchal,
Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Sikkim,
Mizoram, Dara and Nagar Haveli, Jammu and Kashmir,
and Meghalaya are found to have high women work
7. 42 J. Geogr. Reg. Plann.
participation. Similarly, the share of women cultivators is
low in non-agricultural states like Delhi, Pondicherry and
Chandigarh.
Agricultural workers
Agricultural women workers are found in each and every
state but their percentage differs. The highest percentage
of women in this category was found in the state of Bihar
(62.2%), Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. In all these
states, the women agricultural workers range from 40 to
60%. However, low concentration of women that is, less
than 10% in agriculture are found in the Delhi, Himachal
Pradesh and Nagaland. It is of interest to note that this is
the reverse of the position. In most developed countries,
agriculture is primarily a male activity and the proportion
of workers in the non-agricultural sector is much higher
than females (Nath, 1968a).
Household industry worker
The concentration of women in the household work is low
in all states. The highest concentration has been seen in
the state of Manipur (18.30%) and lowest in Union
Territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (0.9%). Such forms
of engagement are generally small scale in nature and
are located in the home or around the home. In Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, the women’s participation in this
category is high. This being the reason most of the work
forces are constituted by the members of the family or the
extended kin. As these works act as an extended work of
the family or the social relationship, the workers
themselves never consider it is important to inform the
data collectors. Hence, the participation of women has
not been reported at the time of data collection.
Other workers
In effect, all those workers other than cultivators or
agricultural labourers or household industry workers are
'other workers’. This type of work includes medical,
engineering, works related to academic and research. In
most of the states, the concentration of the women’s
worker in this category is low. In ‘other workers’ the
contribution of women ranges from 1 to 30% in 21 states
and Union Territories. There are 11 states and Union
Territories with ‘other workers’ in the ranges of 30% to
70%. The highest participation of women in this category
is in the state of Chandigarh with 96.6%, followed by
Delhi 92% and Lakshadweep 83%. As shown, higher
participation of women in this sector are found in few
states. Probable reason for women’s increase partici-
pation in this sector may be due to the modernization of
women and change in the attitude and increase social
security. In this category, participation of male is also
higher than the female but in some states it is half as
compare to men.
Education and women’s work participation
Five decades after Independence of India, our political
leaders and administrator have repeatedly affirmed that
we cannot achieve the goal of education for all unless we
reach out to women and girls, and ensure they have
access to basic education. In addition, there is a
significant regional difference, but the main point is that a
very significant number of Indian women and girls do not
have basic access to education. Any discussion on the
reason for this unfortunate situation invariably ends in a
debate on women’s status and how it influences women’s
access to education and other development resources
like participation in economic activities and other work.
Education is one of the important indicators that
influence the participation rate in the working force
(Srivastava and Srivastava, 2010). It is also argued that
increase in the literacy rate changes person's attitude to
work, enables him to locate available job opportunities
and thus, facilitates the migration of persons from job
deficit areas to other areas. The literacy rate also affects
the age of marriage of persons, especially females.
Therefore, the literacy rate and participation rate should
be positively associated (Pandey, 1973).
Main workers
The data in Table 4 showed that the WPR is increasing
with the rise of educational level. Among the main
workers, WPR of literate was 35.51% while the post-
graduate or equivalent level goes to 65.57% of total
population. In rural areas, the WPR for literate male was
36.10 and 68.12% at the post-graduate or equivalent
level. In urban areas, the WPR at literate level varies
from 34.42 to 64.55%. Out of the total population, male
WPR was 53.38% for literate and 72.12% at post-
graduate level. In rural areas for male, it ranges from
49.58 to 72.48% while in urban areas it is 53.38% and it
goes up to 72.03%. Out of the total population, women’s
WPR in main worker category is low as compare to the
male member with same level of education. Only 12.46%
literate women are engaged and it goes up to 48.56% at
post-graduate level. It also varies across residence from
rural to urban. In rural areas, 14.32% literate women and
52.24% post-graduate women were engaged. While in
urban areas it varies from 9.46 to 47.53% for literate and
post-graduate women. From the data, it is clear that the
male WPR in general, for both rural and urban is
increasing with increase level of education with less
fluctuation. In the contrary, women’s WPR are fluctuated
8. Mainuddin 43
Figure 1. Literacy and Work Participation Rate for Women in different states in India.
with the rise in educational level. It can be said that
participation of women in rural areas is not increasing
with the same pace as that of urban areas and not likely
to their male counterpart.
Marginal workers
In the marginal category, the concentration of illiterate
population is high. As the level of education rises, WPR
decreases for male in both rural as well as urban areas. If
we look at the data of women, the participation of illiterate
women is very high in both rural and urban areas.
Women constituted 74.62% as a marginal worker of the
total workers in India. Of all female marginal workers,
83.94% are in rural areas and 26.08% are in urban areas
only. In general, large share of women are marginal
workers in Indian economy. Also, the number of marginal
workers is higher in rural areas than urban areas. For
illiterate women, the WPR is higher than the
corresponding male in both rural and urban areas. More
than 62% literate women work as marginal workers
against 13.29% male literate marginal workers. In rural
areas, the presence of literate women in this category
was 80.26% as compare to 19.41% in urban areas.
At the post-graduate level overall share of women as
marginal worker was 4.47%. While, male constituted less
than women and it was 3.26%. In rural areas, this rate
was 9.47% for women and 6.71% for male. In urban
areas, it sharply declines as women share is 2.93% and
for male it was 1.70%. This implies that women with
higher education did not join this sector or remain
unemployed.
Literacy and work participation rate
As mentioned earlier, literacy is an important indicator of
determining the work participation. But it is always not
true for all regions. The liberal capitalism assumes that
with higher education, the capability of the individual
increases. From Figure 1, it is shown that there is no
systematic relation between literacy and WPR. Women’s
WPR is low in some states with higher literacy rate. For
example, Kerala with the highest literacy rate of 87.72%
have low participation of women (15.32%). In some major
states where literacy rate is high like Mizoram, Delhi,
Chandigarh and Himachal Pradesh have low women’s
participation in the labour force (Appendix 2). Also, the
correlation is negatively significant between female
literacy and work participation. From the analysis, it is
found that it is difficult to establish systematic relationship
between literacy and work participation of women. It has
also been observed that “while economic factors
principally determine a man’s participation in employ-
ment, the forces that influence a women’s participation in
work are diverse and include demographic, reproductive,
social, religious and cultural factors” (Srivastava and
Srivastava, 2010). Why is this happening? It was found
that WPR is higher for illiterate women than for women
with higher level of education – a trend which reverses
itself only for women with technical/vocational education
or graduate or post-graduate. This pattern is manifested
in both rural and urban areas. So, it can be argued that
“education may not positively influence a women’s
participation in work, but for women who are in work
force, education is the most important determinant of
better quality non-agricultural work” (Srivastava and
Srivastava, 2010).
Relationship between occupational composition and
literacy rate
The present analysis is an attempt to examine the causal
relationship between occupational compositions as a
9. 44 J. Geogr. Reg. Plann.
Table 5. Inter relationship between occupational composition and literacy.
Variable
Female
Literacy (X
1
)
Female WPR
(X
2
)
Cultivator
(X
3
)
Agriculture
(X
4
)
Household
Industry (X
5
)
Other workers
(X
6
)
Female literacy (X1
) 1.00
Female WPR (X2
) -0.263 1.00
Cultivator (X
3
) -0.382* 0.760** 1.00
Agriculture labours (X
4
) -0.468** 0.028 -0.264 1.00
Household industry (X
5
) 0.073 -0.362* -0.443** 0.063 1.00
Other workers (X6
) 0.700** -0.693** -0.697** -0.491** 0.206 1.00
*, Significant at p = 0.05; **, significant at p = 0.01. Source: Census of India (2001) (Computed from Appendix 1 and 2).
cause and literacy rate as an effect. In order to assess
the inter relationship among the variables, Karl Pearson’s
technique of correlation matrix have been used and level
of significance have been tested using student’s‘t’ test
technique. For determination of the inter relation, the
following variables are used; female literacy (x
1
), FWPR
(x
2
), female cultivator (x
3
), female agriculture (x
4
), female
household industry (x
5
) and female other workers (x
6
).
Table 5 shows that literacy is negatively related with
first three variables that is, female WPR (X1
= -0.263),
cultivator (X
2
= -0.382) and agriculture (X
3
= -0.468) but
they are significantly related with X
3
and X
4
with 5 and
1%, respectively. It implies that with the increase of
literacy, rate will decrease the female participation in
cultivators and agricultural labours. While literacy is
positively related with household Industry (X
5
= 0.73) and
other workers (X6
= .700) X6
with positive relation
significant at 1% level, thereby it implies that the women
participation will increase in above two occupational
groups with rise in literacy.
It is observed that women’s WPR positively related with
cultivator (X
2
= 0.760) is significant at 1% level. Women’s
WPR also has positive relation with agriculture (X
3
= -
0.468) without any significance. While women’s WPR is
negative related with household industry (X
5
= -0.362)
and other workers (X6
= -0.693) are significant at 5 and
1% level, respectively. Thus, it can be said that with the
increase of female, WPR will also increase the female
cultivators and decrease the female HHIW and other
workers.
Female cultivation is negatively related with agriculture
(X3
= -0.264) but without any significance. Also,
cultivation is negatively related with household industry
(X
5
= -0.443) and other workers (X
6
= -0.697) are
significant at 1% level. Agriculture is positively related at
lower level with household industry (X5
= 0.063) but not
significant. While cultivation is negatively related with
other workers (X
6
= -0.491) and are significant at 1%
level. Household industry is positively related with other
workers (X
6
= 0.206) has no significance. It may be
ascertained that low level of literacy is mainly associated
with the occupational composition of low women’s WPR
and higher concentration of women in cultivation and
agricultural work. As the literacy rate increase, it
positively increase the participation of women in other
workers occupational composition.
From the data, it was revealed that the participation
women in the economic activities had been ignored. It is
observed that “most of the time priority is given to the
female person in Maldives while addressing. For
example, mother comes before father, woman comes
before man and wife comes before husband when they
are addressed. The literacy rate and educational level is
higher among females than among males” (Bose, 2004).
One of the expectations from the use of education is that
it will bring reduction in inequalities in the society
assuming that education leads to equalization of status
between individuals coming from higher to unequal socio-
economic strata of the society. The history of the
movement for improving women’s status all over the
world shows emphasis from the beginning on education
as the most powerful instrument for changing women’s
subjugated position in society. From the point of view of
an individual, education provides essential qualifications
to fulfill certain economic, political and cultural functions,
and consequently improves his socio-economic status.
Conclusion
The participation of women in Indian economy was less
as compared to their male counterpart and it varied from
one region to another. The participation of women in the
northern states was less. The major finding of the paper
is that the WPR of women is not increasing with the rise
in level of education. There was no single state with
higher WPR of women than the male. This means, in
Indian society, male gives less priority to their women.
Participation of women in the rural sector is always larger
than the male members of the society. This is because of
the low mobility of women from the villages, due to
religious and social restriction. On the supply side,
reproductive work and domestic roles prove to be
significant variables in influencing female labour force
participation. If the trend continues for some more time,
there will be serious repercussion to the society we left
10. for generations to come. First, it is believed that high level
of education and vocational training for women workers is
necessary for improving their level of productivity and
enabling them to move into non-agricultural sectors.
Second, women should be given autonomy and freedom
to move, and to join self-help groups, affects their ability
to access resources and improve productivity. Third, it is
evident that women are regarded as the peripheral
producers and marginal recipients of the benefits of
government programmes and from development and
credit institutions. So, there is a strong need for a gender
sensitive agricultural strategy which strengthens the role
of women workers in the agriculture (Srivastava and
Srivastava, 2010). In the short run, it is necessary to
recognize the productive work done by the women,
reduce the discrimination against them by legislations on
equal pay and equal job opportunities and create more
jobs specially suited to their skills and needs.
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