LHWP Information Sheets

Water efficiency and conservation ensure that we are making smart use of the water that we have. All members of
the lower Hunter community, including businesses, residents and Hunter Water, can take an active role in reducing
demands on the water supply by adopting water efficiency measures and reducing water leakage.
Residential water efficiency - Currently, the Hunter region has a high uptake of water efficient programs and
devices. The promotion and adoption of water saving appliances plays a key role in helping to increase these savings
every year. Two well-known examples of residential water efficiency initiatives are the showerhead exchange
program and the toilet replacement program.
Business water efficiency - Non-residential customers can have a strong influence on water efficiency by making
changes either in the way they use water, or by replacing drinking quality water with another source that is ‘fit-for-
purpose’. Actions may include retrofits to equipment, audits of water use, or installing data loggers to monitor and
better manage water use.
Loss minimisation - The pipes and infrastructure that make up the water supply network are subject to leaks, breaks
and overflows. Leaks occurring within the home can be identified and addressed by homeowners. Leaks in the
greater part of the network are addressed by Hunter Water.
Savings from water efficiency and loss
minimisation programs have increased
steadily in recent years, as shown in the
graph. In 2011-12, around 950 ML (1 ML
= 1 million litres) of drinking water was
saved from water efficiency measures,
and around 570 ML was saved from loss
minimisation measures.
This series of information sheets
outlines opportunities to build on water
efficiency and loss minimisation
programs.
To maximise the benefit of these
programs in the lower Hunter, it will be
important to consider the combination of measures
that achieve water savings while weighing up the
economic, social and environmental implications.
Water Efficiency Water Efficiency - Overview
INFORMATION SHEET 1.0
Lower Hunter Water Plan Project Team
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954
To have your say online or to register for a workshop, go to
haveyoursay.nsw.gov.au/lowerhunterwaterplan
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
VolumeofWater(ML)
Year
Drinking Water Savings
Water efficiency Loss minimisation

What is non-residential water efficiency?
Water efficiency means making the most of the current sources of water and involves using less water and reducing
the wastage of water. Using water more efficiently can have both financial and environmental benefits for
customers and the broader community.
Non-residential customers include industries, small businesses, office buildings, schools, hospitals, shopping centres,
hotels, restaurants and recreational facilities. These customers can improve their water efficiency by:
using products that are more water efficient
changing the way they use water
minimising losses or wastage
using recycled water or treated stormwater in business or industrial processes instead of using drinking
quality water.
Other ways of improving non-residential water efficiency include:
audits of water use to identify opportunities to reduce water use. These audits can include looking at water
use in kitchens, cooling towers, amenities, steam generation, irrigation, etc
subsidies or incentives to install more water-efficient appliances (such as dual-flush toilets, water-saving
showerheads, washing machines and trigger-operated spray guns)
installing data loggers to continuously monitor water use and identify potential leaks
raising customer awareness by providing information and examples of how to save water.
What support is available for non-residential customers?
Hunter Water currently has four programs to help non-residential customers improve their water efficiency. These
are outlined in the table below, along with an indication of the water savings that might be achieved.
The greatest water savings generally involve the largest water users. Hunter Water has about 30 ‘water-intensive’
customers who each use more than 50 ML (1 ML = 1 million litres) each year. Together they make up over 50% of
non-residential usage, so programs that focus on these customers are likely to produce the largest water savings.
Program Target Market Potential Water Savings
Large customer audit program Major customers (use more than 50ML/year) 10-25% for each participant for all
uses
Hunter Business Water
Savers Program
Commercial customers who use significant quantities of water in
their bathrooms and kitchens for non-drinking water purposes
30% of total bathroom and kitchen
uses
Irrigation water efficiency
audits
All irrigation activities such as public open spaces, sports fields
and school ovals
30% of total irrigation uses
Hunter Water facilities audit Wastewater treatment plants 15% average for each site, based on
site assessments completed so far
Water Efficiency Non-Residential Water Efficiency

While the existing programs focus on helping customers to use water more efficiently in ‘normal’ (non-drought)
times, a further step could target greater water efficiency during drought through voluntary or mandatory programs.
These might include:
increasing levels of customer contact and education
offering incentives for retrofitting water-efficient equipment
providing funding for customers to implement actions identified in water use audits
requiring large customers to develop and implement water efficiency management plans.
Some of these concepts are also explored in Information Sheet 2.2 on Drought Restrictions.
What do other water authorities in Australia do?
Most water authorities in Australia have supported a range of non-residential water efficiency initiatives over a
number of years. The most common initiatives are audits of major customers to develop water efficiency
management plans and monitoring programs to detect leaks.
The table below gives a general indication of the amount of water supplied or saved, cost, lead times and
environmental and social considerations (positive or negative) for this option.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Implementation considerations
Customer participation rates may be low in voluntary programs,
particularly for customers where water is a relatively small cost
Follow up is needed to make sure that water saving initiatives
identified in water use audits have been implemented
Community support is vital for water efficiency programs
Effective incentives and enforcement of mandatory programs may be
needed to achieve savings in a drought
Environmental considerations
Reducing demand for water may delay the need to implement other
major infrastructure measures
Social considerations
Encourages water efficient behaviour
Demonstrates that saving water is a shared responsibility between
businesses and the community
Some business customers may find it difficult to absorb the cost of
equipment upgrades and/or retrofits
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954
This series of fact sheets is designed to summarise
information from investigations to April 2013.
The environmental and social considerations
are provided as examples only and are not
intended to be a comprehensive list.

What does residential water efficiency mean?
Members of the community can influence how water-
efficient they are simply by changing some of the ways
they use water and by choosing water efficient appliances
for the home.
Examples of residential water efficiency include installing
water efficient showerheads, tap aerators and dual flush
toilets, using trigger nozzles for garden hoses, and
choosing garden plants that need less water.
Water efficiency can also be improved by buying more
water-efficient washing machines and dishwashers when
they need to be replaced.
What water efficiency programs are available in the Hunter region?
Hunter Water has recently reviewed the effectiveness of its water efficiency incentive programs. This review found
that households that took part in the toilet replacement program (replacing single-flush toilets) saved an average of
20 kilolitres of water a year. Those households that took part in the showerhead exchange program saved an
average of 12 kilolitres of water a year.
Existing water efficiency initiatives could be expanded to achieve greater savings. Initiatives such as incentives to
purchase and install water efficient washing machines and toilets, making comparative water use information
available on customer bills, and education and behavioural change programs are some potential ways of saving more
water.
Some initiatives may achieve higher water savings, for example smart metering and advanced water bills that
compare water use details based on occupancy. However, given the relatively high level of residential water
efficiency in the lower Hunter, the cost to implement these initiatives can be significant compared to the amount of
water saved.
What is happening in other parts of Australia?
Many areas throughout Australia have put in place a range of residential water efficiency initiatives directed at both
managing demand in normal times, and reducing water use in drought.
The BASIX program applies to new homes that are built in New South Wales. BASIX is a planning policy that makes
sure new residential properties are designed to use less drinking water, for example by installing a 4-Star WELS
shower head or installing a rainwater tank (see Information Sheet 3.2 for more information). BASIX also applies to
major renovations in existing homes.
Water Efficiency Residential Water Efficiency
Installing a water efficient showerhead is an
inexpensive way to improve water efficiency in the home

At a national level, the Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme requires certain appliances and
products to be registered and labelled with their water efficiency rating. This helps Australian consumers choose
products that save water and reduce their water and energy bills. The scheme began in 2005 and covers showers,
taps, toilets, urinals, washing machines and dishwashers.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Water savings may tend to taper off once the uptake of a particular
water saving device (such as showerheads and dual flush toilets) has
neared saturation, unless there are further innovations in
technology
Encourages the use of drought tolerant plants
Can reduce individual household water bills
Encourages investment in innovation and alternative water
efficiency technology
Can reduce individual household water bills due to more efficient
hot water usage
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

What is water loss minimisation?
Water supply systems around the world all lose some water due to leaks and watermain breaks. Most water utilities
have programs to reduce water losses from their systems in a cost-effective manner.
How can water loss be minimised?
Programs to reduce losses include active leak detection and water pressure management programs which are
discussed below. Other activities that help to reduce losses include replacing sections of water mains that have a
history of breaks, replacing leaking water services (that is, the pipes between the water main and the meter), and
responding more quickly to breaks or leaks in the water supply system.
Hunter Water estimates that leakage from the system has reduced by 30% over the last eight years.
What is water loss benchmarking?
Water utilities like Hunter Water benchmark their water loss performance using an international system called the
Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI). The ILI shows how current actual losses (leakage) compare with the theoretical
lowest possible level of leakage that could be achieved by an agency’s water supply system. Hunter Water’s ILI is
ranked in the ‘excellent’ category, along with most major Australian water utilities.
What is active leak detection?
Leaks occur in all water supply systems particularly as the pipes age. Active leak detection is the use of listening
devices to survey water supply networks and identify leaks before they would normally be seen and reported.
This helps detect some leaks that may not be visible and might never be reported, such as leaks that drain below the
ground to the stormwater system or waterways.
The 2011-12 active leak detection program covered 1160 kilometres of water mains across the west Lake Macquarie
and Coalfields districts. The survey found 163 leaks corresponding to estimated water loss savings of 214 ML.
Currently active leak detection occurs across the
Hunter Water system on a five-year program.
Water Efficiency Water Loss Minimisation
Repairing a water main

How does pressure management work?
Some customers receive water at very high pressure due to the set-up of the water distribution system and the local
terrain. For example, houses that are at the bottom of hills can receive high pressure water if the local water
reservoir is situated high in the landscape. This very high pressure can result in the pipes developing a leak.
Pressure management in these areas reduces the flow rate to customers. This reduces the frequency and volume of
leaks. Pressure is reduced by changing the way the network is configured or using a special valve.
Options for expanding Hunter Water’s active leak detection and pressure management programs will be considered
as part of the development of the Lower Hunter Water Plan.
Schematic showing why homes receive water at different pressures

ACTIVE LEAK DETECTION LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
PRESSURE MANAGEMENT LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
It can be technically difficult to establish pressure management
zones depending on the landscape and how the water network fits
together
There are few studies on the long term costs and benefits
Reducing water losses may delay the need to implement other
Hunter Water and the community
Pressure management potentially extends asset life and reduces
customer inconvenience from water supply interruptions by
reducing the variations in operating pressure which can cause
infrastructure to fail (e.g. burst water mains)
Pressure management can be effective in reducing customer water
use due to lower flow rates and lower leakage within the home
Customers may be concerned by the difference in pressure
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

Ensuring that a secure supply of water is available relies on balancing both supply and customer demand. With every
measure that reduces customer demand, more water remains in storage, possibly reducing the need for major
investment in new infrastructure on the supply side.
In Australia and internationally, a broad range of approaches are used to manage demand, including pricing and
restrictions.
The lower Hunter was the first region to introduce user pays water pricing in the early 1980s. This is now the
standard throughout Australia. As the Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal (IPART) is responsible for the
pricing structure for water supplied by Hunter Water, these information sheets will not cover pricing as a demand
management measure.
Demand management activities can be permanent or temporary, voluntary or mandatory. Whichever approach is
taken, community support is critical. Demand management will be more successful where the community is engaged
in planning a demand management strategy and is committed to using water wisely.
This series of information sheets discusses three
potential demand management strategies for the
Lower Hunter Water Plan:
Water Wise Rules – simple, common sense
actions that help save water every day.
Drought restrictions – put in place during
times of drought to slow down the drop in
water storages.
Voluntary water use targets – sometimes
used during extreme drought to encourage
customers to voluntarily reduce water use
inside the home. These would be used in
addition to drought restrictions.
Demand
Management Demand Management - Overview
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954
Use of a trigger nozzle helps reduce water wastage

What are Water Wise Rules?
Water Wise Rules are simple, common sense actions that help conserve water every day. They are sometimes
referred to as ‘permanent water conservation measures’.
Water Wise Rules already apply in the area serviced by Sydney Water (Sydney, the Blue Mountains and the
Illawarra), as well as on the Central Coast and many towns throughout NSW. The rules apply to residents,
businesses, local councils and government agencies. In some areas, including Sydney, fines can be applied for
breaches of the rules.
Water Wise Rules were introduced in Sydney in 2009 following the lifting of drought water restrictions which had
been in place for nearly six years. The Central Coast also introduced permanent Water Wise Rules in 2012, after a
decade of water restrictions.
The lower Hunter has not experienced a similar lengthy period of water restrictions since the 1980s, as it was
fortunate during the last drought that the water storages were replenished by significant rainfall in 2007.
The development of the Lower Hunter Water Plan provides a timely opportunity to seek community feedback on
whether this region should introduce Water Wise Rules and, if so, what these rules should be.
What is currently in place in the lower Hunter?
Although the lower Hunter does not have Water Wise Rules at present, Hunter Water does promote a range of
water-saving tips to help the community save water in the home and garden. These include using a trigger nozzle to
water plants and a broom rather than a hose for cleaning hard surfaces to reduce water wastage. Only using a
sprinkler before 10am and after 4pm, when the heat of the sun is no longer at its peak, to help to minimise natural
evaporation from lawns and gardens. Reducing your shower time and only using the washing machine and
dishwasher with full loads to improve household water use. More tips can be found at
www.hunterwater.com.au/Save-Water/Save-Water.aspx.
Demand
Management Water Wise Rules
The Water Wise Rules introduced for Sydney and the Central Coast are similar to each other and focus on
outdoor water use. If comparable rules were implemented in the lower Hunter, they could include:
Watering with a sprinkler, irrigation system or trigger nozzle hose, is permitted any day before 10am or
after 4pm to avoid the heat of the day
All hand held hoses must have a trigger nozzle
No hosing of hard surfaces such as paths and driveways
All vehicles should be washed with a bucket, trigger nozzle hose or pressure cleaner

Where are Water Wise Rules applied in Australia?
The ACT, South East Queensland, Adelaide, Sydney and the Central Coast all have various types of Water Wise Rules
in place. These rules were generally introduced at the time drought restrictions were lifted, when community
awareness of water saving behaviour was particularly high.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Community support is vital when introducing Water Wise Rules,
particularly if this occurs when restrictions have not been in place
for a long time.
Water Wise Rules could be either advisory or enforceable.
Enforceable rules could be implemented under the Hunter Water
Regulation 2010.
Given the relatively high level of residential water efficiency in the
lower Hunter, Water Wise Rules may not result in as much savings
as in some other jurisdictions
No new infrastructure required
Reducing demand for water may delay the need to implement
other major infrastructure measures
More efficient use of water in the garden by reducing evaporation
and waste
Encourages use of drought tolerant plants
Encourages water efficient behaviour both indoors and outdoors
Community actively contributes to water security
Consistency with most large cities in Australia and adjacent regional
areas
Can reduce individual household water bills
Some household activities may be inconvenienced
Potential for fines to apply for breaching the rules
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

Why do we need drought restrictions?
Water use restrictions can be used to limit water use in and around the home and by non-residential customers.
Restrictions can be implemented in times of drought to help reduce the demand for water and slow down the drop
in water storages.
What types of restrictions are used?
Drought restrictions apply to all households equally. They may include actions such as banning fixed sprinklers,
limiting hours and days that hoses can be used, requiring hoses to have a trigger nozzle and banning outdoor use
completely when storage levels are very low.
Water use by non-residential customers is quite diverse, and reductions in water use may be achieved more
effectively through customised programs for similar groups of customers. Programs to improve non-residential
water efficiency (as discussed in Information Sheet 1.1) could be extended in drought times when restrictions apply.
For example, the development and implementation of water efficiency management plans could be made
mandatory for medium-large water users.
Restrictions are mandatory and enforceable under the Hunter Water Regulation 2010. Some exemptions may apply,
such as for public health reasons or for customers with special needs.
Different restrictions would be triggered when the total water storage volume reaches various levels. Current trigger
levels for the Hunter are:
1. low restriction (60% storage)
2. medium restriction (50% storage)
3. high restriction (40% storage)
4. extreme restriction (30% storage).
The figure below shows target usage levels and an indication of the type of restrictions that would be in place for
residential customers. As discussed above, non-residential water restrictions may be more complex due to the
diversity of water use.
Demand
Management Drought Restrictions
The targets are for use per
person in litres per day (LPD)

Other options include rules similar to Sydney (Water Wise Rules plus two levels of restrictions) or the Central Coast
(Water Wise Rules plus five levels of restrictions). Having similar drought restriction rules to neighbouring regions
could be beneficial as it may minimise confusion for people moving or travelling between regions.
What restrictions are used in other parts of Australia?
Many Australian cities have planned for and used drought restrictions. The majority of these have been staged, with
more severe water restrictions being implemented as storage levels drop.
Restrictions have applied to watering gardens and lawns, filling pools, cleaning vehicles and boats, washing hard
surfaces and pavements and using water on recreational fields and parks.
Residential water use restrictions were previously implemented by Hunter Water in droughts during the 1990s,
1980s and 1960s.
Restricting outdoor water use was a key element in securing Sydney’s water supply during the most recent drought,
with restrictions in place from 2003 until 2009. The restrictions on outdoor water use were progressively increased
in response to declining storage levels. Water Wise Rules were introduced when drought restrictions were lifted in
2009. Water Wise Rules are discussed in Information Sheet 2.1.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water From low to medium, depending on length of drought
Cost
Lead time
Community is familiar with the concept of restrictions although they
have not been applied in the lower Hunter for some time
It is important for communication with customers on restrictions to
be regular, clear and consistent.
No new water supply infrastructure required
Encourages use of drought tolerant plants
Loss of plants and animal habitat in the urban environment due to
lack of water
Encourages water efficient behaviour both indoors and outdoors
Adverse impacts on gardens and playing fields
Reduces individual choices about water use
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

What are voluntary water use targets?
Voluntary water use targets are a way of encouraging further community water conservation during drought. They
involve encouraging people to achieve a set target for maximum daily water use per person.
Water use targets are usually put in place when restrictions have reached the maximum level (including a total ban
on outdoor use) yet water storage levels are continuing to drop.
The target is a way of encouraging the community to make voluntary reductions in indoor water use to achieve more
savings – effectively rationing their water use. They are called ‘voluntary’ because indoor restrictions cannot be
enforced.
Voluntary water use targets are implemented using substantial multi-media campaigns. Monitoring is usually via
feedback to the community of the area’s water use per person in litres per day (LPD) using a range of media.
What might this look like in the lower Hunter?
The average water use for unrestricted residential demand in the lower Hunter is currently 198 LPD per person.
Depending on the drought conditions, the aim of voluntary water use targets would be to reduce the water use to a
target level in the order of, say, 140 LPD per person. The community would be asked to reduce indoor water use
with actions such as having shorter showers and minimising waste in the bathroom, kitchen and laundry.
The indicative target of 140 LPD per person (29% savings compared to average use) is based on water usage in the
home and outdoors in the lower Hunter as well as considering the experience of other water authorities in the last
drought.
Where are voluntary water use targets used in Australia?
Major metropolitan centres in Australia - such as Melbourne and South East Queensland - have introduced voluntary
water targets during drought. These were applied in addition to drought restrictions. During the recent drought in
south eastern Australia, Melbourne set a voluntary personal water use target of 155 LPD per person and averaged
149 LPD per person over 2009-10.
South East Queensland successfully achieved a voluntary water target of 140 LPD in the recent severe drought. In
fact, South East Queensland residents reduced daily water use from a pre-campaign average of 179 LPD to 126 LPD,
and retained those reductions for more than a year.
The Central Coast’s minimum use during the recent drought was 153 LPD per person, very close to their target of
150 LPD per person. Even though restrictions have been lifted, the Central Coast has retained an ‘aspirational’
voluntary daily water use target of 150 LPD per person to encourage ongoing efforts to achieve high levels of water
efficiency.
Recent drought restrictions in the Sydney metropolitan area applied only to outdoor water use. Analysis of the water
savings achieved has found that about half the total reduction in demand occurred indoors. This suggests people are
willing to restrict their water use beyond the measures imposed by drought restrictions.
Demand
Management Voluntary Water Use Targets

LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Voluntary targets and results would need to be communicated
widely to the community with associated costs
Voluntary targets are not enforceable
Tracking and reporting against the water use target would be done
at an average level across the community, although households
could monitor their own meter readings if they chose to do so
No new infrastructure required
Reducing demand for water may delay the need to implement
other major infrastructure measures
Community working together to achieve water saving goals
Provides choice about how people make savings within their home
and contribute to water security
May cause concerns about equity because some people will
contribute to voluntary reductions more than others
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

Australia is one of the driest continents on earth and has one of the most variable rainfall patterns. The recent
droughts along much of the east coast of Australia have highlighted the importance of saving water and looking at
innovative solutions that capture rain when it is available rather than letting it just ‘run down the drain’ and into
waterways.
This series of information sheets looks at:
Stormwater harvesting
Rainwater tanks
Stormwater harvesting is the collection, treatment, storage and use of stormwater runoff from urban areas. It is
different from rainwater harvesting in that it is collected from drains or creeks, rather than from roofs. Stormwater
capture can provide large quantities of non-drinking quality water that may be useful for sports grounds, parks and
gardens, agriculture and flushing toilets. Stormwater runoff must be collected, stored and treated before it can be
used.
Rainwater tanks have been a valuable source of drinking water to many households in rural areas of Australia, where
a town water supply may not be available. Rainwater tanks can also be installed in new or existing homes with a
town water supply and the water can be used in place of drinking water for a variety of non-drinking uses.
In July 2005, the NSW Department of Planning expanded the Building Sustainability Index (BASIX) scheme to the
whole of NSW. BASIX is a sustainable planning measure to reduce water and energy use in homes across NSW.
In the Hunter Region, new homes are required to achieve a mandatory 40% reduction in potable water use
compared to average pre-BASIX volumes. Rainwater tanks have proven to be a popular choice in addressing BASIX
requirements with over 95% of single dwelling applications statewide nominating a rainwater tank as part of the
proposed development.
Whether it is rainwater from the roof or stormwater from the
catchment, water harvesting can play an important role in
reducing reliance on water storages.
Stormwater
Capture
Stormwater Capture - Overview
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954
Residential use of a rainwater tank

Stormwater
Capture
Stormwater Harvesting and Use
What is stormwater harvesting and use?
Stormwater harvesting and use is the collection, treatment, storage and use of stormwater runoff from urban areas.
It is different from rainwater harvesting as the runoff is collected from drains or creeks, rather than from roofs.
Stormwater runoff must be collected, stored and treated before it can be used. Storages may be open - in the form
of a pond, weir or lake - or enclosed in a tank either above or below the ground.
Urban stormwater collects contaminants as it passes over roads and other surfaces, picking up chemicals and
pathogens from the surrounding environment. Stormwater needs to be treated to a quality that suits how the water
will be used (eg, disinfection), according to public health and environmental guidelines.
Opportunities for stormwater use in the lower Hunter include irrigation of golf courses, public parks, sporting
grounds and fields. Stormwater can also be used in industry including wash down, dust suppression and other
operational processes. Another application is to substitute stormwater for drinking water for residential uses such as
toilet flushing, washing laundry and irrigation within community scale development.
A preliminary study has investigated stormwater harvesting at 17 case study sites such as golf courses, sporting
fields, and some industrial sites with high water use, where stormwater might be substituted for drinking water.
Is stormwater used widely in Australia and overseas?
Stormwater schemes continue to be successfully implemented across Australia, irrigating sports fields, golf clubs and
open spaces. Some of the largest annual water savings have been achieved by Bexley Municipal Golf Course (66
Schematic showing stormwater harvesting, treatment, storage and use

million litres), and Northbridge Golf Club (92 million litres) in Sydney. Taronga Zoo uses treated stormwater to wash
down exhibit enclosures, public toilet flushing and irrigation of 10 hectares of land, saving over 36 million litres of
drinking water annually.
Numerous stormwater schemes operate overseas, often involving local councils in partnership with private
developers to use stormwater to irrigate parks and other public areas.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Typically the most cost effective case studies use an existing
storage facility; the least cost effective case studies require more
collection and treatment infrastructure
Grants can make a stormwater use scheme more viable for
proponents
Could be delivered by different organisations e.g. local councils,
private developers
The level of treatment required will vary depending on the
stormwater quality and end use
Construction may disturb existing infrastructure in suburban areas
Reduces stormwater pollution loads released into waterways
May reduce benefits to waterway health as less stormwater is
available for flushing flows
Potential environmental impacts during and after construction
Demonstrates that improving water security is a shared
responsibility
Maintains or improves the look, usability and safety of parks,
playing fields and other open spaces without using drinking water
Potential aesthetic impacts from a small treatment plant located
near park or playing field
Potential for health risks if water is not used as intended, or from
cross-connection with the drinking water supply
Potential safety risks and need to restrict public access
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

Why install a rainwater tank?
The recent droughts along much of the east coast of Australia have highlighted the importance of saving water and
looking at alternative water supplies. This has resulted in the collection of rainfall from roof run-off in urban areas
becoming an established practice for non-drinking uses of water.
Several State Governments and local water authorities have offered cash rebates toward the purchase of rainwater
tanks provided they were ‘plumbed in’ for toilet flushing and laundry use. The use of rainwater for appropriate
internal purposes provides the greatest savings from the drinking water supply.
While recognising that a properly maintained rainwater tank can provide good quality drinking water, NSW Health
states that in urban areas, ‘the public water supply remains the most reliable source of drinking water for the
community’, and supports the use of rainwater tanks in these areas ‘for non-drinking uses such as toilet flushing,
washing clothes or in water heating systems, and outdoors for uses such as garden watering, car washing, filling
swimming pools, spas and ornamental ponds, and firefighting.’ (Source: ‘Rainwater Tanks Brochure’, NSW Health,
2007).
Typically, rainwater tank systems involve a catchment area (roof) that collects and diverts rainwater to a storage
tank, prior to its use either in the garden or indoors. The system is usually backed up by the public mains water
supply to ensure the household water supply is not interrupted should rainwater storages run out.
Investigations into the role of rainwater tanks as an option for the Lower Hunter Water Plan are focused on:
understanding how many rainwater tanks are already installed
looking at how many new rainwater tanks could be installed
estimating potential water savings from rainwater tanks under both drought and average climatic conditions.
Are rainwater tanks used widely in Australia and overseas?
Information from the 2010 Census indicates that 32% of Australian households have a rainwater tank installed,
which is up from 24% in 2007 (ABS, 2010).
The use of rainwater tanks as a water conservation measure is internationally recognised, due to relatively low setup
costs, flexibility of design, and minimal maintenance requirements.
Stormwater
Capture Rainwater Tanks
Toilet & Laundry
Roof run-off
Rainwater
Tank
Fixed speed
pump
Mains water
switch valve
Outdoor use
Typical configuration of a
rainwater tank system
integrated with the mains
(drinking) water supply

Examples of large scale rainwater use projects include the Fukoka Dome in Japan, which has a 35,000m2
catchment
area and collects rainwater to service 65% of low water quality demand including toilet flushing and irrigation. In
London, the Millennium Dome meets 10% of all onsite water demands even with storage constraints limiting
rainwater collection to a maximum 100 kilolitres/day.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Easily integrated in new developments but can also be retrofitted
to existing houses
Ongoing benefits rely on the system being properly maintained by
the property owner
Modifications to the system at a later date (e.g. leaf guards, first
flush diverters, plumbing) may reduce the efficiency or
performance of system
During dry times, tanks may be ‘topped up’ with drinking water
Collects water quickly during rain
Negligible environmental impacts as no major construction involved
Reduces stormwater pollution loads released into waterways
May reduce benefits to waterway health as less stormwater is
available for flushing flows
Cumulative energy use from widespread use of small pumps
Helps raise awareness of water conservation measures
Active community involvement in water management
Potential health risks if system is not properly maintained
Requires household behavioural changes and maintenance regime
Can increase household energy bills associated with water pumping
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Water recycling is treating and reusing wastewater and greywater in homes, industry, irrigation and agriculture.
Stormwater harvesting and rainwater tanks are discussed in Information Sheets 3.0 - 3.2.
While recycled water can be used for a range of purposes, it must first be treated to a level that is considered ‘fit-for-
purpose’ - that is, it must be treated to a level appropriate for how it is going to be used. Generally speaking more
treatment will be required to produce higher quality water.
Water recycling in New South Wales includes widespread irrigation, large individual industrial water-users, and large
new residential developments in Sydney. Recycled wastewater is currently used in the lower Hunter for industry,
irrigation and agriculture.
Around 4,000 to 5,000 ML (1 ML = 1 million litres) of recycled water is typically used in the lower Hunter each year.
The planned Kooragang Industrial Water Scheme will increase the recycling rate by a further 3,300 ML by 2014. (For
further details on this project see Information Sheet 4.4.)
Examples of existing uses of recycled water in the lower Hunter include:
Industry - Eraring Power Station and the Oceanic Coal washery
Irrigation - local golf courses, a local trotting track and Kurri TAFE
Agriculture - a number of farms and the Karuah effluent reuse scheme.
The Recycled Water series of fact sheets describes a range of possible
options to increase the use of recycled water in the lower Hunter for non-
drinking water purposes, rather than using high quality drinking water for
such uses. These options include:
dual reticulation schemes – supplying recycled water through a
separate pipe network for purposes such as garden watering
and toilet flushing
greywater reuse – using household wastewater
(excluding toilets) for irrigation and other non-drinking
purposes
decentralised recycling schemes and sewer mining –
involving localised recycling schemes
industrial recycling – potential expansion of industrial
reuse.
Recycled Water Recycled Water - Overview
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To have your say online or to register for a workshop,
go to haveyoursay.nsw.gov.au/lowerhunterwaterplan
The National Water Commission has described some of the issues related to recycling wastewater as follows:
“The volume and percentage of recycled water are affected by a number of factors, including the availability of potable
water, the size of the utility, its proximity to potential customers (such as irrigators, major industrial customers and
recreational facilities) and government policy. Smaller regional centres often recycle a greater proportion of effluent than
larger metropolitan areas because discharge to inland rivers and streams often requires higher treatment, making recycling
more cost-effective; because regional towns often have greater access to willing buyers, such as agricultural businesses; and
because there are fewer alternative water supply options inland than on the coast”.
Purple pipes and taps indicate
recycled water
Options involving recycling for drinking water are not
being considered for the Lower Hunter Water Plan.

What is dual reticulation?
Dual reticulation means having two sets of pipes - one for drinking water and one for recycled water. Recycled
water pipelines can be built at the same time as drinking water mains in new suburbs. This is sometimes referred to
as a ‘third pipe’ system – that is, a pipe each for drinking water, sewer and recycled water.
Dual reticulation in new developments provides an opportunity for recycled water to be used for non-drinking water
purposes and contribute to meeting water use targets such as BASIX. Recycled water can be supplied for uses where
drinking water quality is not required, such as for flushing toilets, outdoor watering and industrial applications.
What has been investigated for the lower Hunter?
In the lower Hunter, water recycling opportunities have been investigated from each of the 19 wastewater
treatment plants operated by Hunter Water. The studies have considered opportunities to provide recycled water
to service larger new residential developments with highly treated fit-for-purpose recycled water to meet non-
drinking water quality demands. The success of such schemes depends on many factors including:
level of support from stakeholders
the distance between houses and the recycled water treatment plant
the size, timing and uptake rates of development
amount of recycled water available relative to the quantity users need
potential competing demands for recycled water.
Are there dual reticulation schemes operating in Australia?
Rouse Hill in Sydney’s north-west is Australia’s largest residential water recycling scheme, servicing more than
22,000 homes with around 1700 ML (1 ML = 1 million litres) of recycled water each year, reducing the demand for
drinking water from these households by about 40%. Eventually the scheme will serve around 36,000 homes.
Mawson Lakes, near Adelaide, operates a dual reticulation scheme which has halved the use of potable water, with
estimated savings of around 800 ML of water per year. Recycled water is also supplied to homes with a “third pipe”
in the Pimpama-Coomera area on the Gold Coast, the Magenta Shores development on the NSW Central Coast and
Newington/Sydney Olympic Park in Sydney.
Recycled Water Dual Reticulation
Dual reticulation pipework

LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
The successful uptake of recycled water projects requires support
from the community
It can be hard to find suitable pipe routes in existing built-up urban
areas therefore the most practical case studies usually involve new
developments
Reduces drinking water demand by substituting drinking water
with recycled water for some household uses, such as flushing
toilets
Potential to support healthier waterways and marine
environments through reduced discharge of treated effluent
High energy use and greenhouse gas emissions unless offset by
renewable energy
Potential environmental impacts during construction
Non-weather dependent source ensuring a reliable water supply
A consistent supply for irrigation could improve the look and
usability of parks, playing fields and other open spaces without
using drinking water
Potential health risks if recycled water is not used as intended or
from cross-connection with drinking water plumbing
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What is greywater?
Greywater is the wastewater generated from washing machines, showers, baths and basins. When used safely,
greywater can replace drinking water for watering lawns and gardens. Water from the kitchen can also be reused as
greywater if the correct treatment process is put in place.
Greywater does not include water from toilets or urinals - this is sometimes referred to as blackwater.
How can greywater be used?
There are three ways that greywater can be reused:
manual bucketing - small quantities of water are collected from either the washing machine or the shower in a
bucket for reuse outside on gardens or lawns
greywater diversion devices - involves installing a diversion device to redirect greywater to the garden or lawn
via an irrigation system below the ground. A licensed plumber is required to install these devices. Local council
approval is not required as long as the conditions under Section 75A of the Local Government (General)
Regulation 2005 are met
greywater treatment systems - enables treated greywater to be used for flushing toilets, in washing machines,
and on gardens and lawns. Local council approval is necessary and the system must be installed by a licensed
plumber.
More information on greywater reuse and links to guidelines for households and more detailed factsheets are
available at www.waterforlife.nsw.gov.au/recycling/greywater.
What investigations into greywater reuse have been undertaken for the lower Hunter?
Some case studies for developing the Lower Hunter Water Plan have investigated greywater treatment systems to
service single lot households, as well as 10-dwelling housing and unit clusters in new developments.
Recycled Water Greywater Reuse
Diagram showing a typical cluster
scale greywater reuse system

Are there greywater reuse schemes operating in Australia?
Recycling schemes that collect and treat greywater for reuse are operating around Australia, including at Clovelly
House in Sydney, the Youth Hostel Association in Katoomba, the K2 Sustainable Housing Project in Melbourne and a
389 lot community at Bridgewater Lifestyle Village in Erskine, Mandurah WA.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time From low to medium, depending on form of reuse
The user is generally responsible for capital and operating costs
Ongoing maintenance is required to ensure consistent water quality
Environmental considerations Reduces drinking water demand by substituting drinking water with
recycled water for some household uses
Potential for high nutrient and salt concentrations affecting irrigation
use
Potential for run-off from irrigated grounds promoting algal growth in
waterways
Active community involvement in water management
Can require household behavioural changes and maintenance regime
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What is decentralised water recycling?
Decentralised water recycling systems involve collecting and treating wastewater so it can be reused at or near the
point where the wastewater was generated. For example, a small housing development could have its own
wastewater treatment facility which treats and then recycles the wastewater for garden watering and toilet flushing.
Greywater reuse (discussed in Information Sheet 4.2) can also be considered to be a form of decentralised recycling.
Since all the infrastructure needed for decentralised schemes has to be newly built, these schemes are more suitable
for new developments rather than retrofitting into existing residential areas.
What is sewer mining?
Sewer mining is the process of tapping
into a wastewater system (generally
before it reaches the wastewater
treatment plant) and extracting raw
sewage, which is then treated and used
as recycled water.
The sewage is treated in a small onsite
facility to produce high quality recycled
water for use nearby. Sewer mining
plants may involve a combination of
filtration, biological, membrane and
disinfection processes. Waste from the
treatment process is generally returned
into the sewerage system.
Sewer mining projects can provide
recycled water for new or existing
developments. Recycled water
produced from a sewer mining
operation is commonly used to irrigate
sports fields, parks and golf courses. It
can also be used in some commercial buildings and industrial sites.
Are sewer mining and decentralised recycling being considered in the Hunter?
Investigations are being undertaken to determine opportunities where:
recycled water from sewer mining could be used to irrigate golf courses and sporting fields
decentralised recycling could service residential developments for uses other than drinking water, such as
toilet flushing, laundry washing, and garden watering.
Recycled Water Decentralised Recycling and Sewer Mining Schemes

Some potential industrial use schemes are also being investigated where recycled water could be used for cooling
towers, dust suppression and other operational processes.
Is sewer mining operating elsewhere in Australia?
Sewer mining projects to irrigate parks and sports fields are currently operating in Sydney at Mascot Airport, Olympic
Park, Pennant Hills Golf Course, Beverley Park Golf Course and Kogarah City Council. Southwell Park in Canberra,
Rocks Riverside Park in Brisbane, and the Council House 2 Office Building in Melbourne also use treated wastewater
for irrigation and other non-drinking uses.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Could be delivered by different organisations e.g. councils, developers or
private industry
The successful uptake of recycled water projects requires support from
the community
High upfront capital investment is usually required, often by the
customer or group developing the scheme, although some industrial and
irrigation schemes require less investment
Approval and consultation processes can be lengthy
Construction may disturb existing infrastructure in suburban areas
Potential to support healthier waterways and marine environments
through reduced discharge of treated effluent
High energy and greenhouse gases, unless offset by renewable energy
Potential environmental impacts during construction
Non-weather dependent source ensuring a reliable water supply
Demonstrates that improving water security is a shared responsibility
A consistent supply for irrigation could improve the look and usability of
parks, playing fields and other open spaces without using drinking water
Potential health risks if recycled water is not used as intended, from
unintended cross-connection with the drinking water supply, or if the
system is not properly maintained
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Can recycled water be used by industry?
Recycled water is suitable for industrial uses including dust suppression, generating steam, cooling tower water,
wash down and other operations. Using recycled water for industry can reduce the demand on drinking water
supplies as well as make use of treated wastewater. The recycled water usage level is also relatively constant, which
means the drinking water savings can be predicted more accurately.
Some of the benefits of using recycled water for industry include:
a number of users may be located close together so infrastructure can be shared
the level of additional treatment can be tailored to meet the end use (for example, steam generation needs
a higher quality than dust suppression)
the health risks are generally low for industrial uses.
Is industrial water recycling happening in the lower Hunter?
In 2011-12, Hunter Water supplied about 1,400 ML (1 ML = 1
million litres) of recycled water to industrial customers to use
as a substitute for drinking water. The largest industrial users
are currently Eraring Power Station and a coal washery. The
demand for recycled water can vary with rainfall and changes
in user needs, but industrial use often has a more constant
demand than other recycled water uses.
Eraring Power Station recycles water from the Dora Creek Wastewater Treatment Works for use in its high pressure
boilers, saving nearly 4 ML of drinking water every day. The recycled water is treated by microfiltration and reverse
osmosis to remove suspended solids, bacteria, viruses and dissolved salts because very high quality water is required
for the boilers. When this scheme started in 1994, Eraring Power Station was the first plant in the world to reclaim
water from sewage and use it as feedwater to high pressure boilers.
The Kooragang Industrial Water Scheme will provide 9 ML per day of high quality recycled water to industrial users
on Kooragang Island making it the largest recycled water project in the lower Hunter. The project is on track for
completion by December 2014.
The Kooragang scheme involves diverting treated effluent from the existing pipeline from Shortland Wastewater
Treatment Works to a new advanced water treatment plant located at Steel River. This plant will use membrane
microfiltration and reverse osmosis to produce high quality recycled water that will be pumped to industrial
customers on Kooragang Island via a new 8 km pipeline.
Are there more opportunities in the Hunter?
To support development of the Lower Hunter Water Plan, investigations are underway to identify other
opportunities to supply recycled water to large industrial users in the lower Hunter.
For example, some industrial customers on Kooragang Island may wish to expand their business and need more
water, while other large industries may choose to move to this area. Preliminary findings suggest the current
Recycled Water Industrial Use of Recycled Water
Eraring Power Station near Lake Macquarie

demand for recycled water on Kooragang Island is at least 9 ML per day, with potential for an additional 3 to 5 ML
per day by 2018. This may increase as new industries establish in future.
Opportunities are also being investigated to ensure enough recycled water can be made available in the right place
to meet future demands, which may involve diverting effluent from other treatment plants.
Is water recycling for industry occurring in other parts of the State?
One of Australia’s largest industrial water recycling schemes operates in Wollongong at BlueScope Steel, with up to
20 ML of recycled water being used each day. The nearby Port Kembla Coal Terminal also uses 1.25 ML of recycled
water each day for dust suppression, wash down and road cleaning operations. Rosehill Recycled Water Scheme in
Sydney supplies more than 8 ML of recycled water each day to five major industrial customers and a racecourse in
the Rosehill and Smithfield areas.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Uncertain timeframes for industrial growth and customer uptake of
recycled water
Risk of unused infrastructure if major industrial customers close
It can be hard to find suitable pipeline routes in existing built-up
urban areas
Some industrial customers might need assurance drinking water
will be available when the supply of recycled water is interrupted
(e.g. due to operational issues or maintenance down times)
Potential to support healthier waterways and marine
environments through reduced discharge of treated effluent
Energy is required for treatment and pumping (this may be able to
be offset with renewable energy)
Environmental impacts from construction and operation of the
water treatment plant (e.g. managing waste by-products)
Encourages investment in innovation and alternative water
efficiency and recycling technology
Hunter Water and industry
Some construction impacts on local community
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Water sources can be divided into surface water, such as in lakes, rivers and dams, and groundwater, which is stored
underground.
In the lower Hunter, surface water sources make a
major contribution to the region’s water supply
system. The amount of water supplied to Hunter
Water customers from Chichester Dam and
Grahamstown Dam varies from year to year. It can
range from 65-75% to over 95%.
Since the latest supply-demand balance indicates a
major new water source is not required at this time,
the Lower Hunter Water Plan will not consider new
surface water options. Opportunities to access water
from existing dams in adjoining regions (called inter-
regional transfers) are being investigated.
The options described in this series of information sheets include transferring water from:
the existing Lostock Dam, with potential options to enlarge the dam – this option would require agreement
from the owner, State Water
the Central Coast, involving ‘water banking’ in Mangrove Creek Dam and potential enlargement of the dam –
this would require agreement from Gosford City Council, Wyong Shire Council and the Central Coast Water
Corporation.
Environmental flows from dams
Dams and weirs affect the natural flow of water in rivers and streams. To help lessen these impacts, some water is
released from the storages back into the river downstream of the dam. These releases are called environmental
flows. They help restore the ecology and biodiversity of water dependent ecosystems. Fishways are also built at
dams and weirs to allow fish to move up and down stream.
Chichester Dam and Seaham Weir (on the Williams River) are licensed by the NSW Office of Water. The water
licences include conditions called ‘environmental flow rules’ that aim to help protect aquatic health by providing a
share of water for the downstream environment. Changes to environmental flow rules for Chichester Dam and new
conditions for Seaham Weir are being investigated
which aim to achieve more variability in flows to reflect
natural conditions. These investigations are running in
parallel with the development of the Lower Hunter
Water Plan.
Surface Water Surface Water - Overview
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Grahamstown Dam

What would an inter-regional transfer related to Lostock Dam involve?
Lostock Dam is located on the Paterson River approximately 93 km
north-west of Newcastle. The dam, constructed in 1971, has a storage
capacity of 20 GL (1 GL = 1 billion litres) and is managed by State
Water. It supplies water to licensed users on the ‘regulated’ section of
the Paterson River, which is from the dam to the tidal limit as shown in
the map at right.
While the dam was built to supply downstream agriculture, the volume
of water available is not used to its full capacity.
Options using Lostock Dam to improve water security for the lower
Hunter region are being investigated for both the short and the longer
term.
The short term option involves purchasing existing water licences on
the Paterson River. Licences purchased on the water transfer market
could provide Hunter Water with access to additional water for use as
part of a drought response. The water would need to be treated and
transferred into Hunter Water’s existing water supply network.
A longer term option could involve enlarging the existing dam, with
preliminary investigations having considered three storage capacity
options between 33 GL and 67 GL.
Preliminary engineering feasibility studies
indicate that a 65% increase in dam
capacity, from 20 GL to 33 GL, could be
achieved by installing gates along the
existing spillway crest, along with some
minor works along the embankment crest.
Options for further enlargements would
involve raising the dam embankment and
building a new spillway. The raised
embankment would be of similar
construction to the existing embankment.
Under both the short term and long term
scenarios, water would be released from
the dam and extracted at a location
further downstream. If the water was
transferred to Grahamstown Dam it could
Surface Water Inter-regional Transfers: Lostock Dam
Lostock Dam

be treated through the existing water treatment plant. Alternatively, a local water treatment plant could be built
with water pumped into the water supply network near Maitland.
Arrangements for environmental flows releases would be determined based on detailed environmental
investigations and the regulatory requirements set by relevant government agencies.
The Water Sharing Plan for the Paterson Regulated River was gazetted on 1 July 2007 and applies for a period of 10
years. This plan specifies how water is shared between water users and the environment.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Dam enlargement options could increase the water supplied, cost and lead time
to a rating of ‘high’
Preliminary engineering feasibility studies have found that the existing
dam embankment should be suitable to incorporate the potential dam
raising options.
Detailed investigations on the existing embankment and foundations,
and environmental investigations would be required.
Purchase of water licences depends on availability on the water
transfer market.
Makes use of existing infrastructure
Inundation of nearby land (if dam were enlarged)
Potential impacts on the aquatic environment from altered flow
regimes
Any new infrastructure may have associated environmental impacts
Increased water pumping requires additional energy and emits
greenhouse gases unless offset by renewable energy
Social Considerations
Would increase community and business confidence in regional water
supply security
Construction impacts on the local community
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What would an inter-regional transfer with the Central Coast involve?
The lower Hunter and Central Coast water supply systems are connected via a pipeline linking reservoirs located at
Kanwal and Morisset. The existing link can transfer up to 33 ML per day (1 ML = 1 million litres) to the Central Coast
system. Due to operational and capacity limitations of the infrastructure, the return transfer rate to the Hunter
system is currently an average of 13 ML per day.
The pipeline link between the two regions was used to supply water from the lower Hunter to the Central Coast
when their storages reached very low levels during the last drought. The price for transferred water was determined
by the Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal (IPART).
The Central Coast’s water supplies are now more secure with construction of the ‘Mardi-Mangrove Link’ - comprising
a 21 km pipeline linking Mardi and Mangrove Creek Dams, together with two new pumping stations. This allows
additional water to be pumped from the Wyong River and Ourimbah Creek during wet periods and transferred to
Mangrove Creek Dam.
In conjunction with Wyong Shire Council, Gosford City Council and the Central Coast Water Corporation,
investigations have begun into the feasibility of supplying water from the lower Hunter network to the Central Coast
network during normal conditions, and ‘banking’ an equivalent amount of water in Mangrove Creek Dam. The water
could then be returned (‘withdrawn from the bank’) when storages in the lower Hunter are low.
A water banking arrangement would aim to optimise regional water storages and provide greater water security to
both regions, particularly during drought.
Surface Water Inter-regional Transfers: Central Coast
Map showing the link
between the lower Hunter
and Central Coast water
supply networks.
It also shows the Mardi-
Mangrove link.

Mangrove Creek Dam is located on Mangrove
Creek, a tributary of the Hawkesbury River,
approximately 50 km north-west of Gosford.
The dam was built in 1981 and has a storage
capacity of 190 GL (1 GL = 1 billion litres).
When the dam was built, allowance was
made for future enlargement.
Investigations are underway - in consultation with Gosford City Council, Wyong Shire Council and the Central Coast
Water Corporation - to consider options to enlarge Mangrove Creek Dam to provide additional storage capacity for
‘banking’ of water. Storage capacity options up to around 270 GL will be investigated. The feasibility of increasing the
transfer capacity of the lower Hunter and Central Coast water supply networks will also be investigated.
Water UNDER INVESTIGATION
Cost UNDER INVESTIGATION
Lead time UNDER INVESTIGATION
If investigations indicate this option is feasible, agreement would need
to be reached between the water supply authorities regarding the
conditions for water transfers and banking, and financial
considerations.
Makes use of some existing infrastructure
Inundation of nearby land (if the dam was enlarged)
Increased water pumping requires additional energy and emits
greenhouse gases unless offset by renewable energy
Any new infrastructure may have associated environmental impacts
Would increase community and business confidence in regional water
supply security
Interconnectivity of the network increases system flexibility and
security for the lower Hunter and Central Coast
Construction impacts on the local community
Both the lower Hunter and Central Coast communities may be
concerned about how water and costs would be shared fairly
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Mangrove Creek Dam

Water sources can be broadly classified as either surface water, such as lakes, rivers and dams, or groundwater,
which is stored underground.
Groundwater can be found at various depths from at or near the surface, to hundreds of metres below ground. It is
stored in sands, soils, and in cracks and crevices between rocks. Groundwater can be accessed using spear points or
bores and used for town water supplies or irrigation.
In the lower Hunter, groundwater sources are an important part of the region’s water supply system. The amount of
water supplied to Hunter Water customers from groundwater at Tomago and Tomaree varies from year to year. It
can range from less than 5% up to 30-35%.
In developing the Lower Hunter Water Plan, new groundwater sources that could contribute to the region’s future
water supply needs are being investigated in consultation with key stakeholders including the NSW Office of Water.
The groundwater options currently being considered are described in this series of fact sheets and include accessing:
deeper water stored in the Tomago aquifer (as a potential emergency measure)
other groundwater sources in the lower Hunter, such as the ’Hunter Alluvial’ source near the junction of the
Hunter and Paterson Rivers
groundwater that collects in mines.
Groundwater Groundwater - Overview
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An existing bore used to pump water from the Tomago Sandbeds

Can more water be sourced from the Tomago Sandbeds?
The Tomago Sandbeds extend approximately 25 km
north-east from Tomago to Lemon Tree Passage,
and lie parallel to the coast between Newcastle and
Port Stephens, as shown in the map.
The amount of drinking water provided to Hunter
Water customers that is sourced from the Tomago
Sandbeds can vary from year to year, up to a
maximum of around 20-25%.
This aquifer can store approximately 100,000 ML
(1 ML = 1 million litres) of water above sea level.
It is refilled from rain that falls directly on the sand surface.
At present, a network of bores and
vacuum stations operated by Hunter
Water can access approximately
60,000 ML of ‘active storage’, as shown
in the figure below.
The amount of water that Hunter
Water can extract from the sandbeds is
licensed by the NSW Office of Water.
Hunter Water must stop pumping
when the water drops to a set level.
This is important to minimise impacts
on the ecosystems that depend on
groundwater and so that a reliable,
good quality supply is maintained.
Hunter Water has estimated there is a
further 40,000 ML of groundwater
below the current level where pumping
must stop, and has investigated the
potential to extract up to 25,000 ML of
this groundwater.
The NSW Office of Water would only permit access to this ‘deep Tomago’ water if Hunter Water can demonstrate,
through scientific studies, that there would not be any adverse impacts on the environment. Investigations have
begun but results are unlikely to be available before the Lower Hunter Water Plan is developed.
Groundwater Deep Tomago Groundwater
Map showing the location of the Tomago Sandbeds
Schematic cross-section of the Tomago Sandbeds

If approved as an emergency drought response, the water available from the deep storage would only be available
for a limited period – estimated at around 18 months if water was pumped at 45 ML per day. After this time,
pumping would have to stop until the groundwater was naturally refilled by rainfall.
If permitted, the deep storage could be accessed by converting existing pumping stations, building new bores or re-
establishing bores that are no longer in use, and upgrading the power supply. Water accessed from lower depths
may have high levels of manganese, iron and other metals, so the water may need additional treatment before being
treated at the existing Grahamstown water treatment plant.
Fresh groundwater in the sandbeds sits above sea level. Another important issue with this option, is to ensure
pumping stops before reaching the level where there would be a risk of salt water entering the fresh groundwater
resource and making it unsuitable for future use. The potential for sea level rise due to climate change would also
need to be considered.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Access to the deep storage is not permitted under the existing water
licence
The regulatory requirements may be reconsidered in a drought
emergency
May adversely impact on ecosystems that depend on groundwater
(Tomago Sandbeds are located in the Tilligerry State Conservation
Area)
Pumping must be carefully controlled to avoid the potential for
saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer
May be an emergency option to extend water supplies in a severe
drought
Minimal disruption to the community as works would be
undertaken on land that is closed to the public
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Are other groundwater sources available?
Groundwater sources are already an important part of the lower Hunter’s water supply, with significant
groundwater sources at Tomago and Tomaree.
To support development of the Lower Hunter Water Plan, the potential for other groundwater sources in the lower
Hunter (or nearby) has been investigated. One potential source is known as the ’Hunter Alluvial’ source, which refers
to groundwater near the junction of the Hunter and Paterson Rivers in the Morpeth – Bolwarra area.
Initial investigations will test the water quality and explore the size, depth and location of the groundwater source.
These studies are the first steps in assessing the feasibility of this as a potential additional source for the lower
Hunter which might be accessed in a drought. These investigations are planned for mid 2013.
If investigations indicate this may be a feasible source of water, this option would most likely involve installing a
number of extraction bores, pumps and a pipeline delivering water to a temporary treatment plant and into the local
water supply network.
Groundwater Hunter Alluvial Groundwater Source
Schematic cross-section of Hunter alluvial showing potential aquifers at different depths

Further information is needed on the quality and quantity of
groundwater to assess the feasibility of this potential option
This groundwater source is not part of an existing Water Sharing
Plan, and there is limited information on any existing users
Extraction from deep aquifers is likely to have less environmental
impact compared with shallow aquifers because there would be
less chance of disturbing acid sulfate soils or impacting on wetlands
Construction impacts are anticipated to be minor as infrastructure
would be located in previously disturbed locations
Deep aquifers may have low recharge rates and other users may be
impacted due to slow replenishment
Water would need to be shared with existing stock, domestic and
irrigation users in the area
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How can mine water help the region’s water supply?
The Hunter region has a long history of coal mining, with many underground and open cut mines. As part of the
mining process, voids are formed, which can fill with water.
Some of the mine workings are below the water table, and water has to be removed to allow safe operation of the
mine. The water may come from groundwater or from rainfall or runoff that collects in the mine.
Mine water is generally used by the mine for operational needs such as dust suppression, drilling, or coal washing.
Some mines in the lower Hunter have more water than they need. The quality of the mine water – including salt,
acidity and mineral content – would influence the treatment needed before it could be used, recycled or discharged
to the environment under a licence from the Environment Protection Authority.
Investigations into the potential to use groundwater from mines as a water supply option for the Lower Hunter
Water Plan are at a very early stage. More information is needed regarding the quantity and quality of groundwater
available from operating or abandoned mines to determine if this is a feasible option for the region.
It is important to note that any water used for drinking water supplies must meet the Australian Drinking Water
Guidelines.
Is mine water used in Australia for consumption?
In 2006, investigations for the Metropolitan Water Plan studied the potential sources of groundwater from mines
near Sydney as potential emergency drought supplies. Abandoned mines that were flooded with water as well as
operating mines were investigated.
A recent report prepared for the National Water Commission states that ‘…there are several cases where excess
mine water has been, or is proposed to be, made available to supply towns, agriculture or industry independent of
the mine… One example is Clarence Colliery near Lithgow, NSW, where part of the mine’s excess incidental water is
supplied to Lithgow for town water, and part is treated and discharged into a river.’
(Source: Integrating the mining sector into water planning and entitlements regimes, NWC, Waterlines Report Series No 77, March 2012)
Groundwater Mine Water

If water was drawn from a working mine, the ongoing availability of
water if the mine was sold or shut down would need to be
addressed
If mine water was found to be a feasible option, a pilot plant might
help to demonstrate safety and reliability
Geological stability may be an issue for the concept of using
abandoned mine workings to store water
Surplus mine water could be treated and used as a resource instead
of discharged to the environment
Construction impacts may be minimal if infrastructure is located in
previously disturbed locations
Mine water might contribute to streamflow, either directly or
through groundwater
Potential community concerns about water quality
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

What is desalination?
Desalination is the removal of salt and other minerals from saline water (such as seawater) to produce fresh water
for drinking water supply or industrial uses needing high quality water.
Thermal desalination is achieved by boiling the salt water and condensing the steam to produce fresh water (ie, a
distillation process). Reverse osmosis uses semi-permeable membranes and pressure to separate salts from water.
The salt water is moved across membranes that block salts and other particles so that only water can pass through.
A by-product is a concentrated salt solution called brine that needs to be disposed of. Reverse osmosis generally
requires less energy than thermal desalination. The reverse osmosis process is represented in the diagram below.
Desalination provides a source of drinking water that does not rely on rain. It does require a significant amount of
energy to operate, although renewable energy can be used to offset this in some cases. Desalination options being
investigated for the lower Hunter include:
small scale temporary units to supplement water supplies during a drought
“readiness” activities for a larger scale permanent desalination plant for emergency development in a
drought.
Desalination Desalination - Overview
Desalination by
reverse osmosis
Schematic showing reverse
osmosis process

What is temporary desalination?
Temporary desalination can be used to supplement water supplies on a small scale during an extended drought. The
facilities can be located on land or sea and can be constructed using modular container systems.
The capacities of portable plants vary. Individual land-based, container style plants of 1 - 3 ML per day (1 ML = 1
million litres) are available and have been used in the Hunter for wastewater and mine water applications. A
number of these modular containers can be connected together to provide increased total production capacities.
For example, a portable modular unit providing 20 ML per day has been used in Limassol, Cyprus (pictured below).
Ship based plants are either specially built or converted tankers or barges. Existing barges in Saudi Arabia have
reported capacities of 25 ML per day. Companies in Israel and America are marketing ship platforms with capacities
of 50 - 100 ML per day.
Temporary desalination plants require additional infrastructure. For land-based plants, this would include raw
saltwater intakes from the ocean or estuary (which are different to intakes for permanent desalination e.g. through
open water pipes or buried sand dunes inlets), outlets for brine discharge, connection pipes to the water distribution
system, and possibly power upgrades. Ship-based systems are typically self-contained with on-board generators and
an inlet and outlet for brine disposal. They would require a connection pipe to the water distribution system and a
safe mooring point.
As the portable facilities are relatively small, they could be added to the water supply network at multiple coastal
locations across the lower Hunter on a temporary basis during a drought. However, they could only produce enough
water to meet a small fraction of the region’s water supply needs.
The plants could be located in open space areas such as parklands and car parks adjoining coastal and estuarine
areas, where they would connect to the local water network. The plants would be temporary and would be removed
when no longer needed, although some infrastructure such as pipelines may remain.
Are there any temporary desalination plants in Australia?
Small modular desalination units have been
used widely across Australia for industrial
purposes, for example in mining and
wastewater applications. During the most
recent drought, the Central Coast investigated
the installation of several portable units,
however they were not required as drought
conditions ceased.
Ship based plants have not been used in
Australia but were investigated by other
water utilities during the recent drought.
Desalination Temporary Desalination Facilities
A modular desalination plant

LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
A long drought and/or larger number of portable desalination units could
increase the water supplied to a rating of ‘medium’
Physical capacity limitations in the distribution system will restrict
the population the plants could service
The site must have access to salt water, sufficient power supply,
and access to the water supply distribution system
Intake water quality issues, particularly in lakes and estuaries
where flushing during drought periods may be poor
Constructing pipes in urbanised areas may be difficult with risk of
slow construction timelines
Any temporary, above ground pipelines would have a risk of
accidental damage or vandalism
Pollution discharge licences would be required for brine disposal
Potential environmental impacts would be temporary rather than
ongoing
Potential for brine release to impact on the aquatic environment
Potential environmental impacts from plant construction
Plant operation requires energy and emits greenhouse gases
unless offset by renewable energy
Liquid wastewater from pre-treatment processes
Storage of hazardous chemicals
Social Considerations
Non-weather dependant source
Potential social impacts would be temporary rather than ongoing
Visual amenity impacts, depending on site
Potential high disruption impacts as plants are noisy and may
require 24 hour operation
There may be road and access disruptions as a result of
construction and pipework installation
Disruption to beaches or loss of access to open spaces, depending
on location of site(s) and temporary pipelines
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954

What does a permanent desalination facility involve?
A desalination plant can be designed to operate continuously to supply drinking water (known as a “base load”
plant). This is one way to diversify a region’s water supply sources so the system is less vulnerable to drought. The
plan is not considering this option.
However, a permanent emergency plant designed to provide water during a drought could be built in stages as the
drought progresses, which means a smaller plant would be in place if drought conditions ended.
A potential modular approach with construction in stages could consist of three units, each supplying 40ML per day.
This could provide the following benefits during drought:
One module (40 ML per day) could slow down the rate of decline of the existing water storages
Two modules (totalling 80 ML per day) could work in combination with other water sources to provide
enough water to meet all essential water needs, assuming demand was reduced by restrictions and water
efficiency
Three modules (120 ML per day) could provide enough water to meet essential (very restricted) needs
without requiring water from any additional sources. In the case of drought, where all other storages were
depleted, this would provide a secure source of water that does not rely on rain.
How could we plan ahead with ‘readiness activities’?
Building an emergency desalination plant typically needs a lead time of more than five years to allow for site
selection, environmental and other investigations, planning approvals, design and construction. To reduce this lead
time, a series of ‘readiness activities’ could be completed to speed up construction should there be a severe drought.
‘Readiness activities’ would include actions such as selecting a suitable site, undertaking detailed environmental and
engineering studies, and obtaining planning approval. These activities could be completed in the short-term and
would mean that the commitment to construction would not need to be triggered until later in a drought.
A permanent facility in the lower Hunter would have to be located close to the coast to access seawater. Further
environmental and engineering investigations would be needed to select a suitable site, probably between Belmont
in the south, and Williamtown in the north. Access to sufficient power supplies is also a key consideration.
Another option to consider is whether there are potential opportunities for a desalination plant that could serve
more than one region.
The ‘readiness’ approach was put in place on the
Central Coast during the last drought, with planning
approval for a desalination plant at Toukley that
could produce 20 ML per day. The plant will not be
built unless required due to a severe drought.
Desalination Emergency Desalination Facility
Reverse osmosis technology extracts salt from seawater

Are there permanent desalination facilities in Australia?
Desalination was one of the major initiatives of the 2006 Metropolitan Water Plan for Sydney. Construction of the
plant at Kurnell was triggered in early 2007 during the deepening drought when dam levels were nearing 30% . The
lead time for building the plant was considerably reduced by having completed a series of ‘readiness activities’.
Sydney’s desalination plant can provide up to 15% of Sydney’s water needs, or 90 billion litres a year. The seawater
is sourced from the Tasman Sea. With dam levels recovered after the drought, the plant is currently shut down.
Desalination facilities are also in place or under construction in Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and the Gold Coast.
There are over 3,500 land-based desalination plants around the world.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
Water
Cost
Lead time
Implementing ‘readiness activities’ in the near term would reduce the lead time
in a drought
Desalination would provide flexibility for drought conditions by
diversifying the region’s water sources.
Significant cost for ‘readiness activities’ to reduce potential lead time
for construction, rather like investing in insurance.
The site must have access to salt water, sufficient power supply, and
access to the water supply distribution system
Pollution discharge licences would also be required for brine disposal
Potential for brine release to impact on the aquatic environment
Plant operation requires energy and emits greenhouse gases unless
offset by renewable energy
Major infrastructure project with construction disturbance in the
immediate plant site and supporting infrastructure such as roads,
power and pipelines (generally underground)
Would increase community and business confidence in regional
water supply security
Employment opportunities to construct and operate the plant
Construction impacts on local community
Visual amenity impacts, depending on site
PO Box 2297
DANGAR NSW 2309
PH 1800 503 866 FX 4908 4954
To have your say online or to register for a workshop, go
to haveyoursay.nsw.gov.au/lowerhunterwaterplan

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