Teachers primarily use achievement tests to measure students' abilities within a specific educational context like a lesson, unit, or complete program. These tests assess a particular part of the educational program and provide insights into how well students have grasped the material. Different types of tests exist for different purposes, such as proficiency tests to evaluate overall competence, diagnostic tests to identify skills to develop, and placement tests to determine an appropriate course level. Principles of effective assessment include practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and washback effect.

1. Principles of language assessment
Assessment is described as the process of appraising or estimating the level of some
attribute of a person. Tests are identified as a specific type of assessment method that
informs teachers about students' abilities and knowledge.
Different types of tests, such as multiskill proficiency tests or tests on specific language
features like demonstratives, allow for measuring various aspects of knowledge. Tests are
expected to include a clear form of reporting measurement and this involves providing
feedback, comments, numerical scores, or subscores to communicate results effectively to
learners.
Domain-Specific Tests:
Proficiency tests are mentioned as a way to determine general competences across all
language skills, while other tests focus on more specific areas like pronunciation.
Well-Constructed Tests:
Emphasizes that a well-constructed test is a useful instrument that accurately measures the
test-taker's ability within a particular domain.
Measurement and Evaluation
Measurement is described as the process of quantifying an individual's achievement. Terms
are introduced: quantitative and qualitative descriptions.
• Quantitative descriptions involve assigning numbers or symbols to observable
phenomena, providing a numerical representation of learners' performance.
• Qualitative descriptions, on the other hand, offer descriptive data, including written
Quantitative descriptions are emphasized as helping teachers understand "how many" or
"how much" a student has achieved in their learning, and Qualitative descriptions address
the "why" and "how" of students' performance during a test, offering opportunities for
teachers to provide individual feedback or comments.

2. Evaluation vs. Testing:
• Evaluation is distinguished from testing, emphasizing that they are not synonymous
and serve different purposes.
• Evaluation involves making decisions about learners' futures based on the results of
tests or other assessment procedures.
Formal and Informal Assessment
Informal assessment is described as an individual and spontaneous method to measure
students' progress without applying any grading criteria, but Formal assessment involves
objectively checking learners' performance
Formal assessments should be well-constructed and organized, aligning with specific
standards or criteria, and the primary aim of informal assessment is to identify the
difficulties and challenges that learners may face.

3. Formative and Summative Assessment
Formative assessment helps teachers identify weaknesses and strengths in students'
understanding. It facilitates the development of students' self-regulatory skills by
encouraging them to take an active role in their own learning.
By other hand Summative assessment evaluates students' learning, knowledge, proficiency,
or overall success at the end of a specific period, such as a unit, course, or program.
• Summative assessment is described as more of a "product" assessment,
encompassing complete chapters or content areas.
• Formative assessment aids in identifying misconceptions, struggles, and learning
gaps. Teachers can then take appropriate steps to address these gaps during the
teaching and learning process.

4. Types and purposes of assessment
Proficiency tests are designed to evaluate students' general competence in a language. They
assess overall language skills rather than focusing on specific areas.
Proficiency tests typically consist of various sections that assess different language skills.
They may provide an overall score or sub-scores for each section.
Achievement tests
Achievement tests are primarily used to measure students' abilities within a lesson, unit, or
complete program. They provide information about a specific part of a program.
Administered at the end of a lesson, unit, or course, achievement tests help diagnose
students' needs and assess whether the learning objectives have been met.
Diagnostic Tests
Diagnostic tests are administered at the beginning of a program to determine the skills that
need to be developed and included. They offer a clear picture of what aspects of the
language students need to work on.
Diagnostic tests are distinct from achievement tests, as they are administered before
teaching to guide instructional planning.

5. Placement Tests
Placement tests aim to determine the appropriate level for a learner in a program or
curriculum. They consist of sample materials that cover a particular area, with questions of
varying difficulty to assess the starting point of a course.
Proficiency tests
Proficiency tests are designed to evaluate students' overall competence in a language.
Unlike tests that focus on specific skills, proficiency tests aim to provide a comprehensive
assessment of a learner's language proficiency.
Proficiency tests typically consist of various sections, each assessing different language
skills such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Aptitude Tests
Aptitude tests measure a person's ability to learn a language, especially a foreign or second
language, before taking a course.
Note: These tests can predict the success a learner may have during a language course and
provide insights into learning styles and preferences.

6. Principles of language assessment
Teachers primarily use achievement tests to measure their students' abilities within a
specific educational context, such as a lesson, unit, or complete program.
These tests are designed to assess a particular part of the educational program, providing
insights into how well students have grasped the material.
Practicality:
o Practicality deals with the administrative processes involved in assessing an
instrument, including test creation, administration, scoring, and result
interpretation.
o Impracticality refers to qualities that hinder test objectives, such as excessive
test length, time-consuming evaluation, or mismatch between audio
materials and test items.
o Qualities of a practical test include staying within budget limits, adherence to
given timeframes, clear instructions, and appropriate use of resources.
Reliability:
o Reliability concerns the consistency of test results. If the same test is given to
the same students on different dates, the results should be consistent.

7. o Types of reliability include learner-related reliability (considering physical or
psychological factors), inter-rater reliability (agreement among scorers), and
test administration reliability (conditions during test administration).
o Test reliability occurs when measurement errors are caused by factors such
as poorly written items or subjective nature.
Validity:
o Validity ensures that a test measures what it is intended to measure. For
example, a writing test should assess the process of writing sentences and
words.
o Content-related validity involves measuring all important sections of the
subject or content, while criterion-related validity examines the relationship
between a measure and an external criterion.
o Construct-related validity determines if a test assesses what it is supposed to,
focusing on themes, ideas, subjects, or skills.
Authenticity:
o Authentic assessments are designed to apply knowledge in new situations
and focus on real-world events or life situations.
o Authentic tasks, such as problem-solving exercises, replicate real workplace
and personal life situations.
o Authentic assessment differs from traditional assessment in its link to the
real world and the time and effort required for planning and assessment.
Washback Effect:
o Washback effect occurs when a test significantly influences the way a
professor teaches, leading to teaching practices that align with summative
evaluation.
o Teachers may adopt similar teaching practices to help students pass
examinations, and washback provides learners with the chance to familiarize
themselves with the test format in advance.
o Washback is seen as helpful for students, providing feedback before the exam
date and promoting language improvement.