Linked In Reasearch article

INTEGRATION PAPER
Integration Paper: Disappearing Dads
Nicholas T. Puchalski
Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota
Schools of Graduate and Professional Programs
Master of Arts in Marriage and Family Therapy
Karen Irvin, Ph.D., LMFT,
Steve McManus, LMFT,
Sara Heinzen MA, LMFT MN MFT/LPC/LPCC
April 9, 2013

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Abstract
Marriage and family therapy graduate students are equipped for a professional career in the
mental health field through a variety of educational and clinical experiences. Integrating the
educational and clinical experiences that the student receives is an important component that
contributes to the successful growth and development of a therapist. The author explores and
evaluates the benefits and struggles of the integration process. Analysis of relevant research and
a discussion on how the level of father involvement affects the developing child and adolescent
combine to create a fully integrated experience for the author. Results of the literature review
show that father involvement is complex and involves many variables in the life of the child and
the father. The child-father dynamic affects the development of the child and adolescent across
multiple settings, including academics, finances, physical health, psychological health, and
relationships. These findings imply that the role of the absentee, non-residential, and non-
custodial father must be strongly considered as a mental health clinician when providing family
and individual therapy to child and adolescent clients.

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Table of Contents
Literature Review: Father Involvement and Effects On The Developing Child .................... 4
Types of Father Involvement ....................................................................................... 5
Reasons For Deficient Fathering ................................................................................. 7
Alternative Research...................................................................................... 10
Effects On The Developing Child.............................................................................. 11
Alternative Research...................................................................................... 14

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Literature Review: Father Involvement and Effects On The Developing Child
Research suggests the role a father plays in the life of the developing child or adolescent
has an expansive effect, influencing the child in multiple ways across many different settings
(Swisher & Waller, 2008; Amato & King, 2007; Amato, 2006). Relationships between any
parental figure and child involve a multitude of variables that can manifest in positive or
negative ways, thus impacting the growth and development of the child. These effects can be
seen in the present moment or exist as latent effects showing up later in the life of the child. But
to what extent are children being affected by the different types of involvement of a father and in
which specific developmental areas? There are many different ways in which a father can be
involved in the lives of his children. Specifically, in this meta-analysis different styles of father
involvement will be explored along with differing effects that are attached with the different
levels of involvement. Discussion around why many fathers are deficient in providing for their
children is necessary for proper investigation of the topic.
The primary focus of this literature review includes three research components; types of
father involvement, reasons for deficient father involvement, and the effects fathers have on the
child or adolescent. This topic was selected because of the writer’s in-home clinical experience
with single-parent families with the main caregiver typically being the mother or grandmother of
the client. With an emphasis on child and adolescent clients, the majority of the treatment plans,
goals, and interventions this writer utilizes match behaviors and effects that are mentioned in
research and studies that follow. Furthermore, within a female dominated field, there are
numerous occasions in which a client referral will highlight the need for a male figure or role-
model and note a deficient or lacking paternal commitment in the life of the child.

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Types of Father Involvement
Historically, the idea of the nuclear family was upheld as the prototypical family
structure. Nuclear families generally consisted of male and female adults with shared biological
children. The parental unit was typically active and usually involved a male father figure who
contributed to the family system. The father provided for his family and engaged with them on a
regular basis. Husbands and fathers during the nuclear family era were seen as necessary,
productive pieces within society and their own families. Often times they were seen as the
“breadwinner” or financial provider for the family. Engaging in specific gender roles is known as
complementary role taking, where traditional families tend to embrace fundamental gender roles
during the child-rearing stages. An example of this includes fathers providing financially and
mothers overseeing the role of nurturer within the family (Lakoff, 1996). However, the archetype
of what a family represents has changed and continues to change from one generation to the
next. For example, the “family decline” hypothesis first proposed by Burges (1916) and
expanded upon by Parsons and Bales (1955) and Poponoe (1993) surmises that the quality of
family life is in constant deterioration effecting family relations, values, and overall development
and survival of the family. With the perceived decline of families, fathers have increasingly
become the targets of blame and are held responsible for the negative changes in family lifestyle.
This is reflected in many different ways, with one example consisting of a Congressional bill
titled the Deadbeat Parents Punishment Act (1997), which was put into place to diminish the
issue of fathers not economically supporting their children. Even with the perception that overall
quality of family life is in decline, some would argue that the image of the “deadbeat dad” is a
dangerous stereotype. Some research has found that fathers do care for and want to provide for
their children even if they are not primarily involved in the family system (Laasko & Adams,

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2006; Sylvester & Reich, 2002). Naturally as family systems change, so does the role of the
father. Because there are many different ways in which a father can take part in the lives of his
children, it is appropriate to identify and define these paternal roles.
Different titles for fathers have emerged and are attributed to a biological father,
depending on his level of involvement and contribution to his children. Common terms that are
used include: absentee father, uninvolved father, non-residential father, and non-custodial father
(Nixon, Greene, & Hogan, 2012; Laasko & Adams, 2006; Geller et al., 2012; Aquilino, 2006).
At times these are used interchangeably to represent a father who is not connected to or
providing for his children, though these designations have distinctly separate meanings with the
exception of the terms “absentee” and “uninvolved,” Absentee or uninvolved assumes that the
father is absent from the life of his biological children. This is often correlated with the idea that
fathers are choosing to be absent from the lives of their children based on their actions and
contributions to the development of the child (Geller et al., 2009). However, fathers are often
absent from a child’s life because he is not permitted to be involved in it for one specific reason
or another. Whether or not this is a willing or unwilling choice is usually dependent on the
context of the situation. “Non-residential father” refers to the fact that the biological father is not
living in the same household as the child or adolescent (Laasko & Adams, 2006). Again, the
father not residing in the same household can result from a number of reasons, including the
mother having sole custody of the child, the father living in a separate geographical location, or
through an unplanned pregnancy between two briefly connected adults. The non-resident father
differs from the absentee father because he is still involved with his child even though he is away
from the child’s permanent home (Simons et al., 1994; Geller et al., 2012). Often falling into the
non-residential father category is the non-custodial father. This type of father typically has

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neither physical nor legal custody of his biological children and likely lives apart from his them
(Aquilino, 2006). A non-custodial father who is denied custody and is not living with his
children would also fall under the term non-residential, satisfying criteria for both non-residential
and non-custodial titles. Though possessing different titles, each type of father mentioned lacks
involvement with his children. Similar to examining any family system, deficient paternal
involvement is complex and multifaceted in nature, and it is because of this complexity that a
deeper exploration of how and why fathers become diminished characters in a child’s life is
necessary.
Reasons For Deficient Fathering
According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2011), when surveying families and living
arrangements, approximately one out of three of America’s 24 million children live in a father-
absent home. If fathers who are partially involved were included in the statistics, the number of
affected children may be even larger as a considerable amount of children will spend at least a
portion of their life in a single–parent household typically headed by mothers (Harris & Ryan,
2004). Deficiency in fatherhood can be attributed to distinct life events that occur and decisions
that fathers make as well as the ideals, beliefs, and values that society holds towards parenting
(Cabrera et al., 2000). With the complex causes of deficient fathering, the following research
identifies main sources that result in differing levels of father involvement.
The first area to be noted is that of the incarcerated father. By the beginning of 2009, over
1.5 million individuals were incarcerated in the United States (Glaze & Maruschak, 2009;
Murray et al., 2009). Furthermore, large portions of these individuals are male, many of whom
have biological children younger than 18 years old (Glaze & Marushak, 2009). Incarcerated
fathers affect the child in many areas of normative development because the interactions and

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contributions to his children are limited (Swisher & Waller, 2008; Solomon & Zweig, 2006;
Geller et al., 2012). Incarcerated fathers might fall under the categories of absentee father, non-
residential father, or uninvolved father, depending on how often and if the father maintains his
relationship with his children throughout his period of confinement.
In addition to a father insufficiently providing for his children due to incarceration,
children may also experience a decrease in paternal care as a result of a divorce, a conflictual
relationship between two adult parents, or a non-marital birth (Aquilino, 2006; Braman, 2004;
Shulman, Sharf, Lumer, & Maurer, 2001). Often these couples experience marital conflict and
either end the relationship with divorce or never start a cooperative relationship due to the
conflict between each other and the various struggles of parenthood.
Research provides evidence that following a divorce a majority of adolescents fail to
experience a close relationship and connection with their biological fathers (Billings & Emery,
2000; Scott, Booth, King, & Johnson, 2007). Typically, after divorce, contact between a non-
custodial or non-residential father and his child tends to fade over time (Stewart, 1999). This
process of declining father involvement may also be enhanced with the remarriage of either
parent, significantly reducing contact with the non-resident children (Aquilino, 2006; Manning,
Stewart, & Smock, 2003). Aquilino (2006), along with others (Stewart, 1999) suggest that new
relationships and new family dynamics post-divorce have a direct affect on the level of
commitment and contribution that biological children receive from their fathers. This might
include a father who is starting a new relationship and family post-divorce, or even a non-
custodial father who is withdrawing support because of a post-divorce remarriage or new
relationship by the custodial mother. Even in the midst of divorce or in a non-marital
relationship, being able to maintain paternal relationships early in a child’s life is a strong

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predictor of future father contact leading into adolescence and young adulthood (Aquilino, 2006;
Meyers & Emery, 2009; Bronte-Tinkew & Horowitz, 2010). Post-divorce relationships between
adults have been found to interfere with visitation in nearly 37% of divorced families (Pearson &
Thoennes, 2000), though the more frequently the non-custodial parent is involved the less inter-
parental conflict is experienced by the child (Amato & Rezac, 1994).
Studies also show that paternal involvement is influenced by mother closeness within a
child’s life. Mother closeness, defined as the level of maternal involvement in the life of her
biological child, has shown to decrease the negative impact of child and adolescent problem
behaviors in the home as well as help promote father-child relationships after a divorce (Scott et
al., 2007).
In other situations, men might suddenly find themselves as fathers without being married
to, without residing with, and even without being in a serious or committed relationship with the
mother (Fagan & Lee, 2012). This may allude to a situation in which fathers become involved
with new partners and potentially a new family, complicating and putting themselves at risk for
decreased interactions with initial biological children (Fagan & Lee, 2012; Fagan & Palkovitz;
Cabrera et al., 2004; Manning & Smock, 1999).
Other reasons for deficient fathering include: low education levels, substance use and
abuse, low income level, and physical, emotional, and psychological health problems (Nelson,
2004; McMahon & Rounsavolle, 2002; Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1999; Wilson & Brooks-Gunn,
2001). In such situations, fathers are often afflicted with multiple issues, which only compound
the family situation and negatively affect father engagement with children (Bronte-Tinkew,
Horowitz, & Carrano, 2010). Supplemental research implies that along with the number of risk
factors, the specific type of risk may influence paternal engagement (Ayoub et al., 2009).

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Minimally involved fathers and positive effects in children. Conversely, even with an
abundance of negative reasons accounting for a lack of paternal involvement, father absenteeism
has shown to increase the well-being of children and adolescents in particular circumstances. For
instance, when a father becomes a non-custodial or absentee father because of abuse or neglect
towards his children or partner, the offspring are spared from further harm, thus creating a safer
environment (Geller et al., 2012). As previously mentioned, when fathers become incarcerated
for various reasons, this restraint from biological children will keep the family protected from
negative influences and behaviors of the father (Geller et al., 2012; Whitaker et al., 2006).
Further supplementing the alternative side of father involvement is the idea of quality
versus quantity father engagement. This father engagement style raises the compelling question
as to whether or not minimal father involvement is acceptable and beneficial as long as it is of
significant quality. Several researchers agree that quality does exceed quantity and is most
favorable for the developing child or adolescent (King & Sobolewski, 2006; Dunn, Cheng,
O’Conner, & Bridges, 2004; Stewart, 2003; Amato & Gilbeth, 1999).
A case can be made that the theory and influence of intergenerational transmission is at
work among biological fathers and their children. The process of passing along either positive or
negative values, beliefs, and examples of relationships has been known to be an active process
between and within generations (Laasko & Adams, 2006; Parke, 1996; Bowen, 1978;). Fathers
pass on both productive and detrimental sentiments and experiences of fatherhood, most with
good intentions, but often leading to deficient father involvement with their own children
(Laasko & Adams, 2006; Sylvester & Reich, 2002; Parke, 1996). Intergenerational influence has
proven so significant that prominent researchers and mental health providers such as Murray
Bowen are devoted to working with clients under this specific framework, helping fathers and

mothers alike to identify the influence and effects they have on their children (Kerr & Bowen,
1988).
Effects On The Developing Child
There is strong evidence that supports the idea that children are indeed affected by the
type of interaction a father has with his children (Geller et al., 2012; Nixon, Greene, & Hogan,
2012; Kincaid et al., 2010; Booth, Scott, & King, 2010; Menning & Stewart, 2008; Mitchell,
Booth, & King, 2009; Aquilino, 2006; Simons et al., 1994). This presents itself in many different
ways within the life of the child, impacting the physical, psychological, behavioral, and
relational development (Nord et al., 2005; Garasky & Stewart, 2007; Menning & Stewart, 2008;
Mandara & Pikes, 2008; Aquilino, 2006). Additional areas that contribute to child and adolescent
growth consist of educational, social, and financial factors, all of which are influenced by the
level of paternal involvement (Amato, 2000; King et al., 2004; Booth et al., 2013; Antecol &
Bedard, 2007; Laasko & Adams, 2006;). It is important to consider each of these subjects
individually to understand more precisely how they affect child development and growth.
The health and overall physical well-being of children tends to be affected by father
involvement. For example, Menning and Stewart (2013) show obesity is already a national
concern; children and adolescents who are in single-parent households are at higher risk than
their two-parent peers. A poor quality relationship with a non-resident or non-custodial father
may lead to a change in the child’s biochemistry. For example, increases in cortisol have been
associated with obesity. This same low quality relationship may also negatively encourage
unhealthy eating habits (Dimitriou, Maser-Gluth, & Remer, 2003). Interestingly, in the same
study by Menning and Stewart (2013), underweight has also been found to be an issue with
children of a non-resident father, with social class emerging as the difference between these two

groups. The notion behind the substandard physical health of these children is derived from the
fact that non-residential fathers often provide inadequate financial support, which restricts the
child’s access to proper healthcare and healthy lifestyle maintenance. It is also speculated that
non-residential fathers perceive the time they do spend with their children as a special occasion
(Menning & Stewart, 2013; Cunningham, Hahn, & Hahn, 1994). This “Disneyland” attitude
typically includes sharing celebratory foods and the potential of modeling an unhealthy lifestyle
that follows the child into young adulthood. Over half of the clientele in this writer’s caseload
consists of obese children or adolescents living in low socioeconomic situations. Experience with
non-resident father involvement has proven this celebratory style of father-child engagement to
be valid and significant.
Psychological effects and problematic behaviors have also been found to influence the
developing child and adolescent. In one study, researchers looked at the risky behavior and
psychological issues that are associated with single-mother parenting (Kincaid et al., 2010). The
study concluded that in single-mother homes of African American youth there was an increase in
risky behaviors specifically with sexual intercourse and alcohol use. This externalization of
behaviors (versus internalization of problems) was a reoccurring theme throughout the research.
Along with these risky behaviors, researchers found that psychosocial adjustment problems were
associated with the level of a mother’s psychological control of her child. Amato (2000),
Aquilino (2006), and Antecol and Bedard (2007) had similar findings, that adolescents were
predisposed to psychological harm when associated with a non-resident father and were overall
happier and satisfied with life with less psychological distress when the quality of father
engagement was adequate. Adolescents with less involved fathers experienced greater chances of
depression, anxiety, adjustment issues, low-self esteem, higher risk of substance abuse, and other

detrimental factors (Booth et al., 2010; Simons et al., 1994). Studies by Wakefield and
Wildeman (2011), Geller et al. (2009), and Phillips et al. (2006) support these findings of
increased risk and add that child and adolescent physical aggression increases with paternal
incarceration. Children who experience father absenteeism through incarceration are more likely
to experience financial and economic strain (Geller et al., 2009). Again, these studies support the
clinical experience and findings of this author concerning children and adolescents in single-
parent households. The majority of the child and adolescent diagnoses involve disorders that
present symptoms of physical and verbal aggression, anxiety, depression, and unhealthy lifestyle
habits and behavior. Client goals for these young clients will typically include a family skills
component to assist the child in addressing the issues and problems that stem from deficient
fathering.
Other relevant articles of research include works by Geller et al. (2009), King and
Sobolewski (2006), White and Gilbreth (2001), and Amato and Gilbreth (1999) that emphasize
the educational, financial, and social effects that a child might experience with an absent or
nonresident father. In the educational setting, children of non-resident, non-custodial, or absentee
father households tend to experience lower grade levels and are overall inclined to receive less
education. As previously mentioned, the father’s level of education influences a child’s academic
career, which may be due to a lack of parental involvement in the child’s education or due to the
stressors that adversely affect the child’s academic performance (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999).
Regarding finances, absent or nonresident fathers are apt to insufficiently provide for their
offspring (Geller et al., 2009; Phillips et al., 2009). Research shows that as children and
adolescents grow and develop the connection between a father and his children dissipates
(Stewart, 1999). The writer can confirm the dilemma of academic performance of fatherless

adolescents, working with clients in fatherless homes who struggle academically. The writer has
also observed that with this academic struggle comes a social and emotional struggle for the
client. It seems as though these problems and negative effects are intertwined and are not
mutually exclusive.
Alternative Findings. Certain studies propose that deficient paternal involvement is
beneficial to the well-being and development of children and adolescents. In regard to child
obesity, Menning and Stewart (2008) report that on occasion having an absent or non-resident
father may actually reduce health risks in children. Even with significant findings proving
otherwise, this same study holds that some fathers model unhealthy lifestyle choices to their
children. This has shown to negatively impact the health of the children, putting them at
moderate risk of mirroring unhealthy behaviors (Lamb, 1981). Also noted is the reality that
incarcerated fathers may benefit their offspring by remaining uninvolved in the child or
adolescent’s life, indirectly permitting them to maintain a healthy lifestyle (Whitaker et al.,
2006). Likewise, non-custodial and non-residential fathers who are in conflict with the biological
mothers can create a stressful or hostile home environment. Evidence concludes that remaining
apart from the father in this circumstance may reduce or prevent negative outcomes and long-
term effects on the biological children (Laasko & Adams, 2006; Amato, 2006).
This brings the reader back to the premise of quality versus quantity father engagement.
Alternative research argues that simply because a father is present in the home with his children
does not automatically indicate that the child has a healthy relationship with the biological father.
Researchers suggest that quality fathering from a non-resident or non-custodial father can
remarkably surpass the quantity of a resident and fully present father (Nixon, Greene, & Hogan,
2012).

In summary, the collection of research in this literature review not only supports the
sentiments and experiences of the author, but also poses new and important ideas for mental
health professionals to consider. Whether positive or negative, the effect fathers have on their
children is complex and involves many different components. Practitioners and clinicians
working with child and adolescent clients should be aware of the complexity of the child-father
dynamic as well as the consequential effects of father involvement on the developing child.
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Please add these resumes (2 pages each) to the end (After the last references page) of
each of my (4) Integration Papers. Same coil binding, etc. Thank you!

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