Lecture 2 Steps in Concluding Research.pptx

NAOE 6101:
Research Methodology
WELCOME
Dr. S M Rashidul Hasan
Assistant Professor
Bangladesh Maritime University
Steps in Conducting Research

Learning Objectives
By the end of the session, you will be able to:
know the process of conducting research
aware about research problem and literature review
learn how to formulate research hypothesis
know how to develop a research question
understand the concept of research design
know about different data collection and analysis tools
understand the concept of research data management
learn about the research interpretation and report writing.

Steps (Phases) in Conducting Research
Research process consists of sequence of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
progression of these steps:
Step 1: Identification of Research Problem / Define
Research Problem/Question
Step 2: Review of Literature (literature survey)
Step 3: Hypothesis Formulation
Step 4: Preparation of Research Design
Step 5: Data Collection
Step 6: Data Analysis
Step 7: Interpretation and Report Writing

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial
part of a research study.
Step 1: Research Problem
The most excellent way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with contemporaries or with those having some
knowledge in the related matter (from a guide who is usually
an experienced man).

What is Research Question/Problem?
 A statement of the specific query or question the
investigator wants to answer through research.
 Often similar to the statement of purpose, just
provides more detail and focus.
– Used to:
 Focus attention on the kinds of data needed to
provide an answer
 Clarify the purpose statement
 Identify key variables and their potential
relationship
 Identify the population under study

Problem Statement
 The statement of the research problem, sometimes phrased
in the form of a research question
 Usually located in the introduction or literature review of the
research report
– Rarely labelled problem statement
 The statement of the research problem
– Identifies
• The nature of the problem
• The context of the problem
• The significance of the problem
The problem statement can be written as either
a question or as a declarative statement

Important of the Research Question/Problem
 The research question is the starting point of the study.
Everything flows from the research question.
 It will determine the population to be studied, the setting
for the study, the data to be collected, and the time period
for the study.
 A clear and concisely stated research question is the most
important requirement for a successful study.

Research Questions Characteristics
 Feasible
 Adequate number of subjects
 Adequate technical expertise
 Affordable in time and money
 Interesting
 Getting the answer intrigues the investigator
 Novel
 Confirms, refutes or extends previous findings
 Provide new findings
 Manageable in scope

Developing Research Questions
 Choose an interesting general topic
 Do some research on your general topic
 Consider your audience
 Start asking questions
 Evaluate your question

Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should
undertake extensive literature connected with the problem.
Why Literature Review?
 Assist in refining statement of the problem
 Strengthening the argument of the selection of a research topic
(Justification)
 It helps to get familiar with various types of methodology that
might be used in the study (Design)
Step 2: Literature Review
 Gather articles on a topic of interest
 Summarize the findings

 Books : Text Books, Monographs, Edited Collections
 Journal Articles : Academic Journals, Conference
Proceedings
 Indexing and Abstracting Journal Search Engines :
Google Scholar
 Past Dissertations
 Vital Statistics : Census, Government Records and
Reports, Surveillance System, Surveys
 International Organizations Documents : WHO,
UNICEF
 Media : Newspaper, Magazines
 Internet
Sources of Literature Review

Step 3: Hypotheses
‘A hypothesis is a proposed explanation of an observable
phenomenon which is capable of being tested by scientific
methods.’
In other words, Hypothesis is ‘A tentative statement about
something that might be true or wrong and the validity of
which is usually unknown’.
 The word hypothesis is derived from the Greek word –
‘hypotithenai’ meaning ‘to put under’ or ‘to suppose’.
 The word hypothesis consists of two words ‘Hypo’ and
‘thesis’. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification
and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.
What is of Hypothesis

 It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems
to explain the situation under observation.
 A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or
disproven by valid and reliable data.
For a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he intends
to resolve.
For example, consider a statement:
“Ship A is equally efficient as Ship B”
This is a hypothesis capable of being objectively verified
and tested.
 Hypothesis should be clear and precise, capable of being
tested, limited in scope, simple in terms.
What is Hypothesis….

Importance of a Hypothesis
 To the point enquiry
 Separating Relevant from Irrelevant observations
 Selecting required facts
 Direction of research
 Act as a guide
 Save Time, Money and Energy
 Proper data collection and conclusion
It brings clarity, specificity and focus to the research
problem, as they guide the researcher to what specific
information to collect

Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to
be investigated. It is conceptual in nature. It should be
specified before research is conducted.
This allow to
 Identify the research objectives
 Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the
research
 Identify its relationship with both the problem and
solution
 It is neither too specific nor too general
 It is considered valuable even if proven false.

Formulation of Hypothesis
 An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been
stated and the literature study has been concluded.
 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the
theoretical and empirical background to the problem.
Hypothesis formulation could be done by using the following
approaches:
(a)Discussions with colleagues and experts about the research
problem, its source, cause and the objectives in search of a
solution;
(b)Assessment of data and records,
(c) Evaluation of similar previous studies in the area similar
problems;

Formulation of Hypothesis
(d) Personal investigation which involves original field survey.
• Thus, any hypotheses take place as a result of a-prior
thinking about the subject, assessment of the available data
and material including related previous studies.
• Formulation of working hypotheses is a basic step of any
research process.

Hypothesis Testing
After analysing the data, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be
contrary?
This is the usual question which is to be answered by
applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have
been developed by statisticians for the purpose .
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.

Hypothesis Testing
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated.
This refers to exploratory research, where the researcher
doesn't begin with a clear, testable hypothesis.
Instead, they collect and analyze data without
preconceptions or specific expectations.
After analyzing the data, even without an initial hypothesis,
the researcher may notice patterns, trends, or relationships.
From these observations, they can draw general conclusions
or formulate new hypotheses for future testing.

Types of Hypotheses
Descriptive Hypotheses: These are propositions that
describe the characteristics (such as size, form or
distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an
object, person, organization etc.,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher
than that of commerce graduates. The educational system
is not oriented to human resource needs of a country.
Relational Hypotheses: These are propositions which
describe the relationship between two variables.
e. g., Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation;
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower
class people.

Causal Hypotheses:
 It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable
causes or leads to an effect on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable, and the
latter the dependent variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables
the researcher must consider the direction in which such
relationship flow e.g., which is cause and which is effect.
Working Hypotheses:
 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are
formed.
 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they
are referred to as ‘working hypotheses’ which are subject to
modification as the investigation proceeds.
Types of Hypotheses….

Null and Alternative Hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (H )
₀
The null hypothesis is a default assumption or starting point in
statistical testing.
🔹 It typically assumes that there is no effect, no difference, or
no relationship between variables.
🔹 It represents what you would expect by chance or under
normal conditions.
🔹 It is the hypothesis we try to reject using data.

Null and Alternative Hypotheses:
Alternative Hypothesis (H or Ha)
₁
The alternative hypothesis is the research hypothesis — the one
you believe might be true and are testing for.
🔹 It proposes that there is an effect, a difference, or a
relationship between variables.
🔹 If data provide enough evidence, we reject H in favor of H .
₀ ₁

Examples of Null and Alternative Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis: There will be no difference in students
knowledge level of Research Methodology who
participated in DEV 6101 course and who participated in
undergraduate ‘Research Methodology’ course.
 Alternative Hypothesis: The Research Methodology
knowledge levels of students who participated in
undergraduate course will be lower knowledge level than
that participated in DEV 6101 course.

More Example
 In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might
be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the
current drug.
We would write HO: there is no difference between the
two drugs on average.
 The alternative hypothesis might be that: the new drug has
a different effect, on average, compared to that of the
current drug.
We would write H1: the two drugs have different
effects, on average. The new drug is better than the
current drug, on average.

Errors in Hypothesis Testing
There are two types of errors in hypothesis:
 Type I error
 Type II error
 Type I error: Rejection of a true null hypothesis is called
the type I error.
 Type II error: Retention of false null hypothesis is called
the type II error, i.e., Failure to reject a false H0
Decision
Accept HO Reject HO
HO (true) Correct decision Type I error (alpha
error)
HO (false) Type II error (beta error) Correct decision

Research Questions VS Hypothesis
Hypothesis Research Questions
Is predictive in nature Is curious in nature
A tentative prediction about the
relationship between 2 or more
variables
The question research study
sets to answer
Can be used if there is
significant knowledge or
previous research on this
subject
Can be used if there is little
previous knowledge on the
subject
Mainly used in experimental
quantitative
Can be used in both
quantitative and qualitative
Does not allow a wide range of
outcomes
Allows a wide range of
outcomes
Sometime, research questions are used in lieu of hypotheses.

 The research design refers to the overall strategy that you
choose to integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will
effectively answers to research questions or address the
research problem;
 It is an outline of what researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data;
 Research Design comprises the outline for the data
collection, data analysis, and report writing.
Step 4: Research Design

Research Design
Research Design
Analytical Research
Descriptive Research
Experimental Research
Reviews
Historical
Philosophical Case Study Survey
Cross-Sectional
Longitudinal
Correlation
Pre-designs
Quasi-designs
True-designs
Statistical-
designs
Meta-Analyses

 It should be flexible
 It should be economical
 It should be unbiased
 It should fulfill the objectives of the research
 It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research.
 It should guide you to achieve correct results.
 It provides scientific base for your research.
 It also should facilitate to complete the research work
within the stipulated time.
Characteristics of Good Research Design

Data Selection
It is important to determine the data type and source as the project is being
initiated. What instruments are suitable for the collection of data in order
to answer the research questions are also important.
The following should be considered during the
“data selection” process:
• Appropriate type and source of data in order to answer the
research question
 Qualitative data collection is a type of collection used for
textual type data (observational research)
 Quantitative data collection is a type of data collection used for
numerical type data
 Proper instruments used to collect the data

 The process of gathering information about variables of
interest systematically in order to answer the research
questions or test hypotheses.
 If data is not collected properly the research questions
cannot be answered, the study cannot be repeated, there
are distorted findings, other researchers are misled, public
policy decisions can be compromised and harm to humans
and animals can result.
Step 5: Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design chalked
out.
There are two types of data:
PRIMARY DATA are those which are collected a fresh and
for the first time and therefore to be original in character. Data
collection methods are Observation, Personal Interview,
Questionnaire, Case Study Method, Survey Method, etc.
SECONDARY DATA are those which have been collected
by someone else and which have already been passed through
the statistical process. Existing data that is related to the
research topic in question.
Data Collection…..

Research Using Secondary
and Primary Data
Secondary Data
 Literature review
 Systematic review
 Metanalysis
 Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose
Primary Data
 Cross-sectional
 Case Control
 Cohort
 Randomized controlled trial

Data Collection Process
 There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data
which differ considerably in context of cost, time and other
resources at the disposal of the research.
 Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey.
 In case of survey, data can be collected by any one or more of
the following ways:
– By observation,
– Through personal interviews
– Through telephonic interviews
– By mailing of questionnaires
– Through schedules

4. The semi-structured discussion approach
Types of data collection methods?
Individual interview – collecting data at individual level, to help
understand situation and characteristics of individuals within the
population of interest  can include some HH level indicators if
needed
Key informant interview – collecting data at community. location
or group level from a key informant (KIs) i.e. an individual whose
informal/ formal position gives him specific knowledge about other
people, processes, or events that is more extensive, detailed, or
privileged than other individuals in their group/ community/ location
Group discussion – collecting data at community, location or group
level from a group of representatives e.g. Kis
Focus group discussion – bringing together people from similar
backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest;
data collected at community, location or group level

 Data Analysis is important to answer the research questions
and to help determine the trends and relationships among the
variables.
 Data Analysis is a procedure of editing, coding and tabulating
data.
Step 6: Data Analysis

Data Analysis
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inference.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages; coefficients etc., by
applying various well defined statistical formulae.
 In the process of analysis, relationships of differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis
should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusions

Before Data Collection, the researcher should accomplish
the following:
 Determine the method of data analysis
 Determine how to process the data
 Consult a statistician
 Prepare dummy tables
After Data Collection:
 Process the data
 Prepare tables and graphs
 Analyze and interpret findings
 Consult again the statistician
 Prepare for editing
 Prepare for presentation
Steps in Data Analysis

Data Analysis
Choosing Statistical Software and Techniques:
 SPSS, SAS, Genstate.Ink,
 Statistical tests e.g. ANOVA, regression, descriptive
statistics, t-tests, Chi square etc.
 Data Management refer to any activity concerned with:
 Designing data recording format
 Collection of data, with appropriate quality control
 Checking of raw data
 Cleaning of data
 Keep backup of the data
 Preparing data for analysis
 Maintaining records of the processing steps

 Data management is integral to all aspects of Responsible
Conduct of Research.
 The data management practices includes the selection,
collection, analysis, storage, and ownership.
Note: Researchers should consider all of the above
when designing research
Data Management

Data storage refers to the maintenance of electronic and non-
electronic data and issues related to confidentiality, security,
and preservation.
 Non-electronic data can exist in paper files, journals, laboratory
notebooks
 Electronic data can exist in the form of an electronic file,
videotapes, DVDs, etc.
Storage of Data
Various ways the data is stored and used in order to
ensure data integrity
 During the initial stage of the project the data could be
stored in paper format (e.g., notes, laboratory
notebooks)
 Data can then be transferred to an electronic format
 Electronic data could then be analyzed and graphs
and charts produced in yet another type of format

Data integrity should be considered initially as part of the
initiation of the project.
 Storage capacity is enough to store your data
 Storage solution is reliable
 How long the data will be kept
 Who will input the data and who checks on the accuracy of the data
 Do you need data handling processes/procedures
Storage of Data – Other Issues to Consider
• Use logins and passwords
• Manage access rights
• Update virus protection regularly
• Ensure data recoverability
• Update electronic storage media to avoid outdated storage/retrieval devices
• Backup files in secured multiple locations
• Encrypt files
Storage of Data - Integrity

 Data is a product resulting from research.
 It is often thought that the person conducting and
producing the data owns the data.
 However, funding agencies, institutions and sources
where the data was obtained can determine otherwise.
Data Ownership

 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from
the collected facts after an analytical and experimental study.
 Interpretation is the process of making in the sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analyzed and
presented.
Techniques of Interpretation:
1. Explanations
2. Extraneous Information
3. Guidance
4. Relevant Factors
Step 7: Interpretation and Report Writing

A Research Report is a document giving summarized and
interpretative information of research done based on factual
data, opinions and about procedure used by the individual or
group.
A Research Report is a recorded data prepared by researchers
after analyzing information gathered by conducting organized
research.
A Research Report generally, but not always have actionable
recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can
act upon, recommendations on any act or law on which
government can take action, policy decisions that are
practically applicable, etc.
Research Report

 Preliminary Pages: Title, Acknowledgements, Forward
and Content.
 Main Text
a. Summary/ Abstract
b. Introduction
c. Methodology
d. Results
e. Implications of the results
f. Statement of findings and recommendations
g. References
 End Matter /Appendix
Layout of Research Report

DEV 6101:
Research Methodology
Dr. S M Rashidul Hasan
Assistant Professor
Bangladesh Maritime
University
Selection of Research
Topics and Title

Learning Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
 understand the concept of research topic and title
 learn how to select a good research topic and title
 know the process of developing a research topic
 learn how to refine a research topic

Selection of a Research Topic
There are 3 Scenarios
Your supervisor /department can
 provide you with a general topic area from which you study
a particular aspect;
 provide you with a list of possible topics to choose from; or,
 leave it up to you to choose a topic and you only have to
obtain the permission to write about it before beginning
your investigation.

Writing Your Research Topic
The first thing to do is to select your research topic, which
is the issue or subject area that you intend to conduct your
study.
Understand what the topic is about
 What are the key words in the question/topic?
 Which questions am I going to answer?
 Which sphere of knowledge does it cover?
 What variables will be considered?
 Etc. etc.

Choosing a Research Topic
Caution
 It is ok to review related literature to help refine how you will
approach analyzing a topic, and then discover that the topic is
not all that interesting after all.
 In that case, you can choose another topic.
 Do not wait too long to make a switch, and
 Be sure to consult with your supervisor first.

2. Magnitude (Scope)
 Breadth and depth of a topic.
 It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage
within the time and resources at your disposal.
 Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and
clear.
1. Interest
 A research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves
hard work and possibly unforeseen problems.
 One should select a topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
 Choose something you will enjoy researching!
Developing a Research Topics
Keep these key elements in mind:

4. Level of Expertise
 Make sure that you have adequate knowledge or expertise
for the task you are proposing since you need to do the work
yourself.
3. Measurement of Concepts
 Know what you are looking for; refine/adjust as needed.
 Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
e.g. How do you measure these words?
“congestion”, “efficiency”, “growth”, “malfunction”, etc
 Follow directions from your professor on topics and
research requirements!
Developing a Research Topics…..

5. Relevance/Significance
Ensure that your study
 adds to the existing body of knowledge,
 bridges current gaps in knowledge, and
 is useful in policy formulation.
This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of Data
 Before finalizing on your topic, make sure that data are available.
 Getting information for your research is very critical to any research.
Developing a Research Topics…..

Steps to Refining a Research Topic
Use these strategies to come up with a research topic
1. Background Reading: For an overview of the topic, this will
help you realize the scope.
2. Narrow/Adapt Topic: Is there enough information on your
topic? Too little?
3. Retrospective Research: Explore the topic in-depth, for a
historical perspective.
4. Contemporary Research: Look at current issues.

Background Reading
 Review related literature to help refine how you will
approach the topic and finding a way to analyze it.
 Focus on identifying sources (literature) that support as well
as refute this position
a. Has anybody written about this?
b. If yes, what is it about specifically?
c. If no, what gap is my study filling in?
 Browse through some current journals in your subject discipline
 Even if most of the articles are not relevant, you can skim through
the contents quickly.
 You only need one to be the spark that begins the process of
wanting to learn more about a topic.
 Consult a librarian or your supervisor about the core journals within
your subject discipline.

Research Background to the Study
Before a problem statement is stated, a brief background is
usually given.
The background gives the reader
 The general definition of the topic/problem area.
 Historical basis for the existence of the problem.
 Efforts made towards addressing similar challenges.
 How the efforts failed to be realized hence the need for
your study.

Possible ways to narrow your topic
Geography: Does location matter? Country, neighborhood,
rural vs. urban, etc.
Population: Limit by age, occupation, sex, ethnic group, etc.
Time: After liberation or before liberation? Certain decade/
certain years.
Aspect: Focus on one piece of a topic, i.e., “cancer management
system” instead of “health care system.”
If you are restricting by too many of these factors and not
finding anything, try removing one or more to broaden the search and
locate usable information.
Narrow/Adapt Topic

• Let’s see how this works with an example: eating
disorders
• This topic is too broad (general) to write about in a short
paper. We need to make it narrower (more specific).
Effective strategies to narrow a research topic

Who? TOPIC: EATING DISORDERS
Populations
Age
Gender
Race or
Ethnicity
NEW TOPIC:
Eating disorders in
elderly females
What? TOPIC: EATING DISORDERS
Types
NEW TOPIC:
Anorexia in elderly
females
Anorexia
Bulimia
Compulsive
eating

When? TOPIC: EATING DISORDERS
Time frames
Current or
historical view
Period of life
NEW TOPIC:
Anorexia in middle-
aged females
Where? TOPIC: EATING DISORDERS
Places
States
Regions
Countries
NEW TOPIC:
Anorexia in
Bangladeshi women

Why?
TOPIC: EATING DISORDERS
Evaluate
Causes
Treatments
Outcomes
NEW TOPIC:
Successful methods
for treatment of
Anorexia
Final Topic:
Successful treatment methods for Anorexia in Bangladeshi
middle-aged females.

Research Title
The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study.
The title is the part of a paper that is read the most, and it is
usually read first.
 If the title is too long …..
Avoid these language: A study to investigate the ....; A review of the ….
 If the title is too short ……
Too broad; Does not tell the reader what is being studied
Example: Bangladesh Politics
A good title contains the fewest possible words needed to
adequately describe the content and/or purpose of your
research paper.
 A good title should provide information about the focus of
your research study.
The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to
highlight the research problem under investigation.

 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.
 Rarely uses abbreviations or acronyms unless they are
commonly known.
 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate
reader interest.
 Use current nomenclature from the field study.
The Final Title

1. The title must contain the following elements:
a. The subject matter or research problem;
b. The setting or location of the study;
c. The respondents or participants involved in the study; and
d. The time or period
When the study was conducted (If the title becomes too long because of
these elements, the time frame or period may be omitted except in
evaluation studies).
Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Title

Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Title…..
2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the
study but should be brief and concise as possible.
3. The use of term as “Analysis of”, “A study of”, “An
investigation of” ,“assessment” or “evaluation” and the like
should be avoided. All these are understood to have been
done in a research.
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in
inverted pyramid.
5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title
should be in capital letters.
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 substantive
words.

1. A title should give readers information about the research and
is preferable to one that is vague or general.
2. Titles do not need to be stuffy or dull but they should
generally give readers some idea at the outset of what the
research paper will contain.
3. Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a complete sentence.
4. Select a straight forward title.
5. Use no punctuation at the end of a title.
6. Do not underline the title of research or enclose it in
quotation marks, instead, use a word processing program or
printer that permits italics. Use them in place of underlining.
Characteristics of a Good Title

Lecture 2 Steps in Concluding Research.pptx

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