This document provides strategies and techniques for developing effective reading skills. It discusses strategies that can be used before, during, and after reading a text. Some key points: - Before reading, activate prior knowledge by reviewing what is already known about the topic, making predictions, and asking questions. This helps readers connect new information to existing schemas. - During reading, monitor comprehension by thinking aloud, annotating the text with notes and questions, and using context clues to understand unfamiliar words. - After reading, reflect on what was learned and incorporate it into one's existing knowledge framework. Summarize the key points and discuss any unanswered questions.

1. Reading and Writing Skills
Lesson 2. Applying Effective Reading Strategies

3. Before, During, and After
Reading Strategies
 Reading involves connecting new text to prior knowledge. Students
activate existing knowledge, and create a mental framework to which new
knowledge can be attached. This process begins before reading, is
strengthened as students interact with the text during reading, and is
reflected upon after reading as students incorporate what they have read
into their existing knowledge.
 Educators can help students become more proficient readers when they
provide explicit instruction on how "fix-it" and comprehension strategies
are used. Based on research and effective practice, before, during, and after
reading strategies help students to find meaning in text and use problem
solving strategies as they read.

7. “Each person
must live
their life as a
model for
others.”
-Rosa Parks

9. Stage One: Pre-Reading Strategies
 The reader's task prior to reading is to activate his or her prior knowledge of
the topic, to prepare the mind to interact with the new information
contained in the text. Schema is another term for the prior knowledge base
each reader possesses about a topic. Schema is a network of concepts,
experiences, and associations that students bring to their interactions with
the printed page.
 Rather than just "diving in cold" and reading word by word with eyes
tending to glaze over, skilled readers, like skilled athletes, ready themselves
for the task. As an athlete prepares to exercise by doing warm-up exercises,
so does a reader "warm up" the mind. Each textbook reading experience
does not have to be an arduous and frustrating exercise if students realize
that they possess some knowledge already and that this text material will
augment what they already know.

10. Tasks of the Before-Reading Stage
One way to motivate students is to help them to activate their prior knowledge of the
topic (schema). In general, the teacher can help students create a focus for their
reading efforts, to set a purpose for the reading.
Strategies to Activate Prior Knowledge
The teacher can do much in the classroom to prepare students for their readings. Prior
to class, the teacher can anticipate student needs by:
 Previewing the chapter and determining which concepts are essential.
 Reading over the material with an eye to student needs. How much foundation
building will the students need to understand these concepts?
 Asking "Where are the trouble spots in this chapter?"
 Noting resources offered by the text, such as the glossary, list of objectives, margin
notations, and end-of-chapter summaries and questions.

11. In-Class Strategies
 In class the teacher can help to build a bridge between information which
is "known" and information which is "new." To build a bridge between
known and new, the teacher can:
A. Review what has been learned to date.
Ask "What do we already know?" For example, in a business text's
chapter on global business, recall that the previous chapter dealt with
"U.S. Business.”
Ask questions to draw on students' life experiences: "Do you know any
companies that operate worldwide?“
Reviewing known material brings to the surface the knowledge that the
students already possess; it establishes a "platform" for the new
information. Students get the sense that they bring something to the task.

12. In-Class Strategies
A second in-class strategy that the teacher can encourage
students to employ is to look ahead, to survey a chapter or
other reading. Looking ahead is similar to looking at a road map
before taking a trip; it prepares the mind. To look ahead…
Skim through the chapter or section. Look at subheadings, pictures,
and graphic representations to get an idea of what is coming.
Anticipate. Encourage students to write down their predictions of the
concepts they will be learning and, afterwards, to compare their
predictions with what they actually encountered.

13. In-Class Strategies
A third in-class strategy involves questioning:
What do we want to know from this reading?
Take the chapter title and subheadings and turn them into
questions, to focus the mind and create a reading goal.
Forming questions or predictions about the upcoming
reading helps to create a focus for the student during the
reading, so the student doesn't just stare aimlessly at the
words on a page. Questions make the reading more active
and purposeful.

14. In-Class Strategies
As a fourth strategy, students can benefit from the use of K-W-L
Charts to log their interactions with a reading (Vacca & Vacca,
1996, pp. 211-217). A K-W-L Chart is a table on which students
can record their prior knowledge and new learning from their
reading experience. K-W-L stands for the following three
questions:
K = What do I know already about this topic?
W = What do I want to know?
L = What did I learn from this reading?
The first two questions are completed in the before-reading
stage. The third question is completed in the after-reading stage.

15. In-Class Strategies
A fifth in-class strategy helps students to build
vocabulary and new concepts:
Prior to a reading assignment, introduce new concepts
and vocabulary that the students will encounter in the
reading.

16. Stage Two: During Reading Strategies
Once the reader's mind is "warmed up," the next task for
the reader is to interact with the text and to monitor
(keep track of) comprehension, paying attention to
points at which the material is not clear or the terms are
not familiar.

17. Tasks and Strategies of the During-Reading
Stage
 It is helpful if the teacher can model reading behavior by "thinking aloud"
or reading and signing at the same time to make his or her thought
process available to the students as the teacher interacts with the text
material. The process involves the following steps on the part of the teacher:
 Read the text, saying or signing the idea you are getting.
 Ask questions or hypothesize along the way: "I think that means …" or "That's similar to
…"
 Identify important concepts.
 Summarize at the end of a section what you understood.
 Designate pairs or groups of students in class to practice this strategy.

18. A second during-reading strategy involves annotating a text by
writing margin notes. Margin notes are important for students
because they …
Encourage the student to actively respond to the ideas in the text.
Serve as a visible record of the student's thought process as he or she is
reading.
Provide a useful tool for review and test preparation.
What should the student note in the margin of a text? Some ideas for
margin notes include (a) writing a synopsis of paragraph ideas, (b) using
symbols to call attention to portions of the text, (c) writing down
questions, and (d) recording observations.

19. Symbols to use as margin notes could include the following:
* = important point, key concept
? = I don't understand that idea or sentence.
Def. = definition of a term
The student can write down questions in the margin to either
look up later or to ask the instructor about, such as …
"What is synergy?"
The student can record observations about a text that might
help in interpreting the texts or putting the information in
context, such as …
"The author seems politically biased."

20.  Remember the scenario at the beginning of this lesson about forgetting what you read? Asking yourself
questions while you are reading will help you to understand the story's meaning. Sometimes, the
answers to your questions can be answered within the text. Other times, you will have to think beyond
the text, also known as making inferences.
 Some questions that can be answered from within the text might be:
i. What has happened in the text so far?
ii. What is the main idea of the text?
iii. What are the most important things you have read so far?
iv. Who are the characters in the story?
 While inference questions might be:
• How do you think the character was feeling?
• Why do you think the character did such and such?
• How would you feel if this happened to you?
• What does this text remind you of?
• What do you think will happen next?

21. What Is Inference?
 Inference is using observation and background to reach a logical conclusion.
You probably practice inference every day. For example, if you see someone
eating a new food and he or she makes a face, then you infer he does not
like it. Or if someone slams a door, you can infer that she is upset about
something.
 You should know what you are looking for. Your goal is to find the intended
meaning of the text. Intended meaning is what we think the author is trying
to teach us.
 Why is it important to make inferences? When writing a story, an author will
not include all the information for us. He/she will expect us to read between
the lines and reach conclusions about the text. When making inferences, you
are looking beyond what is stated in the text and finding the ideas to which
the author only hints.

22. How to Practice Making Inferences
 When reading, we make inferences through the author, the text and our
response. The first step to reaching a conclusion of the intended meaning of
a writing is to look at the author. You should spend time reading the
author's biography. Look at his/her other works and see what they have in
common. Also, look at the historical and cultural context of the writing. This
will help give you a background of the writing that you can use in the next
step of reading.
 After you have taken time to read about the author, you are ready to start to
read the writing. Your goal as you read is to make conclusions. These
conclusions are not stated, but you should read between the lines to
understand what the author is trying to say.

23. How to Practice Making Inferences
 As you read, make guesses. Try to guess what will happen next in the story,
what a character may say or think or even what other characters not in the
scene are doing.
 Next, ask questions. Why are the characters acting a certain way? What are
they thinking? Where are they going? What are they feeling? What do you
already know? What is missing? Why is the author not including information?
 After this, you should make predictions. What do you think will happen next?
How will a character react? What will the outcome be?
 Finally, you should find connections in the details. After you have made
predictions, see what is missing or stated in the details and make
connections. Fill in the missing information using your questions, guesses
and predictions.

24. Context Clues
All readers encounter words they do not know.
The difference is that stronger readers can guess at the
meaning of a word based on what surrounds it and
then continue along, whereas others get derailed.
This section should help you feel more confident in
making an educated guess about a word based on the
context clues.

25. Context Clues
Context clues are hints about a word's meaning found
nearby. You might look for context clues in the same
sentence, or in the sentences before and after it. These clues
can also be synonyms of the challenging word, or even
a brief definition.
Example Passage

26. Context Clues
1. Word Parts
The idea: Break down the different parts of a word—base word
(word stem or root word), prefixes, and suffixes—to figure out
what it means. Some words have a prefix only (reread), a suffix
only (reading), both a prefix and a suffix (prereading), a
combination (unreadableness), or neither (read).
Discrimination
Dis-: not, opposite of, reverse, deprive of; apart, away
crimin: verdict, judicial decision; judgment
tion: indicates the word is a noun

27. Context Clues
2. Definition/explanation
The idea: Look for a definition or an explanation within the
sentence.
• Discrimination or unfairly targeting one or more groups by those
who perceive themselves to be superior can cause distress.
• Vulnerable people are oftentimes in need of protection under
certain laws so others cannot take advantage of them.

28. Context Clues
3. Synonym
The idea: Words next to the unknown word can be a clue that
there is a synonym.
• Discrimination or bias can cause distress toward the targeted
group.
• When people know they are vulnerable or defenseless, they
tend to protect themselves to avoid harm.

29. Context Clues
4. Example
The idea: Providing examples of the unknown word can
give readers a clue to meaning.
• Like shunning smokers in restaurants by making them
satisfy their habit outside, discrimination targets a perceived
undesirable group.
• Vulnerable people, such as young children, the elderly, or
handicapped individuals, might have protections under
certain laws.

30. Context Clues
5. Antonym/contrast
The idea: opposite information about the unknown
word can be offset by words and phrases such as unlike,
as opposed to, different from.
• Discrimination, as opposed to fairness for all people, can
have damaging effects on a targeted group.
• Vulnerable people, unlike those who can stand up for
themselves, tend to be the target of unethical or dangerous
individuals.

31. Context Clues
6. Analogy
The idea: Comparisons of the word help to
determine what it means.
• The ill effects of discrimination are like hateful,
wicked tendrils gripping the heart.
• Vulnerable people can be like fragile glass in
need of care and attention.

32. Context Clues
7. Appositive
The idea: Look for the grammatical structure of appositives
which can provide a definition, synonym, or example.
• Discrimination, the act of showing bias to one group, can have
damaging effects.
• The elderly and handicapped, a vulnerable group of
individuals, have laws to protect them from unethical individuals.
Once students identify the context clue, orchestrate activities for
students to learn the word so they can use it when speaking and
within their writing.

34. Attrition: "a reduction in numbers
usually as a result of resignation,
retirement, or death."

35. The next time you encounter a word you don't know follow this
process before immediately going to the dictionary.

36. ACTIVITY 1. Put a check (/) if you think that the
word might be in the text, or a cross (X) if you think
that is not in the text.
1. Rebellious 7. Husband
2. Teenager 8. Determine
3. Mediate 9. Independent
4. Relationship 10. Survive
5. Careful 11. Compete
6. Parental 12. Theory