1. The conservation of biodiversity is often in conflict with human needs and development, but the concept of sustainable development aims to satisfy present and future human needs while minimizing impacts on biodiversity. 2. Current predictions of rapid human population growth may overwhelm science and technology's ability to prevent environmental degradation unless zero population growth is achieved. 3. Agricultural genetic diversity is important for developing pest and disease resistant crops, and this diversity was traditionally maintained through local cultivation of diverse landraces but is being lost due to modern agriculture practices.

1. Conservation and Human Societies preservation of biological diversity is often in conflict with actual and perceived human needs what is sustainable development ? - economic development to satisfy present and future needs while minimizing impacts on biodiversity the concept is often misused by corporations, governments etc.

2. The Ultimate Source of the Biodiversity Crisis if current predictions of human population growth prove accurate science and technology may not be able to prevent irreversible degradation of the natural environment... ...dealing successfully with environmental problems will require the achievement of zero population growth... 30 billion people present

3. present human population 6 billion people 95% of the earth’s surface is occupied by human settlements or ecosystems managed for food and materials production natural ecosystems are under increasing pressure - fragmentation, species extinction, loss of global genetic diversity cannot feed the projected human population by simply increasing the area used for food production the enormity of the crisis has stimulated efforts to conserve biodiversity and use resources sustainably

4. Conserving Agricultural Genetic Diversity Potato: 1830’s European ‘potato famine” was caused by susceptibility to fungal disease potato varieties grown came from a limited genetic source diverse localized populations in South America provided disease resistance

5. occurred because 70% of USA corn was developed using a single genetic source susceptible to the pathogen ( ie. lack of genetic variability) genetic uniformity is recognized as “dangerous” because of inability to respond to biotic and abiotic environmental pressures Corn: 1970 failure of corn crops from “corn leaf blight”

6. agricultural genetic diversity in pre-industrialized societies is high eg. indigenous cultivars of maize from Mexico vary in time to maturity from 60 days to 16 months height from 40 to 700cm ear lengths range from 4 to 40cm teosinte -maize wild relative- in Mexico loss of diversity is associated with “modern” agricultural methods

7. variation in fruit form in tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum ) variation in cabbage leaf type in Brassica oleracea acephala striking morphological examples of genetic diversity

8. genetic conservation of important agricultural crops began early in the 20th century loss of primitive varieties of crop species -- “landraces” -- meant loss of genetic variation essential for sustained crop improvement systematic collection of seeds of indigenous crop varieties understanding of geographic distribution of genetic variation in crops varieties of wheat primitive wheat varieties (landraces)

9. germplasm (= the DNA = mostly seeds) in these collections represent over 3,600,000 genetically distinct samples from about 100 crop species and their wild relatives seed in these “seed-banks” held at -88C and periodically propagated to preserve viability these ex situ collections are essentially the only genetic resource used for crop improvements Primack 1998 Ch 14 Australian National Botanic Gardens seed bank

10. Pest-Resistant Crops and Genetic Diversity maintaining agricultural productivity to meet world food needs depends on continued development of pest resistance developing host plant resistance (HPR) to insects and pathogens is a primary focus of food plant development HPR and resistance to pathogens is most frequently found in “unimproved” or wild landraces eg. resistance of current varieties to 12 diseases of tomato originates in wild tomato varieties

11. in situ Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity 1. preserved habitats containing wild populations of crop species 2. regions where cultivation of indigenous landraces is continued by “custodian” farmers in exchange for subsidies indigenous rice variety grown in Vietnam - note no water!

12. less expensive than ex situ variation is maintained by natural or indigenous cultural practices selecting rice seeds and varieties in Vietnam

13. in situ (on farm) agricultural conservation aims to 1. conserve processes of evolution and adaptation of crops (dependent on farmers) 2. conserve diversity at ecosystem, species and intra-specific level 3. integrate farmers into the global genetic resources system 4. conserve ecosystem services 5. improve the livelihood of resource-poor farmers 6. maintain or increase farmers’ access to crop genetic resources http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org

14. crop species show high genetic diversity in certain areas of the world

15. locations of in situ crop diversity and wild crop relatives conservation projects

16. Morocco alfalfa, bean & barley farming system farmer with a turnip landrace Morocco contains a vast diversity of agro-ecosystems high Atlas Mountains oasis area Rif Mountains

17. priority crops barley Hordeum vulgare durum wheat Triticum turgidum faba bean Vicia faba alfalfa Medicago sativa bread wheat Triticum aestivum crops chosen on economic importance farmer knowledge of landraces - varieties for straw, food, abiotic stress scientific data indicating high genetic diversity extent of threats posed by new cultivars

18. Burkina Faso seed storage women farmers group target crops sorghum Sorgum bicolor cowpea Vigna unguiculata pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum okra Abelmoschus spp . African potato Solenostomum sorghum landrace

19. Nepal single households may maintain >20 varieties of the same crop rice Oryza sativa maize Zea mays finger millet Eleusine spp . beans taro Colocasia esculenta mustard Brassica campestris conserve, diversify, empower

20. Hungary project to re-introduce local varieties into farming systems quantify effects of restoring agrobiodiversity on agro-ecosystem functions, genetic diversity and economic development farmer varieties of vegetables Hungarian farmer with a maize landrace

21. crop wild relatives are found naturally in agro-ecosystems near farms, but increasingly threatened many are found in centres of plant diversity and crop diversity in developing countries these farmers and countries lack resources to invest in the necessary conservation strategies global strategies to link these countries to International conservation agencies eg. UN FAO, IUCN current project involves countries like Armenia, Bolivia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka and Uzbekistan - all centres of crop diversity

22. Local Conservation in Developed Countries local, regional and state laws aim to regulate activities which directly impacts on species and ecosystems regulation of hunting & fishing - season, size catch etc. harvesting plants - certification of a permit eg. tree ferns, grass trees laws controlling land use can protect biodiversity - access, pollution levels, lighting fires etc. zoning laws - prevent development in sensitive areas; environmental impact statements

23. passage and enforcement of conservation-related laws at a local level can be highly emotional public must be made to look beyond the immediate benefits of development eg. protection of water supplies may mean no development -no grazing, logging or housing - in water catchments the arguments of conservation may be misused by people to prevent development near them - “not in my backyard” this misuse damages true conservation efforts “by association”

24. one of the most powerful means to protect biological diversity is to set aside intact biological communities as nature reserves, National Parks etc. - a means of in situ conservation Park Managers throughout the world cite conflicts with local people as their most serious problem in the developing world local people typically obtain many or all their resources from their immediate environment common to disregard the traditional rights of local people in establishing new conservation areas - ecocolonialism

25. Traditional Societies & Biological Diversity many traditional societies have a strong conservation ethic not stated in Western terms based on sustainable resource use traditional land use and farming practices are frequently responsible for the patterns of biological diversity we now observe needs of local people and conservation need to be reconciled

26. Tukano people of Brazil diet of root crops and river fish strong cultural prohibitions against cutting the forest along the Upper Rio Negro recognized as critical for maintaining fish populations extensive refuges for fish; fishing is permitted along less than 40% of the river margin Primack 1998 Fig 20.8

27. Biological Diversity and Cultural Diversity strong association between cultural diversity and the occurrence of high biological diversity the development of landraces is often a response to human selection for desired traits they are adapted to local soils, climates and tastes eg. the Nuba mountains of Sudan host 62 distinct human language groups , and grow dozens of landraces of sesame which are identified with particular tribes and places

28. protection of traditional cultures within their traditional areas provides a dual opportunity for cultural as well as biological diversity conservation

29. the rigid separation of lands used by local people and lands set aside for conservation is neither possible nor necessarily desirable Biosphere Reserves allow people to use resources with constraints eg. harvesting of meat from big game in African Nature Reserves these Integrated Conservation-Development Projects are increasingly seen as one of the best conservation strategies