Keeping track - UNEP : From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)

300 million ha forest area loss
+ 0.4˚C
Globalization
change

technology

© 2011 United Nations Environment Programme

Publication: Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Published October 2011
ISBN: 978-92-807-3190-3
Job Number: DEW/1234/NA

This Report has been prepared within the framework of UNEP’s fifth Global Environment Outlook (GEO-5) reporting process. It
complements the detailed information on the status and trends of the global environment and information on related policy measures.

Disclaimers
The content and views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies, or carry
the endorsement of the contributory organisations or the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The designations employed and
the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP concerning the
legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries. Reference to a
commercial company or product in this publication does not imply the endorsement of UNEP.

© Maps, photos, and illustrations as specified.

Reproduction
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission
from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication
that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever
without prior permission in writing from UNEP. Applications for such permission, with a statement of purpose and intent of the reproduction,
should be addressed to the Director, Division of Communications and Public Information (DCPI), UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100,
Kenya. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity or advertising is not permitted.

This publication was printed on 100 Per Cent chlorine free paper from sustainable managed forests using vegetable inks and
water-based varnish.

Citation
UNEP (2011). Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment: From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012).
Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi

Produced by
UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assessment
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi, 00100, Kenya

Tel: (+254) 20 7621234
Fax: (+254) 20 7623927
E-mail: uneppub@unep.org
Web: www.unep.org
UNEP
This publication is available from http://www.unep.org
promotes environmentally sound
practices globally and in its own activities. This
publication is printed on 100 Per Cent chlorine free paper
from sustainably managed forests. Our distribution policy
aims to reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint.

101

Keeping Track of Our Changing Environment
From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)

i

Foreword
In 1992, the first United Nations Conference on Sustainable graphs show upward and downward trends, which, along with satellite
Development, popularly known as the Rio Earth Summit, was convened images, tell the story of dramatic changes.
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to address the state of the environment and
sustainable development. The Earth Summit yielded several important Maintaining a healthy environment remains one of the greatest global
agreements including “Agenda 21”, a plan of action adopted by over challenges. Without concerted and rapid collective action to curb and
178 governments to address human impacts on the environment at decouple resource depletion and the generation of pollution from
local, national and global levels, and key treaties on climate change, economic growth, human activities may destroy the very environment
desertification and biodiversity. At the second Conference in 2002—the that supports economies and sustains life.
World Summit on Sustainable Development—governments agreed
The upcoming Rio+20 Conference presents a timely, global-level
on the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, reaffirming their
opportunity to address one of its own stated objectives: to assess
commitment to Agenda 21. In 2012, the United Nations Conference
progress and gaps in implementing goals as part of an acceleration
on Sustainable Development, or Rio+20 Earth Summit, will focus
and scaling-up of transformative actions, programmes and policies. As
on the Green Economy in the context of sustainable development,
we move towards the Rio+20 Conference in an ever-more globalised
poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainable
and integrated world, the need to chart progress towards a global
development. The object is to renew political commitment to
Green Economy and more efficient and effective international
sustainable development, review progress and identify implementation
environmental governance becomes vital. Without quantified targets,
gaps, and address new and emerging challenges.
our environmental goals cannot turn theory into reality. Numeric and
This publication serves as a timely update on what has occurred time-bound targets have certainly aided in progress made towards the
since the Earth Summit of 1992 and is part of the wider Global Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), for example, and should be
Environment Outlook-5 (GEO-5) preparations that will lead to the applied towards our environmental objectives as well.
release of the landmark GEO-5 report in May 2012. It underlines
This publication helps to tell the story of where the world was 20
how in just twenty years, the world has changed more than most of
years ago and where we collectively stand today, and to show the
us could ever have imagined—geopolitically, economically, socially
direction in which we need to move in a post-Rio+20 world. It also
and environmentally. Very few individuals outside academic and
highlights the missing pieces in our knowledge about the state of
research communities envisaged the rapid pace of change or foresaw
environment— such as those related to freshwater quality and quantity,
developments such as the phenomenal growth in information and
ground water depletion, ecosystem services, loss of natural habitat, land
communication technologies, ever-accelerating globalisation, private
degradation, chemicals and waste—due to lack of regular monitoring,
sector investments across the world and the rapid economic rise of
collection and compilation of data. Scientifically-credible data for
a number of “developing” countries. Many rapid changes have also
environmental monitoring remains inadequate and the challenge of
taken place in our environment, from the accumulating evidence
building in-country capacity to produce better policy-relevant data
of climate change and its very visible impacts on our planet, to
needs urgent attention.
biodiversity loss and species extinctions, further degradation of land
surfaces and the deteriorating quality of oceans. Certainly, there have We hope this report will inform all those participating in the Rio+20
been some improvements in the environmental realm, such as the events and the entire process and help set the world on a path towards
significant reduction in ozone-depleting chemicals and the emergence a more sustainable environment.
of renewable energy sources, new investments into which totalled
more than $200 thousand million in 2010. But in too many areas,
the environmental dials continue to head into the red.

This innovative report is based entirely on statistical data and indicators
and shows where the world stands on many social, economic and
environmental issues as we enter the second decade of the 21st century.
Achim Steiner
Drivers of environmental change including population increase and
United Nations Under-Secretary-General
economic growth, and especially the status of natural resources and
landscapes, are clearly illustrated. Numbers plotted on straightforward and Executive Director, UNEP

ii

Table of Contents
iv Introduction & Scope 30 Warmest Years on Record 64 Saudi Arabia Irrigation Project (Satellite Image)
31 Earth Global Temperature Changes by Latitude 65 Organic Farming
v What’s New Since Rio 1992? 32 Ocean Temperature Deviation 66 Selected Crops in Humid Tropical
32 Global Mean Sea Level Countries, Area
vii Goals & Targets in the 33 Ocean Acidification 66 Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries,
Global Environment Change in Area
34 Mountain Glacier Mass Balance
67 Grazing Animal Herds
Population & Human Development 35 September Arctic Sea Ice Extent
2 Total Population 35 September Arctic Sea Ice Extent (Satellite Image) Fisheries
2 Historical World Population 69 Exploitation of Fish Stocks
Forests
3 Population Growth Rate 70 Total Fish Catch
37 Forest Net Change
4 Urban Population 70 Tuna Catches
37 Mangrove Forest Extent
5 Megacities 71 Fish Catch and Aquaculture Production
38 Mato Grosso, Amazon Rainforest (Satellite Image)
5 Top 10 Megacities 72 Shrimp and Prawn Aquacultures (Satellite Image)
39 Forest Plantation Extent
6 Population in China’s Pearl River Delta 39 Roundwood Production
(Satellite Image) Energy
40 Certified Forest Area 74 Energy Consumption per Capita - Total
7 People Living in Slums
8 Age Distribution Water 74 Energy Consumption per Capita - Change
8 Life Expectancy 42 Improved Sanitation & Drinking Water Coverage 75 Electricity Production
9 Food Supply 43 Mesopotamian Marshlands (Satellite Image) 75 Electricity Production per Capita
10 Human Development Index 76 Nightlights
Biodiversity
11 Proportion of Seats Held by Women 77 Primary Energy Supply
45 Living Planet Index
in National Parliaments 78 Renewable Energy Supply, Total
46 Red List Index
78 Renewable Energy Supply, Change
Economy 47 Protected Areas, Total Area
79 Biofuels Production
13 GDP per Capita, Total 47 Protected Areas, Per cent
80 Investment in Sustainable Energy
13 GDP per Capita, Change Chemicals & Waste 81 Nuclear Power Plants
14 Per Capita Gross Domestic Product 49 Oil Spills from Tankers 81 Electricity Production & Nuclear Share
14 Gross Domestic Product–per Capita (Map) 50 Plastics Production 82 Oil Sands (Satellite Image)
15 Trade
16 Global Materials Extraction Natural Hazards Industry, Transport & Tourism
17 Resource Efficiency 52 Impacts of Natural Disasters 84 Cement & Steel Production
52 Reported Natural Disasters 85 Air Transport
Environmental Trends 53 Floods–Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability 86 International Tourism, Arrivals
Atmosphere 53 Tropical Cyclones - Mortality Risk, Exposure
and Vulnerability Technology
21 Emissions of CO2 - Total 88 Internet Users & Mobile Phone Subscribers
21 Emissions of CO2 - per Capita Governance
22 Emissions of CO2 - Total, by Type 55 Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Number 90 Epilogue
22 Emissions of CO2 - Change, by Type and Signatories
55 Number of MEAs Signed (Map) 91 Data Sources
23 Emissions of CO2 per GDP
24 GHG Emitters by Sector 56 ISO 14001 Certifications 93 References
25 Consumption of Ozone-Depleting Substances 57 Carbon Market Size
25 Ozone Hole, Area and Minimum Ozone 58 Total Foreign Aid and Environmental Aid 93 Acronyms
59 Aid Allocated to Environmental Activities
26 Ozone Hole Images 97 Technical Notes
Climate Change Agriculture
61 Food Production Index 98 Annex for Aid To
28 Atmospheric CO2 Concentration/Keeling Curve Environmental Activities
29 Global Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly 62 Cereal Production, Area Harvested
and Fertilizer Consumption
29 Temperature Deviation 2000-2009 vs. Mean 99 Acknowledgments
1951-1980 (Map) 63 Total Area Equipped for Irrigation
iii

Introduction & Scope
This publication was conceived with the idea of showing how To ensure reliability, indicator charts are only presented for areas
the planet has changed in two decades—just twenty years— where all three data requirements were met. For areas where
since decision-makers met at the United Nations Conference one or another of the criteria was not met, such as freshwater
on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. To water availability, groundwater depletion, land degradation and
relay this information in a compelling and succinct manner, chemicals and waste, any analysis might not be reliable, and so
environmental and related trends are charted and presented trends are not provided. Also, the availability of data related to
using globally-aggregated (and mainly statistical) data sets the environment and natural resources that are disaggregated
collected by international agencies, research bodies and other by gender (i.e., qualitatively) or sex (i.e., quantitatively) is
official entities. generally poor, especially for developing countries.

Major economic, environmental, social and technological The implications of any shortcomings in the data are clear. To
trends are shown through numerically-based graphs, with their promote evidence-based environmental policies and actions,
upward, downward or stable trend lines as dictated by the the underlying data needed to support sound decision-making
data. While most of these trends speak for themselves, short must be part of the equation and be of proven scientific
explanations of the phenomena observed are also provided for quality. Today, there are several reasons why the quality of
further elucidation. Also included are a number of illustrative international statistics varies greatly. First, statistics may not
“before and after” satellite images, primarily covering the same be available at the national level; second, the statistics that
time period of 1992-2010 and showing environmental changes are collected may be of poor quality or outdated; and third,
at the local level. In some cases, these impacts are ongoing. the comparability of statistics over time inherently presents
challenges. These deficiencies and issues demonstrate the need
Scope and Methodology for a comprehensive data and information system to optimally
manage the vast array of related policy, scientific, technical,
Most of the time-series data were collected directly from
methodological and practical issues. For this to be achieved,
countries and aggregated to regional and global levels by
the following steps are necessary:
authoritative international agencies. The time series indicators
presented here are based on the best and most comprehensive (1) strengthen national-level capacity for collecting and
data available to date. compiling environmental observations, especially where data
gaps exist;
Three main criteria were used to select the indicators employed
in this publication. First, an approximately 20-year temporal (2) publish and provide access to data using various media; and
data record on which the trend charts could be based was
required, so as to accurately portray the time period in question. (3) develop services to efficiently and rapidly provide information
In a few cases (and particularly for recent phenomena such as to decision-makers in (an) understandable format(s).
carbon trading), a correspondingly shorter time period was used
Thus, a comprehensive capability at the global scale is needed
to provide at least a partial picture to date. Second, the data on
to pull together and analyze the wealth of data collections
which the charts are based had to be global in coverage—that
that are available, and to enhance data collection for areas
is, covering all or at least most countries so as to represent the
where information may be lacking. Within these limitations, it
entire world and not only certain regions. Third, the data had
is hoped that this publication provides a clear and reasonably
to be clearly sourced and taken from authoritative and reliable
comprehensive twenty-year story on the state and trends in
institutions with extensive experience in the thematic areas
environment and development since 1992.
treated in each case.

iv

“What’s New?” since Rio 1992
In terms of environment, what did not exist or was not well-known in 1992?

In the twenty years since the first Earth Summit in 1992, the Perhaps the ways in which our environment has changed are
world has changed in ways most of us could not imagine. not so immediately obvious to everyone, but they are at least as
The Internet, mobile phones and other information and significant. Natural resources are being depleted or degraded—
communications technologies have made the world a much sometimes before we realize it—and certain metals seem to
smaller place—and more of a ‘globalized village’. An estimated become “rare” all of a sudden. The ever-increasing demand
five billion people have subscribed to mobile phone services for resources such as water, energy, food, minerals and land
and there are some two billion Internet users worldwide. Social is driven by growing populations with rising incomes, while
media have further increased connectivity in recent years, with in parallel these resources are increasingly constrained by
Facebook, for example, having more than 800 million users ecosystem changes, inherent variability of weather conditions
since it was launched in 2004. At the same time, space-based and resource productivity, and the impacts of climate change.
satellites can now even zoom in to street level, and provide Within the context of the “mega-trends” taking place in
detailed images in real-time on sophisticated smart-phones. our rapidly changing world and society, a number of new
We also see that economic power and production patterns are environmental issues and phenomena have arisen since 1992:
shifting among regions to the East and South, and that overall
trade volumes are rising steeply.

Evolution of the Internet: 1992-2012

1992

2012
v

New Multilateral Environmental Agreements Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) for forest products,
and Conventions the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) for fish products, and
Several new Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and “bio” or organic labels for many agricultural products including
Conventions have been established or entered into force in the coffee, tea and dairy products.
last two decades to address emerging global environmental
issues, including the United Nations Framework Convention Genetically Modified Organisms
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) have been researched
Diversity (CBD), agreements related to chemicals (Basel,
for decades, but have gained widespread attention in recent
Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions), and the United Nations
years, mainly due to prospects for increased food production.
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
However, they remain controversial for a variety of reasons.

Awareness of Climate Change
Recycling
Among much debate and controversy, Climate Change has
Although recycling efforts are only beginning in many parts
become a “hot topic” and entered the policy arena, topping
of the world, processing waste into new resources, products
the global environmental agenda.
and materials is becoming mainstream policy and practice in
several countries and regions.
The Green Economy
Viable pathways for fundamentally shifting economic Commercialization of Biofuels, Solar and Wind Energy
development to become more low-carbon, climate resilient,
While the overall use of renewable energy is still modest,
resource efficient, and socially inclusive, as well as for valuing
biofuels are gaining a significant market share, and wind and
ecosystem services, are now being proposed widely and
solar power production is increasing steeply. Windmills and
increasingly pursued.
solar panels are increasingly abundant, and in the transport
sector, hybrid cars have entered the streets and air transport
Carbon Trading and other Environmental Market Tools using biofuels are becoming a reality.
Placing a monetary value on greenhouse gas emissions and
creating a market for trade in carbon is a new and increasingly Chemicals Management
utilized concept to address climate change. Other new market
Management of toxic and other hazardous chemicals that
frameworks include biodiversity offset and compensation
threaten human and ecosystem health has improved. A number
programs, habitat credit trading and conservation banking, with
of deadly chemicals have been banned, and as of January 2010
a goal toward reducing biodiversity loss and mainstreaming
the world is free of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) production.
impacts into economic decisions. Worldwide, at least 45
compensatory mitigation programs and more than 1 100
mitigation banks now exist (UNDP and GEF 2011). Nano Materials
Nanotechnology offers significant opportunities and benefits
Markets for Organic Products and Eco-labeling for industry and society at large, especially in the fields of
energy, health care, clean water and climate change. But debate
Consumer demand for goods that are produced in a sustainable
about this new technology continues and related potential
way has boosted certification and eco-labeling, such as the
environmental hazards and risks could be emerging.
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the

vi

Goals & Targets
in the global environment
One of the obstacles to achieving environmental goals set by the Specific Sets of Environmental Targets
international community is the lack of sufficient, solid data and
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
monitoring systems to measure progress. While for two of the
interdependent areas of sustainable development—economic In September 2000, leaders from 189 nations agreed on a vision
development and social development—the goals are normally for the future: a world with less poverty, hunger and disease;
measured and tracked quantitatively, environmental targets greater survival prospects for mothers and their infants; better-
are largely defined in qualitative terms. On the other hand, educated children; equal opportunities for women; a healthier
those environmental agreements for which specific numerical environment; and a world in which developed and developing
targets were set, have been relatively successful. Already in countries work in partnership for the betterment of all. This
the 1960s, for example, the World Commission on Protected vision took the shape of eight Millennium Development Goals
Areas (WCPA) set a target of 10% of global land area to be (MDGs), which provide a framework of time-bound targets
designated as formally protected; today, nearly 13% of the by which progress can be measured. A concise framework of
world’s surface is now set aside as protected. Similarly, the eight goals and 21 targets towards the MDGs was adopted,
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer along with 60 indicators to measure and show progress. While
defines mandatory targets and specific timeframes within which environment as a crosscutting theme is part of several MDGs,
the required reductions must be met, and it conducts regular its significance in the overall framework is most prominently
reviews of phase-outs in accordance with scientific updates. highlighted in MDG-7: Ensuring Environmental Sustainability.
It has been hailed as perhaps the most effective environmental MDG-7 is divided into four targets as set forth below. They
agreement to date. More such initiatives are needed to promote emphasize sustainability principles and reversing natural
evidence-based environmental policies and measure progress. resource degradation; reducing biodiversity loss; increasing
The following is a summary of environment-related goals that access to safe drinking water and sanitation; and improving
incorporate targets and indicators since 1992. slums (Table 1).
Table 1: UN Millennium Development Goal-7
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability targets Indicators

Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable 7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest
development into country policies and programmes 7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
and reverse the loss of environmental resources 7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 7.5 Proportion of total water resources used
2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss 7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction

Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people 7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking
without sustainable access to safe drinking water and water source
basic sanitation 7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility

Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant 7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums
improvement in the lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers

vii

The World Summit on Sustainable Development the Parties adopted a revised and updated Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity for the 2011-2020 period, including the set of Aichi
Additional environmental targets were subsequently adopted
Biodiversity Targets comprising five strategic goals and 20 targets.
in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development
However, these targets have no clear numerical goals, except
(WSSD). These relate to: fisheries; marine protection; biodiversity
the following ones:
loss; access to renewable energy; and phasing out of organic
pollutants (Table 2). Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats,
including forests, is at least halved and where feasible
Table 2: Environmental targets adopted at the WSSD, 2002 brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation
is significantly reduced.
Targets Indicators
Target 11: By 2020, at least 17% of terrestrial and inland
Maintain or restore depleted fish To be determined waters, and 10% of coastal and marine areas, especially
stocks to levels that can produce areas of particular importance for biodiversity and
the maximum sustainable yield
by 2015 ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and
equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-
Reverse the loss of biodiversity Identified by Convention connected systems of protected areas and other effective
by 2010 on Biological Diversity (CBD)
area-based conservation measures, and integrated into
Establish a representative network To be determined the wider landscapes and seascapes.
of marine protected areas by 2012
To conclude, with specific quantitative goals being absent, the
Increase the share of renewable To be determined
energy in the total energy supply, above targets may read more like recommendations. However,
and provide 35% of African when goals incorporate numerical levels or values, the required
households with modern energy achievement is more clearly defined and potentially obtainable.
within 20 years In fact, empirical evidence shows that goal-setting can work
Phase out by 2020, production To be determined when clear quantitative targets are set. Another lesson learned
and use of chemicals that harm from the history of environmental target-setting is that it works
health and environment best for well-defined issues, such as the phasing out of Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODS) or leaded gasoline, and for issues
related to industrial chemicals for which technologies exist or
The Copenhagen Accord can be developed to solve environmental problems associated
In 2009, the Copenhagen Accord recognised the need for with their production and use. Finally, it has become clear
emission targets that will hold the increase in global temperature that it is critical to have baseline information to allow progress
below 2°C —equated by scientists to a concentration level of towards the targets to be tracked. For example, relatively little
450 ppm (parts per million) of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. measurable progress has been made—or can be demonstrated—
The Accord today is supported by 114 countries. towards the WSSD target to “reverse the loss of biodiversity by
2010”, since there are insufficient, reliable and comprehensive
Aichi Biodiversity Targets biodiversity baseline data upon which to base trends and
At its tenth meeting in Nagoya, Japan in October 2010, the assess progress.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Conference of

viii

Population &
Human Development

Brian Gratwicke/Flickr.com
1

Since 1992, the human population has grown
by 1 450 000 000people...

Since 1992, the world’s Thousand Million
People Total Population
population increased by an 8
annual rate of 1.3%, adding Global

nearly 1 500 million people to +26%
the planet. Between 1992 and since 1992
+ 67% West Asia
2010, world population grew + 21% North America
from around 5 500 million 6 + 28% Latin America &
to close to 7 000 million, Caribbean

representing a 26% increase. + 4% Europe

There are large differences
53% Africa
in population numbers and
+

changes between regions. For 4
example, nearly 60% of the
global population lives in Asia,
15% in Africa, and another
15% in North America and + 26% Asia + Pacific
Europe combined. However, 2
total population increases are
much greater in West Asia
(67% since 1992) and Africa
(53%), while the population
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD
number in Europe has grown 0
only slightly (4%). 1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Thousand Million
People
1
World Population since 10 000 BC
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
0
10 000 9 000 8 000 7 000 6 000 5 000 4 000
2

...however, the population growth rate is declining

Thousand Million
People
Per Cent
Population Growth Rate
9
2

8
1.5
Developing 2012

Global 7

1

6
Developed
1992

0.5

5

0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
4

At the same time the population growth rate has been declining during the past several decades,
dropping from around 1.65% per year in the early 1990s to 1.2% per year in the late 2000s. This 3
represents a 27% decline in the growth rate between 1992 and 2010. There is a strong correlation
between a country’s economic state and its growth rate: developing countries tend to have a 2-3
times higher growth rate than developed countries.
2
This overall, global “decrease in the increase” means that the world’s population and its population
growth rate are increasing more slowly, and could eventually stabilise around 10 thousand million
people in 2100 (UN 2011).
1

3 000 2 000 1 000 0 1 000 2 050
3

In 2011, over 3 500 million
people—more than
half the world’s population—are living in urban areas

Thousand Million Urban Population - Total In 1992, 2 400 million of us lived in urban
People
4 agglomerations. By 2009, the number had climbed
Global
to 3 500 million, a 45% increase. The additional
3 1 000 million “urban people”—nearly 200 000 new
Developing
city dwellers per day—are the equivalent of 32 times
2 the population of Tokyo, or 110 times that of Paris
(Brinkhoff 2011).
1 Developed
This unprecedented urban growth, projected to
continue (although at a decreasing rate) in the coming
0 UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 decades, will require special attention in order to
make life in cities more socially, economically and
Per Cent
Urban Population - Per Cent of Total Population environmentally sustainable.
80
Developed
While over half of the world population now lives
70 in urban areas, they also account for 75% of global
energy consumption (UN-Habitat 2009) and 80%
60
of global carbon emissions (The World Bank Group
Global 2010), at least when viewed from a consumption
50
Developing perspective (Satterthwaite 2011). On the other hand,
40 the top 25 cities in the world create more than half of
the world’s wealth (UN-Habitat 2008).
UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD
30
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009
This ongoing rapid urbanisation indicates that
long-term investments addressing the associated
Urban Population - Growth Rate
Per Cent vulnerabilities are critically needed. “[The] urgency is
3
acute considering that 30-50% of the entire population
of cities in developing countries live in settlements
Developing
that have been developed in environmentally fragile
2 Global
areas, vulnerable to ﬂooding or other adverse climate
conditions, and where the quality of housing is poor
1 Developed
and basic services are lacking” (UN 2009b).

UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

4

The number of “megacities” has
more than doubled since 1990

Megacities According to UN-Habitat, megacities
Number of Megacities >10 Million Inhabitants are high density metropolises with
24 at least 10 million inhabitants. The
21
number of these megacities climbed
19
from 10 in 1992 to 21 in 2010, a
18
+110% 110% increase, adding on average one
16 since 1990 megacity every two years. Fifteen of
the world’s 21 megacities are found
13
in developing countries. The largest
12
10 megacity today is Tokyo which counts
nearly 37 million persons, more than
Canada’s total population.
6
With large and dense metropolises
come the associated environmental
Source: UNPD impacts of urban life. Very dense
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 population structures and people living
in close quarters bring sanitation, waste
management, air quality, pollution
Top 10 Megacities 2010 Million People Rank 1990
and other concerns for residents and
1 Tokyo, Japan 36.7 1 the environment alike. Not only do
2 Delhi, India 22.2 11 anthropogenic factors play a major
3 Sao Paulo, Brazil 20.3 4 role in megacities but the natural
4 Mumbai, India 20.0 5 environment also presents risks to
highly concentrated populations
5 Mexico City, Mexico 19.5 3
including ﬂoods, mudslides, tsunamis
6 New Y ork-Newark, USA 19.4 2 and earthquakes (UN 2009b, UN-
7 Shanghai, China 16.6 18 Habitat 2009).
8 Kolkata, India 15.6 7
9 Dhaka, Bangladesh 14.6 23
10 Karachi, Pakistan 13.1 21
Source: UNPD

5

T
Th
The population of China’s Pearl River Delta has tripled
since 1992 and includes two of the world’s megacities
s

Source: USGS; Visualization UNEP-GRID Sioux Falls

The Greater Pearl River Delta area in southeastern China is the world’s largest “mega-region” with a population of
approximately 120 million people (UN 2010). Over the past two decades, the populations of the delta cities of Guangzhou
and Shenzhen have each reached nearly 10 million people while Hong Kong, Foshan and Dongguan have grown to around
5 million each (UN 2009). The individual cities are beginning to merge into one contiguous urban area. The core delta area
shown in the above image had a little over 20 million people in the early 1990s but has since tripled to roughly 60 million
people (SEDAC 2010). This intense urbanization has led to the loss of productive farmland and natural areas among other
environmental problems (Yan and others 2009).

6

A smaller proportion of urban dwellers live in slums, but
their total number has risen to 827 000 000
Population in Slums
People Living in Slums Proportion of Urban
[Million People] Population in Slums [%]
1 000 50

46% P
ercen
ta ge

827 Million
800 40

u m b er
Total N
illion
656 M 33%

600 30

Source: UN-Habitat
400 20
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Since 1990, the share of the urban population living in slums in the developing world has declined significantly, dropping
from 46% in 1990 to 33% in 2010. This decrease shows that many efforts to give inhabitants of slums access to improved
water or sanitation, and/or more durable housing have been successful. On the other hand, the absolute number of people
living in slums has increased by 26% over the same period, equaling 171 million additional people and raising their
number from 656 million in 1990 to 827 million in 2010. “Redoubled efforts will be needed to improve the lives of the
growing numbers of urban poor in cities and metropolises across the developing world” (UN 2011b).
Note:
A slum household is defined as a group of individuals living under the same roof lacking one or more of these conditions: access to improved water;
access to improved sanitation; sufficient-living area; durability of housing; security of tenure. However, since information on secure tenure is not
available for most of the countries, only the first four indicators are used to define slum household, and then to estimate the proportion of urban
population living in slums (UNSD n.d.).

7

The population aged over 65 is growing at a faster rate
than other age groups in most regions of the world

Age Distribution Life Expectancy
Million People - High and Low Age Groups - Years
2 000
80
Developing, Total, > 65 years North America

1 500

Developing, Total, < 14 years
Europe

1 000
Latin America &
Caribbean

500
70
West Asia
Developed, Total, > 65 years

Asia + Pacific
Developed, Total, < 14 years
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Global

While the population of the groups below 14 and above 65 years of age in all developed countries
together has remained largely the same since 1990, this population in developing countries has
continued to grow (from 1 760 million to 2 040 million in 2010, an increase of 16%).

At the same time, there are signiﬁcant differences in age structure between developed and
developing regions. In the developed countries, the number of persons over 65 has been 60
increasing rapidly, and now nearly equals the under 14 population. By contrast, in the developing
countries, the under 14 population continues to grow and far outstrips the over 65 age group,
although the latter is also rising, both in numbers and percentage of total population.

This developed-developing countries’ dichotomy, as well as the fact that older populations are
growing faster than the total population and that the difference in growth rates is increasing, has Africa
major implications for economies, the education and health care sectors, and the environment
itself (UN 2009).

Life expectancy depends heavily on good public health, medical care and a balanced diet, as
well as peaceful and stable surroundings. Although living conditions improved in all regions and 50
1990 2010
globally the average life span increased by four to eight years, Africa lags far behind, noting that
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled
there are large differences within the continent. from UNPD

8

The average global citizen consumes 43 kg
of meat per year, up from 34 kg in 1992

Food Supply
- Meat, Fish & Seafood -
Index, 1992=100
140

Fish & Seafood
+ 32%
since 1992

130
Meat + 26%
since 1992

+ 22%
120 since 1992

Global Population

110

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO
100
1992 1997 2002 2007

Global dietary patterns have changed enormously over the last decades. “Income growth, relative price changes,
urbanization and shifts in consumer preferences have altered dietary patterns particularly in developing countries” (FAO
2008). Diets shifted away from basic foods towards livestock products, as well as oils, fruits and vegetables, increasing the
demand for meat by 26% and for ﬁsh and seafood by 32% between 1992 and 2007. During that time, for example, global
average meat consumption grew from 34 kg per person per year to 43 kg. Nearly all of these increases can be attributed
to growing demand in Asia and to a lesser extent, Latin America. Based on different studies and considering the entire
commodity chain (including deforestation for grazing, forage production, etc), meat production accounts for 18-25% of the
world’s greenhouse gas emissions (UNEP 2009, Fiala 2008, FAO 2006).

9

Human development levels are improving throughout
the world, but there are large regional differences

Human Development Index
Index
1

OECD

0.8

Latin America and
the Caribbean
Global
0.6 Asia

Africa
0.4

Source: UNDP
0.2
1990 2000 2010

The Human Development Index (HDI), which serves as a frame of reference for both social and economic development,
combines three dimensions to measure progress: a “long and healthy life” (life expectancy), “access to knowledge” (school
enrollment) and “standard of living” (gross national income). Over the past 20 years, the HDI has grown globally by 2.5%
per year, climbing from 0.52 in 1990 to 0.62 in 2010, or 19% overall, showing substantial improvement in many aspects of
human development. Although progress has been made, large differences in values and growth are visible between regions,
with Africa lagging far behind.

“Most people today are healthier, live longer, are more educated and have more access to goods and services. Even in
countries facing adverse economic conditions, people’s health and education have greatly improved” (UNDP 2011).

10

Women’s inﬂuence, as measured by seats in
national parliaments, is steadily rising

Proportion of Seats Held by Women
% of all Seats in National Parliaments
20

18 + 60%
since 1997

16

14

12

Source: World Bank
10
1997 2002 2007 2010

In the realm of gender parity, one indicator is the number of women in national parliaments. This ﬁgure has risen steadily
over the last 20 years, from roughly 12% in 1997 to 19% in 2010, representing a 60% increase. This equals over 8 600
seats in more than 170 countries, up from just over 4 000 in 1997 (IPU 2011). “But this is far short of the target of 30% of
women in leadership positions that was to be met by 1995, and further still from the MDG target of gender parity” (UN
2010). Women play a key role in improving environmental-related legislation and seeing that these measures are adequately
funded and implemented.

11

12
Economy

Nic McPhee/Flickr.com

GDP has continued to climb at a steady rate...

Thousand Constant
GDP per Capita Since 1992, the world’s overall
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has
2000 US$ - Total -
40
increased significantly i.e., from
Developed
33 800
US$/person/yr
US$ 36 to 63 million millions in
2010, an increase of 75% or 3.2%
30
per year on average. GDP per capita
rose by 40% in that same period.
Due to strong economic growth in
20 many developing countries, their
level of GDP per capita increased
substantially, particularly in the
10
World 9 200
US$/person/yr
last decade (80% since 1992, 45%
Developing 5 300 since 2002). However, differences
US$/person/yr
between developing and developed
0
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, UNPD countries on per capita basis
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010 are almost seven-fold, reflecting
the wide economic discrepancy
between these two worlds.
GDP per Capita
- Change - 80% GDP indicates the level of
Index, 1992=100
Developing +
180
economic activity, but is often
since 1992

misinterpreted as a measure of a
country’s living standard. However,
160
GDP as such does not adequately
reflect standards of living, human
World
well-being or quality of life.
140 +39% One successful attempt to move

measurements and indicators
Developed since 1992

+33%
since 1992 of development beyond GDP is
120
the Human Development Index,
launched just before Rio 1992 and
updated every year since.
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal,
as compiled from World Bank, UNPD
100
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

13

...but huge differences in economic development persist

GDP per Capita (2010*)
below global mean
above global mean
no data available

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, UNPD

Certainly not every country or citizen has beneﬁted from overall higher levels of economic welfare. The gap between the
lowest and highest income countries remains large, with many countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia still below the
global average. In addition, many countries experience signiﬁcant domestic income inequalities between rich and poor.
In new and rising economic powers such as China and India, millions have been lifted out of poverty, but often at a high
environmental cost. “The economic growth of recent decades has been accomplished mainly through drawing down
natural resources, without allowing stocks to regenerate, and through allowing widespread ecosystem degradation and
loss” (UNEP 2011).
*All data for year 2010; except year 2009 data used for the following countries: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen
14

The absolute value of trade among countries,
a major aspect of globalisation, has tripled

Trade
- Total and Percentage of GDP -
Million Million US$ % of GDP
40 80

30 60

Trade (% of GDP)

20 40

Trade (US$)

10 20

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank
0 0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Trade has been present throughout much of human history, but its importance in economic, social and political terms has
increased steeply over the last decades, and is a main facet of what is generally understood by “globalisation”. The value of
internationally traded products has tripled between 1992 and 2009, from over US$ 9 to 28 million millions. The share of
trade as of the global total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased in that period from 39% to 49%, reaching nearly 60%
before the economic crisis in 2008. By far the largest sectors of international trade in 2010 concern mineral fuels and oils
(15%), electrical and electronic equipment (13%), machinery (12%) and vehicles (7%) (ITC 2011).

15

As societies grow and become wealthier, demand
for basic materials is further increasing

Thousand Million Global Materials Extraction
Tonnes
80

+41%
since 1992

60
Ores and Industrial Minerals

Fossil Fuels

40

Construction Minerals

20

Biomass

Source: Krausmann and others 2009
0
1992 1997 2002 2005

The global use of natural resource materials increased by over 40% between 1992 and 2005, from about 42 to nearly
60 thousand million tonnes. On a per capita basis, the increase was 27%. Among the four major material groups (biomass,
fossil fuels, ores and industrial minerals, and construction minerals) there has been a major increase in extraction of
construction minerals of almost 80%, followed by ores and industrial minerals (close to 60%). This growth is strongly linked
to increasing population numbers and the need for shelter, food and an improved standard of living (UNEP 2011).

International trade in resource materials has also increased. “The total value of world trade in natural resources was
US$ 3 700 thousand millions in 2008, or nearly 24 Per Cent of world merchandise trade. This value has increased more
than six-fold between 1998 and 2008” (WTO 2011).

16

More energy and natural resources are being consumed,
but the amounts needed per product are declining

Resource Efficiency
Index, 1992=100
180

Economic Development
(GDP)

160

140
Resource Extraction

Population
120

100

Material Intensity
Source: SERI
80
1992 1997 2002 2007

Although overall energy and material use continue to grow, there is a simultaneous general decline in emissions, energy and
material use per unit of output (UNEP 2011, Krausmann and others 2009), indicating that we are becoming more efficient
at how we produce, use and dispose of materials. “Resource extraction per capita has been stable or increasing only
slightly. What economies worldwide need is absolute decoupling of the environmental pressure associated with resource
consumption from economic growth. This will be easier to achieve to the extent that resource use itself becomes more
efficient” (UNEP 2011). One policy option concerns eco-taxes, which put a price on the full costs of resource extraction and
pollution, including emitting CO2, polluting the environment through the use of chemicals, deforestation, overpumping of
aquifers and overfishing; such incentives can stimulate employment and help in the transition to absolute decoupling and
Green Economy (ILO 2009, UNEP 2011b).

17

Environmental Trends

18

Atmosphere

MorgueFile
20

Global CO2 emissions continue to rise, with
80%
emitted by only 19 countries

Emissions of CO2* Global Globally, CO2 emissions increased by 36%
2010
Thousand Million
Tonnes of CO2
- Total - +36%
since 1992
between 1992 and 2008, from around
30
22 000 million to just over 30 000 million
Developed tonnes. With general economic growth,
+8% plus developing countries such as Brazil,
since 1992
China and India investing significantly
20
in large development, infrastructural and
manufacturing projects, the growth of CO2
emissions in developing countries over the
10 Developing last few years climbed even more (between
+64% 1992 and 2008, a 64% increase of total CO2
since 1992
emissions and 29% on a per capita basis).

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC
Latest estimates show that global CO2
0
1992 1997 2002 2008 emissions accumulated to 30 600 million
tonnes in 2010 (IEA 2011). Large differences
exist between regions and countries, with
80% of the global CO2 emissions being
generated by 19 countries—mainly those
Emissions of CO2* with high levels of economic development
Tonnes - per Capita - and/or large populations.
50

Total emissions of CO2 in developed
countries increased by nearly 8%, and
40
although per capita emissions declined
Developed
steadily by 18%, they are still 10 times
-18%
30
since 1992 higher than those of developing countries.
In addition, many developed countries
20 profited from a significant shift of production
to developing countries, thus leading
10
Global to declining domestic emissions, but
+7% nevertheless increasing consumption-based
since 1992
Developing emissions (Peters and others 2011).
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC, UNPD
0
1992 1997 2002 2008
+ 29%
since 1992

* from fossil fuels, gas flaring, cement production, as
provided through the original source
21

Despite global efforts to reduce CO2 emissions, they
continue to rise due to the increasing use of fossil fuels...

The main uses of fossil fuels
Emissions of CO2* are for generating electricity,
- Total, by Type -
Thousand Million
Tonnes of CO2
enabling transport and producing
30 Gas Flaring
Cement Production
heat. Their combustion leads
to a release of CO2 into the
25 Gas Fuels Consumption
atmosphere which in turn
inﬂuences the earth’s climate.
20
The production of cement not
Liquid Fuels Consumption
(e.g. fuel oil) only demands very high levels of
15
energy inputs, but also releases
CO2 directly through the heating
10
of calcium carbonate, which
5
Solid Fuels Consumption produces lime and carbon
(e.g. coal)
dioxide. It has also become the
0
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, CDIAC fastest growing source of CO2
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008 emissions (+230% since 1992).

Global efforts since 1992 to slow
the growth of, and ultimately
Emissions of CO2* reduce the total level of CO2
Index, 1992=100 - Change, by Type - emissions, have not yet fully
250 succeeded. Those efforts must be
strengthened; otherwise, it is very
Cement Production
225 unlikely that the target of limiting
Gas Flaring
temperature increase to 2°C by
200 2100 to reduce global warming,
as agreed by global leaders in
175 Cancun in 2010, will be met
(IEA 2011).
150 Solid Fuels Consumption
Gas Fuels Consumption
* from fossil fuels, gas ﬂaring, cement
125
production, as provided through the
original source
Liquid Fuels Consumption

100
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

22

...however, production processes are
becoming more energy-efficient

Grams of CO2 per Emissions of CO2 per GDP
$ 1 GDP
700

600

500

-23%
since 1992
400

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank CDIAC
300
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

Increasing efforts to “decouple” emissions and economic development are being witnessed, meaning reduction of emissions
while still experiencing economic growth. Applying new technologies to use energy and resources more efficiently is an
example of a means to accomplish decoupling.

The graph above shows an annual efficiency gain of around 1.6%, and a total gain of 23% since 1992 (until 2007),
indicating the start of a successful decoupling of emissions for each dollar of GDP generated. However, this may be partially
influenced by the increasing value of the service industry, which has less energy- (and thus emission-) intensive impacts. In
any case, the efficiency gains are still outweighed by the ongoing absolute increase in global emissions.

23

Over 60% of Greenhouse Gases are
emitted by three economic sectors

Which sectors emit the most Greenhouse Gases?
Per Cent contribution to global anthropogenic GHG emissions, 2004
hea
ting
)
and y
l
ectr supp
icity

Per Cent
(e.g ergy

30
., el
En

)
25
tion
ry

sta
ust

(e.g restr
fore
y
Ind

re
., de

20
ultu
Fo

bui merci l and
t
por
ic

ns
Agr

gs l
com dentia
a
15
Tra

ldin
i
Res
10

wa te and
r
ate
stew
s
Wa
5

0 26 19 17 14 13 8 3
Source: IPCC 2007

The energy supply sector, industry/manufacturing and forestry sectors together account for over 60% of all greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. The forestry sector’s contribution is mainly through worldwide deforestation, as trees cut down to clear
space for agriculture and other land uses can no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and if left to rot or burned, emit CO2 stored
in trunks and leaves.

24

The Montreal Protocol: “Perhaps the single
most successful international agreement”

Consumption of Ozone-Depleting Substances The ozone concentration in higher
Thousand Tonnes of altitudes protects life on earth from the
Ozone Depleting Potential
damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays of the
600
sun. The ozone layer, especially above
Antarctica, was rapidly diminishing
until recently due to the use of Ozone-
Depleting Substances (ODS).
400

Thanks to the participation and
commitment of nearly all countries
200
(195 in 2011) in perhaps the “single
most successful international agreement
-93% to date” (Kofi Annan, former UN
since 1992

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNEP
Secretary-General, on the Montreal
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 Protocol), the consumption of ozone-
depleting substances decreased by 93%
from 1992 to 2009, and 98% since
Ozone Hole the Protocol’s establishment in 1987.
Area, Million km2 - Area and Minimum Ozone - Dobson Units (DU)
Production and consumption of ozone-
50 200
depleting substances still continues
through the use of compounds such as
40 160 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and
Hydrogen, Flourine, and Carbon (HFCs),
30
DU
120 which have a global warming potential 90
to 11 700 times higher than CO2 and are
still to be phased out, as well as through
20 80
Area
exemptions (e.g. for specific agricultural
purposes) or illegal use.
10 40

The ozone hole over the Antarctic is
0
Source: NASA
0
showing only slow progress of recovery.
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010 The amount of ozone, measured in
Dobson Units, varies yearly due to
different temperatures in the Antarctic, but
shows a small, positive, increase (WMO/
UNEP 2010).
25

Further expansion of the “ozone hole” has halted,
but full recovery is still far away

September 1992 September 1994 September 1996 September 1998 September 2000

September 2002 September 2004 September 2006 September 2008 September 2011

110 220 330 440 550
Source: NASA
total ozone (Dobson Units)

The use of ODS has been controlled from 1987 onwards (and subsequently banned) under the Montreal Protocol. As of
1 January 2010, no new production of chloroﬂuorocarbons (CFCs) is permitted. Given that many of these substances are
also potent greenhouse gases, the Protocol provided at the same time “substantial co-beneﬁts by reducing climate change”
(WMO/UNEP 2010): “From 1990 to 2010, the Montreal Protocol’s controls on production and consumption of ODSs
[will] have reduced GHG emissions by the equivalent of a net 135 thousand million tonnes CO2, which is equivalent to 11
thousand million tonnes CO2 per year” (Molina and others 2009).

Over the past decade concentration and extent of ozone neither notably decreased nor increased (WMO/UNEP 2010). The
ozone layer outside the Polar regions is expected to recover to its pre-1980 levels before 2050. However, the springtime
ozone hole over Antarctica is expected to recover much later.

26

27
Climate Change

Gerard Van der Leun/Flickr.com

The average amount of CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere
shows a steady rise over the last two decades

Parts per Million Atmospheric CO2 Concentration / Keeling Curve
(ppm)
400

390

380
+9%
since 1992
370

360

350

340

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from NOAA/ESRL
330
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010 2011

The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Earth’s atmosphere has been measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii since 1958,
and at five other stations subsequently. It shows a steady mean increase from 357 ppmv (parts per million by volume) in
1992 to 389 ppmv in 2011. Seasonal variations of about 5 ppmv each year correspond to seasonal changes in uptake of
CO2 by the world’s land vegetation, influenced by the greater vegetation extent and mass in the Northern hemisphere.

The increase in atmospheric CO2 is primarily attributed to the combustion of fossil fuel, gas flaring and cement production
and has been accelerating in recent years (IPCC 2007).

28

Global mean temperature increased by
0.4°C between 1992 and 2010

°C
Global Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly The average annual mean atmospheric
0.8 temperature shows yearly variations,
NASA Goddard Institute
caused for example by tropical
for Space Studies * El Niño-La Niña cycles. Viewed
0.6 NOAA National Climatic
Data Center *
over a longer time period, one can
nevertheless observe a slow, but
UK Meteorological Office,
Hadley Centre and Climate
steady increase with occasional
0.4
Research Unit **
peaks. The annual mean temperature,
as displayed, is calculated by three
leading climate research centres,
0.2 producing slightly different values —
the general upward trend however
* relative to 1951-1980 mean global temperature is the same for all of them, with an
** relative to 1961-1990 mean global temperature
0.0
Source: NASA, NOAA, UK-MetOffice increase of about 0.2°C per decade
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
(Hansen and others 2006). “Most
of the observed increase in global
Temperature Deviation
- 2000-2009 vs. Mean* - average temperature since the mid-
20th century is very likely due to the
observed increase in anthropogenic
greenhouse gas concentrations”
(IPCC 2007b).

This map shows how much warmer
temperatures during the decade
2000-2009 were compared to average
temperatures recorded between
1951 and 1980 (a common reference
period for climate studies). “The most
extreme warming, shown in red,
was in the Arctic. Very few areas saw
Source: NASA
cooler than average temperatures,
*1951-1980 mean temperature shown in blue” (Voiland 2010). The
last decade was the warmest on record
since 1880; it was warmer than the
previous record decade 1990-1999.

29

The 10 hottest years ever measured
have all occurred since 1998

The Ten Hottest Years on Record
highest rank = warmest year since recording began in 1880
Rank Rank
1st 1st

2nd 2nd

3rd 3rd
Hadley Centre UK Meteorological Office
NOAA National Climatic Data Center
4th NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies 4th
Japanese Meteorological Agency
5th 5th

6th 6th

7th 7th

8th 8th

9th 9th

10th 10th

Source: UK-MetOffice, JMA

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

According to rankings from four top US, British and Japanese climate research centers, the ten hottest years on record have
all occurred since 1998. Eighteen out of the last 21 years feature among the 20 warmest years on record since (reliable)
recording of temperature started in 1880. These data and findings add weight to the common conclusion of all four agencies
and most of the scientific community, that in spite of short-term spatial and temporal variability the clear long-term trend is
one of global warming (NOAA 2011, NASA 2011, UK-MetOffice 2011, JMA 2011).

30

Far northern latitudes are seeing the most
extreme changes in temperature

0º 0.5º 1.0º 1.5º 2.0º 2.5º 3.0º
90°N

60°N

°N
30

Cº above mean *

per latitude zone
0°

200 5
200 6
200 7
30°S
200 8
200 9
20 10

60°S

* relative to 1951-1980 mean global temperature -0.5º 0º 0.5º 1.0º 1.5º 2.0º 2.5º 3.0º
Source: NASA

The increase in global mean temperature is not occurring uniformly across the globe’s latitudinal zones. This graph of
departure from the historical mean temperature (1951-1980) for the past six years shows this variation by latitude. Far
northern latitudes are seeing the most extreme changes in temperature (see in particular the upper part of the graph
representing the higher latitudes, and corresponding larger temperature anomalies). Among the consequences of this
warming are melting of ice sheets and thawing permafrost. Furthermore, a study of 1 700 species found poleward migration
of 40 km between 1975-2005 and vertical migration in alpine regions of 6 m per decade in the second half of the 20th
century (Hansen and others 2006).

31

Oceans are also warming, while sea-level
rise continues unabated

Ocean Temperature Deviation As the global atmospheric temperature
from 1901-2000 Average
increased over the last decades, so also
°C
0.6
did the average ocean temperature. By
0.5
comparing the last 20 years to the average
of the last century, one can observe a
steady warming of ocean waters, increasing
0.4
from 0.22°C above the long-term average
in 1992 to nearly 0.5°C in 2010.
0.3

0.2

0.1

Source: NOAA
0
1992 1998 2004 2010

MSL (MM)
Global Mean Sea Level Globally, sea level has been rising at an
60 average rate of about 2.5 mm per year
between 1992 and 2011. This is due to
rising sea-water temperature and resulting
thermal expansion, as well as the melting
40
ice of the Arctic, Antarctic and Greenland
ice sheets (Bindoff and others 2007).

Scientiﬁc evidence supports the claim
20
that current sea level rise is caused by
global warming (Bindoff and others 2007),
although different opinions exist about
0
Source: University of Colorado the exact link as well as future projections
1992 1997 2002 2007 2011 (Rahmstorf and Vermeer 2011).
-10

32

Oceans are becoming more acidic, with negative
implications for corals and other marine life

Ocean Acidification
pH ppm
8.5 CO2 400
R = 0.95521

8.4 375

pCO2
R = 0.27

8.3 350

8.2 325

8.1 pH 300
R = 0.22214

Source: Feely and others 2009
8.0 275
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the air alter the chemistry of the ocean’s surface, causing it to
become more acidic (measured by the logarithmic pH) (Caldeira and Wickelt 2003). The ocean’s pH declined from
8.11 in 1992 to 8.06 in 2007 (Feely and others 2009). There is a “growing concern that the process called ocean
acidification could have significant consequences on marine organisms which may alter species composition, disrupt
marine food webs and ecosystems and potentially damage fishing, tourism and other human activities connected to the
seas” (UNEP 2010b). Coral reefs are currently experiencing higher ocean temperatures and acidity than at any other
time in at least the last 400 000 years. If this trend continues, all coral reefs will likely be threatened by mid-century,
with 75 Per Cent facing high to critical threat levels (WRI 2011).

The increase in oceanic CO2 concentrations (pCO2 in the graph), measured off the coast of Hawaii, is consistent with
the atmospheric increase measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, within the statistical limits of the measurements (Feely and
others 2009).

33

Most mountain glaciers around the
world are diminishing rapidly

Metres of
Water Equivalent
Glacier Mass Balance
since 1980
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009
-3
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from WGMS

equa
ls an
of ~ an
-5 0.4 m nual loss
pe r y
ear

-7

-9
eq
u
of als
~ a
0. n an
7
m nua
-11 pe l
r y los
ea s
r

-13

-15

Changes in glaciers are key indicators of climate change. Nearly all mountain glaciers around the world are retreating and
getting thinner, as measured by their annual mass balance, with “severe impacts on the environment and human well-
being, including vegetation patterns, economic livelihoods, natural hazards, and the water and energy supply” (WGMS
2010). Diminishing glacier and ice cap volumes not only inﬂuence current sea-level rise but also threaten the well-being of
approximately one-sixth of the world’s population who depend on glacier ice and seasonal snow for their water resources
during dry seasons (WGMS 2008).

Moreover, as most glaciers are rapidly diminishing, the speed with which this happens has been increasing in recent
decades as well. For 30 glaciers observed (Zemp and others 2009), the average annual melting rate has increased from
around 0.4 metres per year in the early 1990s to 0.7 metres of water equivalent per year over the last decade, thus almost
doubling from one decade to the next, with record losses in 2004 and 2006 (WGMS 2010). The ongoing trend of worldwide
and rapid glacier shrinkage may lead to the deglaciation of large parts of many mountain ranges by the end of the 21st
century (WGMS/UNEP 2008).

34

The annual minimum extent of Arctic sea ice
continues its steady decline

Arctic sea ice extent has been declining since well before
satellite measurements began in 1979 (NSIDC 2011).
This decline has been most pronounced in September at
the end of the summer melt season (Stroeve and others
2008). Several of the most extreme years have been since
2002, with the smallest sea ice extent ever recorded
(4.17 million km2) occurring in 12 September 2007
(NSIDC 2011). Preliminary data for 2011 indicates that
ice extent had reached its second smallest extent ever
(4.33 million km2 on 9 September) (NSIDC 2011). The
trend is believed to be the result of natural variability in
air temperature and ocean and atmospheric circulation
patterns, combined with climate change (Wang and
Overland 2009). While the short data record precludes
conﬁdent predictions, there is concern that multiple
feedback processes such as reduced albedo could lead
to rapid transition to virtually ice-free Septembers in
the future—as soon as 2040 by one analysis (Wang and
Overland 2009).

September Arctic Sea Ice Extent
Million km2
8

6

4
-35%
since 1992
2

0 Source: NSIDC
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
Source: NSIDC

35

36
Forests

Frank Vassen/Flickr.com

Forest area has decreased by 300 million ha
since 1990, or an area larger than Argentina

Forests currently cover around 30% of the Earth’s Forest Net Change
land mass. Although the rate of deforestation is
slowing down, large areas of primary forest and other North America
1990-00
2000-05
naturally regenerated forests are declining, especially 2005-10

in South America and Africa, while forested areas in
Europe and Asia are stable or increasing due to large- Latin America + Caribbean

scale afforestation programmes. Around 13 million
hectares of forest were converted to other uses or Europe

lost through natural causes each year between 2000
and 2010, compared to 16 million hectares per year
during the preceding decade (FAO 2010). This results Asia + Pacific

not only in biodiversity loss, but also contributes
12-15% to global warming by releasing CO2 into the Africa

atmosphere and hampering further CO2 storage (van
der Werf and others 2009, UCSUSA 2011). “Millions -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

of hectares of tropical forest are cleared every year Million Hectares per Year

to make way for agriculture, pastures and other
non-forest uses, or are degraded by unsustainable
or illegal logging and other poor land-use practices”
(ITTO 2011).
Thousand Hectares
Mangrove Forest Extent
Also in decline since several decades ago are 17
mangrove forests—important from social, economic
and biological points of view. For example,
“mangrove forests act as extremely effective carbon 16

sinks, able to absorb [nearly 100] tonnes of carbon
per hectare, or more than three times the absorptive -3%
capacity of non-mangrove forests” (UNDP 2011b).
since 1990
15

Between 1990 and 2010, 3% of mangrove extent
was lost, mostly as a result of coastal development 14
and conversions to agriculture and aquaculture (rice
ﬁelds, shrimp farms). Using high-resolution satellite
imagery, the extent of mangroves in 2000 was even 13
Source: FAO

found to be 13% less (blue point on the graph) than 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

country statistics show (Giri and others 2010).
37

Large portions of the Amazon rainforest were
cleared for cattle pastures and farm fields


Satellite images show that enormous areas of Amazon rainforest were cleared,

Simon Chirgwin / BBC World Service / Flickr.com
mostly along an “arc of deforestation” on the southern boundary of the
Amazon Basin. The Brazilian states of Rondônia, Para and Mato Grosso saw
the largest losses (INPE 2010). Major roads such as the BR-163 running from
north to south across the 1985 image of Mato Grosso (above), provided access
to the forest (Fearnside 2007). Twenty years later much of the forest is gone,
replaced by soy fields and cattle pastures. Severe droughts in 2005 and 2010
increased the frequency of fire, and have reinforced concerns that the Amazon
is reaching a tipping point where large areas of forest could be replaced by
a more savanna-like ecosystem (Lewis and others 2011, Nepstad and others
2008, Malhi and others 2009).
38

A gradually increasing percentage of the world’s forests
has been replanted and is typically less diverse

Forest plantations are generally intended Million Hectares
Forest Plantation Extent
for the production of timber, pulp and 300

firewood, but along with other social
and environmental benefits also stabilise 250

soil and improve watershed protection. 54%
+
Since 1990, they have been growing at 200
since 1990

an annual rate of 2.2%, or around 4 600
thousand hectares annually, increasing
150
from 170 to 265 million hectares
globally. Over the 20-year period,
100
this gain equals the size of a country
such as Tanzania. The total plantation
extent in 2010 represents 7% of the 50

total forest area globally (FAO 2010b).
Although these forests do not necessarily 0
1990 2000 2010
enrich local biodiversity since they are
mostly composed of the same and/or
introduced species, they can provide
Million Solid Volume Units
(CUM)
Roundwood Production
3 700
important ecosystem services such as
timber, carbon and water storage and
soil stabilisation.

Roundwood production depends heavily 3 500
on demand from the construction
sector. Economic growth around the
world stimulated production, until the
economic crisis in 2008, when new
3 300
construction activities — and thus
demand for timber — severely declined.
Some of the peaks (as for example in
2000, 2005 and 2007) in roundwood
production are due to increased 3 100
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
extraction of the numbers of trees as a
result of severe storms (Eurostat 2011).

39

Only about 10%
of global forests are under
certified sustainable management

Million Hectares
Certified Forest Area
250
PEFC
420%
+
since 2002

200

150
FSC 320%
+
since 2002

100

50

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FSC, PEFC
0
2002 2006 2010

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), the two largest
forest certification bodies worldwide with slightly different approaches to management and certification, certify socially and
environmentally responsible forestry. An impressive annual 20% growth rate of labeled forests indicates that both producers
and consumers are actively influencing timber production. Nevertheless, in 2010 still only about 10% of the total forest
extent was managed under FSC and PEFC practices.

40

41
Water

Daniel Diaz Nauto/Flickr.com

Drinking water coverage increased to , but the 87%
world is far from meeting the sanitation target of 75%

Improved Sanitation & Drinking Water Coverage
% of Population
100

MDG Targets
2015
Drinking Water Coverage

90 + 13% 87 89
since 1990

80
77

75

70
Improved Sanitation Coverage
+ 13% 61
since 1990
60

54

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from WHO/UNICEF
50
1990 1995 2000 2005 2008

Globally, improved sanitation coverage was just above the 60% mark in 2008, up from 54% in 1990, with over 2 500
million people still without access. Half of the people living in developing regions have no access to improved sanitation.
In all regions, coverage in rural areas lags behind that of cities and towns. At the current rate of progress, the world will
miss the MDG target of halving the proportion of people without access to improved sanitation by 2015. In fact, at the
current rate of progress, it will take until 2049 to provide 75% of the global population with ﬂush toilets and other forms of
improved sanitation (UN 2011b).

However, the good news is that the world will meet or even exceed the MDG drinking water target by 2015 if the current
trend continues. By that time, nearly 90% of the population in developing regions, up from 77% in 1990, will have gained
access to improved sources of drinking water.

42

T
Th
The Mesopotamian Marshlands, nearly destroyed in the
1
1990s, have been partially restored but remain at risk


The Mesopotamian Marshlands are the largest wetland ecosystem in the Middle East (Partow 2001). Construction of
numerous dams, water diversions and hydropower facilities on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers over the past century and the
deliberate draining of the marshes by the Iraqi regime in the early 1990s had almost destroyed the wetlands by 2000 (Aoki
and Kugaprasatham 2009). Reflooding beginning in 2003 helped restore many ecosystem functions for a large portion of
the marshes (Richardson and Hussain 2006). In 2008, the eastern Hawizeh marshes were designated as Iraq’s first Ramsar
Wetland Convention site and preparations are underway to inscribe the entire marshes as a joint cultural and natural
site under the World Heritage Convention (Garsteck and Amr 2011). Ecosystem recovery, however, has been seriously
undermined by a severe drought (2008-2010) and uncoordinated water-related developments in the Tigris-Euphrates basin
(Garsteck and Amr 2011). The lack of a water sharing agreement between riparian countries and potential declines in
Euphrates flows are a major threat to the wetlands’ survival.
43

44
Biodiversity

Brian Gratwicke/Flickr.com

The Living Planet Index has declined by 12%
at the global level and by in the tropics 30%
Living Planet Index
Index, 1992=100
120

Temperate

100

Terrestrial
Global
Freshwater
Marine
80

Tropical

Source: WWF/ZSL
60
1992 1997 2002 2007

The Living Planet Index reﬂects changes in the health of the earth’s ecosystems. It is based on monitoring almost 8 000
populations of over 2 500 vertebrate species. In contrast to the temperate biome, which is somewhat stable (after hundreds
of years of biodiversity losses), all other indices show various degrees of decline. Biodiversity in the tropics is dramatically
declining, by 30% since 1992, indicating the ecosystem’s severe degradation due to high deforestation rates of primary
forest and transformation into agricultural land and pasture (WWF 2010).

45

Each year 52
vertebrate species move one
Red List category closer to extinction

Red List Index
The Red List Index (RLI) measures the risk of extinction,
of Species Survival Red List Index divided into seven categories of extinction risk, as
1.00 calculated from the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. An RLI value of 1.0 equates to species not
being expected to become extinct in the near future;
a RLI value of zero indicates that all species have
become ‘Extinct’ (Hoffman and others 2010). The
0.95 graph shows that for those vertebrate groups where
sufficient data are available, the trend is generally
negative; i.e., that birds, mammals and amphibians are
better

Birds becoming increasingly threatened. The five principal
pressures driving biodiversity loss are habitat change,
0.90
overexploitation, pollution, invasive alien species and
climate change (CBD 2010).

“Almost one-fifth of extant vertebrate species are
classified as ‘threatened’, ranging from 13% of birds to
Mammals 41% of amphibians” (Hoffman and others 2010). On
0.85
average, 52 species per year moved one category closer
to extinction from 1980 to 2008. Amphibians are more
threatened than birds and mammals, and are declining
at a faster rate. The status of other groups is likely to be
similar if not worse; nearly a quarter of plant species
0.80 are estimated to be threatened with extinction (CBD
2010), and in some plant groups over 60% of species
are considered threatened (Hoffman and others 2010).
worse

As renowned ecologist Edward O. Wilson puts it:
Amphibians
“One small step up the Red List is one giant leap
0.75 towards extinction”.

The highest numbers of threatened vertebrates can
be observed in the tropical regions, with figures
disproportionally higher than in other regions (Hoffman
0.70
Source: Hoffman and others 2010 and others 2010).
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

46

13% of the world’s land surface, 7% of its coastal
waters and 1.4% of its oceans are protected

Protected Areas By 2010, there were over 148 000
Million km2 - Total Area - protected areas in the world (IUCN
20
Terrestrial & Coastal +42% 2011), covering almost 13% of
Terrestrial
since 1992
the land area or 17 million square
+38% kilometres — an area as large as the
since 1992
15
Russian Federation. Marine protected
areas, however, cover only around
7% of coastal waters (extending out
10 to 12 nautical miles) and just above
1.4% of the oceans (IUCN/UNEP
2011, Toropova and others 2010).
5 Marine &
+ 210% Likely due to time lags in reporting,
since 1992
Coastal
the overall rate of increase in setting
Coastal + 120% aside protected areas is levelling off in
0
Source: UNEP Geo Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN, UNEP-WCMC
since 1992
recent years, yet saw a total increase
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010 of 42% between 1992 and 2010.
17%
target
Protected Areas “terrestrial”
- Per Cent -
Per Cent
14
Terrestrial
New targets for the extent of
12
protected areas globally were set
10%
by governments in the Nagoya
10 target
“coastal & marine”
Protocol, negotiated in October
8
2010. Under a 20-point plan, they
Coastal
made commitments to protect 17% of
6
terrestrial and inland waters, and 10%
of coastal and marine areas, especially
4 areas of particular importance for
biodiversity and ecosystem services,
Marine &
2 Coastal until 2020 (CBD 2010b).
Source: UNEP Geo Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN, UNEP-WCMC
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010 2020

47

48
Chemicals & Waste

D’Arcy Norman/Flickr.com

Both the number of tanker oil spills recorded and the
quantity of oil involved have declined in 20 years

Oil Spills from Tankers Quantity
Number of Spills [Thousand Tonnes]
50 200

40
150

30

100

20

50
10

0 0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
Source: ITOPF

The number as well as the total quantity of oil from accidental oil spills from tankers (including combined carriers and
barges) have decreased signiﬁcantly since 1992. Although the vast majority of spills are relatively small (i.e., less than seven
tonnes) (ITOPF 2011), the accumulated amount is nearly one million tonnes since 1992. “Most spills from tankers result
from routine operations such as loading, discharging and bunkering which normally occur in ports or at oil terminals”
(ITOPF 2011).

49

Plastics decompose very slowly, creating a
major long-term environmental impact

Million Tonnes
Plastics Production
300

+ 130%
since 1992

250

200

150

Source: EuroPlastics
100
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

The amount of plastics* produced globally grew steadily from 116 million tonnes in 1992 to around 255 million tonnes
in 2007, when the economic crisis led to a drop. But in 2010, a new record value of 265 million tonnes had already been
reached. This total increase of 149 million tonnes in eighteen years equals a growth of around 130%, or 15% annually. The
average use of plastic in developed regions reached around 100 kg per year per capita in 2005, whereas consumption in
developing regions is only around 20 kg, with rapid increases foreseen in the next decade (UNEP 2011c).

About 50% of plastic is used for single-use disposable applications, such as packaging, agricultural ﬁlms and disposable
consumer items (Hopewell and others 2009). Plastics debris in the ocean has become particularly notorious in recent
years. Concentrated along shorelines or in huge, swirling open-sea gyres, such material threatens the lives of many marine
organisms, especially seabirds and small mammals (UNEP 2011c).
*not including Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyamide (PA) and polyacryl ﬁbres

50

51
Natural Hazards

Warren Antiola/Flickr.com

Both human losses and economic damage from
natural disasters show an upward trend

Damage Thousand Million
Number of Deaths Impacts of Natural Disasters US$, Inflation-adjusted
500 000 250

400 000 200
Damage
Deaths

300 000 150

200 000 100

100 000 50

0 0
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: EM-DAT

Although there is no clear indication that hazard occurrences (such as Number Reported Natural Disasters
ﬂoods, droughts and hurricanes) have changed much in recent times 600

(UN 2011c), the number of reported disasters has been increasing
signiﬁcantly. Indeed, “over the past two decades the number of 500

reported natural disasters has doubled from around 200 to over 400
per year. In 2010, over 90 Per Cent of disaster displacement within 400

countries was attributed to climate-related hazards” (NRC 2011).
300

The risks are changing, mainly due to population increase, climate
change and ecosystem degradation. The risks to humans and 200

economic losses are increasing in absolute terms for all principal
hazards, except for landslides, where the tendency appears to be 100

stable. Relative risk, however, when measured as a proportion of
population or GDP, is stable, and in the case of mortality, may even be 0
Source: EM-DAT
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010
declining (UN 2011c).

52

Increased exposure to natural disasters has resulted
from more people living in hazard-prone areas

To quantify trends in disaster risk, one has Floods
to consider all three components of risk: Index, 1980=100
- Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability -
hazard, exposure and vulnerability.* In 200

all regions, human exposure is increasing
mainly due to demographical factors: an Exposure
increasing population with more people
moving to hazard-prone areas. In most 150

regions, vulnerability is decreasing, thanks
Risk
to factors such as improved governance
and better urban and land planning. At a
global level, this decline in vulnerability
100
compensates for the increase in exposure,
thus stabilising or even decreasing the risk. Vulnerability

However, this global trend is mostly related
to a significant decline in vulnerability in
Source: UNISDR
China. If China were removed from the 50
1990 2000 2010
analysis, the risk would still be increasing
due to a significant rise in exposure. The
global trend hides large regional differences Tropical Cyclones
(UN 2011c). Index, 1980=100 - Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability -
150
Exposure

Risk

125
Note:

*Risk is the probability of losses (mortality and
economic losses) from a specific hazard, according to 100
Vulnerability
its intensity, location and time period. Risk has three
components: the hazard (probability of a hazardous
event occurring at a specific intensity); exposure
(number of people or assets) located in hazard-prone
areas; and vulnerability (percentage of losses, should
a hazardous event occur). A disaster can occur when
a vulnerable population is hit by a hazardous event.
Source: UNISDR
50
1990 2000 2010

53

54
Governance

ohn & Mel Kots/Flickr.com

Numerous international agreements were negotiated in
the two decades following the Rio Conference in 1992

Accumulated Number of
Multilateral Environmental Agreements Number of
The steady increase of countries signing
Signatories to 14 Global MEAs
2 500
- Number and Signatories - new MEAs
50
Multilateral Environmental Agreements
New MEAs
Number of Signatories (MEAs) such as the Convention on
+ 330%
since 1992
Biological Diversity, the Ramsar Convention
2 000 40
or the Kyoto Protocol signifies rising
political recognition of environmental
1 500 30 issues. The graph includes 14 MEAs* and
shows the total number of signatories for
1 000 20
those 14 taken together (thus, if all 14
MEAs were signed by all 196 countries,
the number would be 14 x 196 = 2744).
500 10
Altogether, the number of newly
established global and regional MEAs
0 0 is steadily decreasing, demonstrating
1992 1997 2002 2007
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from various MEA secretariats, IEA Database Project
2010
that legal frameworks are in place to
address many important issues. Neither
Number of MEAs Signed establishing or signing an agreement or
4- 9 convention, however, means that the related
10 - 14
no data environmental problems have been solved.

Most countries have signed at least nine out
of the 14 major MEAs; 60 countries have
signed all of them. Only a few countries or
territories or countries in conflict have not
signed the majority of these MEAs.

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from various MEA secretariats

*Basel Convention, Cartagena Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora, Convention on Migratory Species, World Heritage Convention, Kyoto Protocol, Secretariat for the Vienna Convention and for the Montreal
Protocol, Ramsar Convention, Rotterdam Convention, Stockholm Convention, Convention to Combat Desertification, Convention on the Law of the Sea,
Framework Convention on Climate Change

55

The private sector is increasingly adopting
environmental management standards

Number of Certificates ISO 14001 Certifications
in Thousands
250

+1500%
since 1999
200

150

100

50

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from ISO
0
1999 2004 2009

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has developed over 18 500 international standards on a variety
of issues. The ISO 14000 standard is primarily concerned with “environmental management”. In effect, it codiﬁes what
practices and standards companies should follow to minimize harmful impacts on the environment caused by their activities
and to achieve continual improvement of environmental performance. With annual growth rates of over 30% and 230 000
certiﬁcates granted in 2009, this development demonstrates a growing number of companies’ commitment to adopting
environmental management systems.

56

Trading in CO2 emissions has grown rapidly, but in
2010 still only equalled of the global GDP1/500
Carbon Market Size
Thousand Million US$
150

+1200%
since 2005
120

90

60

30

Source: World Bank
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Following ﬁve consecutive years of robust growth, the carbon market reached a three-year plateau between 2008-2010
with a value of around US$ 140 thousand million (World Bank 2011), which equals about 1/500 of global GDP. The rise on
global market trends since 2005 — the ﬁrst year of the Kyoto protocol — is mostly due to increase in transactions volume.
Carbon prices have not been spared by the economic downturn. In less than a year, prices fell from € 30 to € 8 on the
European market (World Bank 2010). In addition, due to a lack of clarity about regulations in a post-Kyoto regime after
2012, some of the implemented mechanisms are today suffering rather large losses in value. Out of the total amount of
allowances, the EU Emissions Trading System launched in 2005 accounts for 84% to 97% of the global carbon market value
in 2010 (World Bank 2011).

57

Funding to support the environment has not kept up
with the increase in total foreign aid since 1992

Thousand Million Total Foreign Aid and Environmental Aid Thousand Million
Constant 2000 US$ Constant 2000 US$

15 240

Total Foreign Aid
13 200

11 160

9 120

7 80

Total Environmental Aid
5 40

Source: AidData.org
3 0
1992 1996 2000 2004 2008

Total foreign aid from bilateral and multilateral donors increased overall during the last two decades, starting at US$ 145
thousand million in 1992 and reaching close to US$ 215 thousand million in 2008. Funding dedicated to environmental aid
purposes, however, ﬂuctuated more widely and declined overall until 2003, before rising dramatically within the next few
years. By 2008, the share of environmental aid from total foreign aid dropped again to less than 4%, down from
5.5-7.0% in 1992-1993.

58

Environmental governance and energy initiatives
receive the largest share of environmental aid

Thousand Million Aid Allocated to Environmental Activities*
Constant 2000 US$
6

Energy Conservation and Renewables
4

Environmental Governance
Waste
2 Management

Natural Resources Management and
Biodiversity Protection

Sustainable Land Management
Water Resources Protection
0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Source: AidData.org
Marine Protection

When one examines the amounts of aid received from bilateral and multilateral donors by different environmental sectors,
it becomes clear that large differences exist. A major share of environmental aid funds is dedicated to energy conservation
and to the development and implementation of environmental policies (Governance). This graph shows that from 1992-
1997, aid to energy conservation was distinctly larger than any other sector; however, by 2008 it was being surpassed
by the Governance sector. Other areas such as biodiversity protection, land management, water resources and marine
protection receive far smaller amounts.

*Note: see Annex

59

60
Agriculture

Irish_Eyes/MorgueFile

Food production has continued to rise steadily
at a pace exceeding population growth

Food Production Index
Index, 1992=100
160

Food
+ 45%
since 1992
140

Livestock
Population +26%
since 1992
Crops
120

100 Source: FAO

1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Global food production has continued to keep pace with and even exceed population growth over the past two decades.
Gains in production have come primarily from improved yields and to a lesser extent from new agricultural land. However,
despite solid gains made in food security, millions in developing countries still face chronic hunger and malnutrition.
More signiﬁcant gains in agricultural production will be necessary to meet continued global population growth. These
will require expanding farm land and using more intensive production techniques. Such practices have known negative
impacts on the environment, including loss of biodiversity and pollution from nitrogenous fertilizers and other agricultural
chemicals. A more sustainable solution, as highlighted by the ‘Special Rapporteur of the UN on the Right to Food’,
is to upscale agroecology, a method of creating beneﬁcial interactions and synergies among the components of the
agroecosystem (UN 2010b).

61

Higher agricultural yields depend
heavily on the use of fertilizers

Cereal Production, Area Harvested and
Fertilizer Consumption
Index, 1992=100
140

Nitrogenous Fertilizer
Consumption
130
Cereals - Production

120

110

100 Cereals - Area Harvested

90
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

The increasing amounts of cereal crops being produced are only marginally linked to the total area under cultivation. Their
increase is almost exclusively dependent on intensiﬁcation, where the use of fertilizers plays a major role (UNEP 2011). The
heavy dependence on machines and materials increases energy usage and leads to the fact that it takes an average of seven
to ten calories of input energy (i.e., mostly fossil fuels) to produce one calorie of food (Heller and Keoleian 2000, Pimentel
and Pimentel 1996).

Nitrogenous fertilizers, the use of which grew by around 1 500 thousand tonnes per year, supply plant nutrients and enrich
soil fertility, but can lead to eutrophication of inland and marine waters, and increase the release of very potent greenhouse
gases, such as N2O.

62

While increasing irrigation infrastructure can raise crop
yields, it puts further pressure on freshwater availability

Million km2
Total Area Equipped for Irrigation Areas equipped for irrigation have
3.5 expanded steadily (21% since 1992),
providing improved food security and
+21% productivity in many water-constrained
since 1992 environments. However, irrigation
accounts for approximately 70% of
3.0
total freshwater withdrawals worldwide
(UNESCO 2001) and is seen as one of
the principal factors in an increasing
state of water scarcity. Globally, there
2.5 is adequate potential for expanding
irrigation to help meet production
needs for a growing population.
However, many of the regions where
irrigation is likely to expand are subject
2.0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 to freshwater and/or land scarcity.
Irrigation expansion into sensitive
ecosystems may lead to significant
Area equipped losses of natural habitat. Conversely,
for irrigation (2000)
intensification of agriculture through
irrigation can reduce the footprint of
agriculture, sparing valuable natural
areas. There is a strong need in general
to increase water use efficiency under
irrigated agriculture regimes.

s

Source: Siebert and others 2007

63

E
Enormous irrigation projects using fossil water
turned Saudi Arabia into an exporter of food


Rich in oil but lacking abundant renewable water resources, Saudi Arabia used oil revenues to develop domestic agriculture
based on groundwater from non-renewable aquifers (Elhadj 2006). Subsidies, direct and indirect, led to astonishing growth
in agricultural output (Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia n.d.). Large center-pivot irrigation projects such as the one above at
Wadi As-Sirhan appeared in the vast Saudi desert. However, by one calculation the cost of wheat produced reached around
US$ 500 per tonne, several times the cost of imported wheat (Elhadj 2006). In 2008, the Saudi government announced
plans to phase out wheat production by 2016 (Gulfnews 23 Apr. 2009).
64

Land area used for organic farming is growing at an
annual rate of nearly 13%
Organic Farming
Thousand km2
400

+240%
since 1999
300

200

100

Source: Organic World
0
1999 2004 2009

Organic farming is a form of agriculture that excludes or strictly limits the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and
builds on integrating crops and livestock, diversifying species and recycling nutrients on the farm, among other practices
that favour natural processes (UN 2010b). It has expanded signiﬁcantly from a very low baseline of around 110 000 km2
in 1999, to covering an area of over 370 000 km2 in 2009 (an increase of nearly 240%), an area that equals the size of a
country such as Japan or Germany. Nevertheless, the percentage of agricultural land managed under certiﬁed ecological
practices is still less than 1% globally.

65

Three crops have expanded dramatically in the
tropics, often replacing primary forests

Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries Sugar cane, soybeans, and palm oil
Million km2
- Area - are cultivated on a massive scale
15 in the tropics; their area grew from
just above 8 million km2 in 1992
Sugar Cane to nearly 14 million km2 in 2009,
a nearly 75% increase. Oil palm
10
plantations showed the largest
increase of 120% between 1992 and
2009, followed by soybeans (75%)
Soybeans
and sugar cane (30%). However,
soybean plantations occupy the
5
largest area and also show the
highest absolute growth, expanding
from 6 250 thousand km2 in 1992 to
nearly 10 000 thousand km2 in 2009.
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO Palm oil
0 Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 These crops are largely being raised
for the production of ethanol (sugar
Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries cane), export for livestock fodder
Index, 1992=100 - Change in Area - (soybeans) and ingredients for food
250
and drug products or other biofuel
Palm oil + 120% production (palm oil). In many
since 1992

200
or most cases they are grown on
industrial-scale farms established
Soybeans + 75%
since 1992 by the clear-cutting or burning of
vast areas of tropical forest (ITTO
150
Sugar Cane 2011, UCSUSA 2011, FAO 2006).
+ 30% Soybeans and sugarcane have been
since 1992

powerful drivers of forest loss in
100
South America, while palm oil is
widely grown in Indonesia. The rapid
losses of these forests are among the
50
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 most dramatic land-use changes in
human history.

66

Ever-increasing numbers of grazing animals
degrade already impoverished grasslands

Grazing Animal Herds
Index, 1992=100
160

Goats 45%
+
since 1992
140

Buffaloes + 23%
since 1992
120

Cattle + 6%
since 1992
100
Sheep
-7%
since 1992

Source: FAO
80
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

The numbers of grazing animals (other than sheep) have surged over the last 20 years. The number of cattle and buffaloes
has increased by 6% and 23% respectively, and goats by an even greater rate of 45%. These increases in grazing animal
herds are signiﬁcant, due to the impacts they have on the landscape, particularly fragile grasslands. Their hooves pulverize
the soil, breaking up the thin crust formed by rainfall and allowing valuable topsoil to be more easily eroded by wind
(Brown 2011). Degraded grassland turns into shrubland, which is unable to sustain cattle and sheep, but on which goat
populations continue to thrive. The goat population is very unevenly distributed globally: in 2009, 60% were in Asia and
34% in Africa.

67

68
Fisheries

Ezioman/Flickr.com

The depletion of fish stocks is one of the
most pressing environmental issues

% of all Fish Stocks
Fish Stocks Exploitation*
100
Underexploited +
-49% Moderately exploited
since 1992

80

+ 33% Overexploited + Depleted +
since 1992 Recovering
60

40

+13% Fully exploited
since 1992
20

Source: FAO
0
1992 1997 2002 2006 2007 2008

Since 1992, the proportion of fully exploited fish stocks increased by 13% and overexploited, depleted or recovering stocks
increased by 33%, reaching 52% and 33%, respectively, of all fish stocks. Only a small percentage of stocks, around 15%,
are under-exploited or moderately exploited; these stocks saw a strong decrease (especially in the last couple of years) of
nearly 50% since 1992. “While the degree of uncertainty about these estimates may be great, the apparently increasing
trend in the percentage of overexploited, depleted and recovering stocks and the decreasing trend in under-exploited and
moderately exploited stocks do give cause for concern” (FAO 2010c). Subsidies of around US$ 27 000 million per year
“have created excess capacity by a factor of two relative to the ability of fish to reproduce” (UNEP 2011b, Sumaila and
others 2010).

“The clock is ticking on the sustainability of global fish stocks”, highlighting the need for an international agreement on
better management of the marine environment (UNEP 2010c). Given that over 500 million people globally rely on fisheries
and aquaculture for their livelihoods, and that fish help feed three thousand million people (FAO 2011), this issue is
becoming more urgent than ever.
* Underexploited or moderately exploited = able to produce more than their current catches; overexploited, depleted or recovering from depletion =
yielding less than their maximum potential production owing to excess fishing pressure in the past, with a need for rebuilding plans; fully exploited =
current catches are at or close to their maximum sustainable productions, with no room for further expansion.

69

Marine fish catch has declined slightly,
although tuna catches have risen steeply

Million Tonnes
Total Fish Catch Marine fish catch data show annual
100 variations, with an overall trend
suggesting a slight decrease over the
Marine Trendline
last 10 years. But with catches of
80
Marine
around 80 million tonnes for marine
fish and 10 million tonnes (with a
steady growth) for inland water fish,
60
the pressure on water ecosystems
remains high (UNEP 2011c).
40

20

Inland

0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Thousand Tonnes
Tuna Catches
4 500 Tuna is an economically
important, globally-traded fish
that is increasingly in demand by
consumers. Catches increased
+35% dramatically, from 600 thousand
since 1992
4 000
tonnes in the 1950s, to over 3 100
thousand tonnes in 1992, to 4 200
thousand tonnes in 2008, leaving
some tuna species on the edge of
3 500 extinction (IUCN 2011b, Collette
and others 2011).

Source: FAO
3 000
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

70

90% of global aquaculture is practised in Asia,
the vast proportion of which occurs in China

Fish Catch and Aquaculture Production
Million Tonnes
100

Fish Catch

80

60

Aquaculture, World + 245%
since 1992

40
Aquaculture, China + 290%
since 1992

20

0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Aquaculture increased by 245% between 1992 and 2009 with most growth occurring in Asia, and in particular China.
The global production has grown from 14 million tonnes in 1992 to nearly 51 million tonnes in 2009, which now equals
more than half of the total wild fish catch. This has created jobs and important economic benefits, but the environment has
suffered from a loss of mangroves, poor fish-waste management, an influx of antibiotics, impacts of producing or catching
large quantities of small fish for feed, and competition between escaped farm fish and neighbouring wild fish (FAO 2011b).

71

S
Shrimp and prawn aquaculture are thriving along
tropical coastlines of Asia and Latin America


Shrimp and prawn aquaculture expanded roughly 400%
globally between 1992 and 2009, primarily in coastal Asia
and Latin America (FAO 2011c). The Gulf of Fonseca, shared
by Nicaragua, Honduras and El Salvador, experienced
dramatic expansion of large-scale shrimp production mostly
during the 1990s (Benessaiah 2008). While the area directly

© Greenpeace/ Mario Urrutia
affected by the shrimp ponds was generally salt and mud
ﬂats, some areas of adjoining mangrove were converted
as well (Benessaiah 2008). Highly productive, biodiverse
habitats within tidal zones, mangroves are often cleared for
shrimp aquaculture (Giri and others 2008).

72

73
Energy

Zebra Pares/Flickr.com

Energy consumption in developed countries is nearly
12
times higher than that of developing countries

Kilo-Tonnes of Oil Equivalent Energy Consumption per Capita* As a growing world population
per Capita
- Total - aspires to higher material living
12

standards, there is an ever-greater
10
need for goods and services, and
Developed the energy required to provide these
(e.g. housing, consumer products,
8
transport and travel). The amount
of energy consumption per capita
6
was slightly increasing until 2008
(+5 % since 1992). In 2009 it
4 decreased for the first time in 30
years (globally -2.2%) as a result of
2 the financial and economic crisis
World
(Enerdata 2011), with the decrease
Developing
0
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA being most noticeable for developed
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 countries. Developing regions show
a particularly strong increase in per
capita energy consumption in the
Energy Consumption per Capita* last five years, although recently this
Index, 1992=100
120
- Change - seems to be levelling off.
Developing The three major economic sectors in
terms of energy consumption are:
110
Manufacturing: 33%

World Households: 29%
100
Transport: 26%
*Total final consumption (TFC) is the sum of
consumption by the different end-use sectors
90
(industry, transport, other sectors, non-
energy use). Electricity is allocated to the
Developed sector where it is consumed and therefore
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA the energy used to generate the electricity is
80
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009 not counted explicitly. Generation losses are
not included.

74

A steady rise in electricity production still leaves
1 440 000 000 people in the dark

Index, 1992=100
Electricity Production Electricity and heat generation
180 account for more than 40% of all
CO2 emissions (IEA 2010). The
Electricity Production + 66% strong annual rise of over 3% and
160
since 1992 a total rise of 66% between 1992
and 2008—a much larger increase
than that of global population (1.3%
annually and 26% in total)—is
140
primarily the result of a growth in
industrial production, as well as
Population + 26% improving living standards in many
120 since 1992
developing countries.

Nevertheless, on a per capita basis,
100
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA the largest part of the growth in
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008 absolute numbers occurred in the
developed countries, increasing from
8.3 MWh in 1992 to nearly 10 MWh
Electricity Production per Capita in 2008—a difference of 1.7 MWh
MWh per person. The global average of per
12 capita electricity production grew by
Developed
33%, from 2.2 MWh in 1992 to 3.0
+ 22% MWh in 2008; developing countries
9
since 1992 by 68%, from 1 MWh to 1.7 MWh.

In 2010, 1 440 million people
globally—that is 20% of the world
6 population—were still suffering
from “energy poverty”, not having
World
access to reliable electricity or the
+ 33% power grid, and depended entirely
3 since 1992
Developing on biomass for cooking and lighting
+ 68%
since 1992
(UNEP 2011b).
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA, UNPD
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

75

The pattern of lights visible from space demonstrates the
electric (and digital) divide between North and South

Source: NASA

In the context of information and communications technology, one speaks about the “digital divide” between the North and
the South. Even more than 100 years after the invention of electric light, many regions around the world remain in the dark.
Nearly the entire African continent, with some exceptions like the Nile River in Egypt or some large cities in South Africa
and Nigeria, and much of the interior of South America, look mostly dark when viewed from a distance. The brightest areas
on the map are those where most electric power is consumed and are the most urbanized, but not necessarily the most
populated; this is reﬂected by more densely inhabited countries such as India and China which are not as visible on the
map as Western Europe and eastern North America (NASA 2008).

76

Renewable energy sources (including biomass) currently
account for only of global energy supply ... 13%
Million Tonnes of Oil Primary Energy Supply
Equivalent
14 000

Hydro, Geothermal, Solar, Wind
12 000
Nuclear

Combustible Renewables & Waste
10 000

Natural Gas
8 000

6 000 Coal & Coal Products

4 000

2 000 Crude Oil

Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Oil, coal and gas dominate energy production for electricity and heating, transportation, industrial uses and other fuel
combustion. Their share has slightly increased in recent years, adding up to 80%. The overall share of renewable energy is
still modest compared to that of fossil fuels.

Although renewable energy production is gaining much attention, the amount of energy produced with renewable sources,
including the use of sun, wind, water and wood, amounted to 13% in 2008; estimations show this ﬁgure rose to 16% in
2010 (REN21 2011). The largest renewable energy contributor, however, was biomass (10%), the majority (60%) being
traditional biomass used in cooking and heating applications in developing countries (IPCC 2011). Thus, when biomass is
excluded from the aggregations, other renewable energies provides less than 3% of the total energy.

77

...while solar and wind energy account for
only 0.3%
of global energy supply

Million Tonnes of Oil
Equivalent
Renewable Energy Supply - Total
1 200 Total Biomass
(solid, liquid, gaseous)
Solid Biomass

1 000

800

600

400

Hydro
200

Geothermal
0 Wind
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009
Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA Solar Thermal
Solar Photovoltaics

Combustion of traditional biomass such as wood and waste represent by far the 30 000
Solar Photovoltaics
largest part of all renewables. The share of technologies that harvest energy from the
sun, wind and water, is under 3%, while solar and wind power alone account for just
0.3%. However, there has been a recent “take-off” in solar (nearly 30 000% since
1992), and to a lesser extent wind (6 000%) and biofuel (3 500%) energy supply,
20 000
albeit beginning from a very low base. This development is mainly due to decreasing
prices of these technologies and the adoption of policies by countries worldwide
(119 as of 2010) to promote renewable power generation (REN21 2011).

10 000

Wind
Renewable Energy Supply - Change
Biofuels - Biogasoline &
Index, 1992=100 Biodiesel
Solar Thermal
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

78

Steep growth rates in biofuel production offer beneﬁts,
but also pose environmental and social risks

Million Tonnes of
Oil Equivalent
Biofuels Production
30 Biogasoline +2 300%
since 1992

25

Biogas +1 200%
since 1992

20

15
+300 000%
Biodiesel since 1992

10 Other +50%
since 1992

5

0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Touted widely as an alternative to fossil fuels, the past decade has seen a rapid rise in the production and use of biomass
(such as corn, sugar cane, palm or rapeseed oil) as a renewable energy source for the production of fuel. While biogasoline
in the form of ethanol has been widely used in Brazil for a couple of decades, its use accelerated globally at the end of
the 1990s, increasing by 20% every year to reach 30 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2009. In the ﬁrst years of the new
century, biodiesel began to slowly enter the market, with annual growth rates of around 60%, attaining a production level of
nearly 13 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2009—a staggering increase of 300 000% between 1992 and 2009.

However, more recent information on biofuels is raising new concerns about their production and use. Among these are
direct environmental and social impacts from land-clearing and conversion, the introduction of potentially invasive species,
the overuse of water, along with related consequences for the global food market. A major reason for concern is the trend
of numerous wealthy countries to buy or contract for land in other, typically developing and sometimes semi-arid countries,
in order to produce food and often biofuels. This trend may have potentially serious impacts on fossil and renewable water
resources, as well as the local food security (UNEP 2009b).

79

Investment in sustainable energy
has skyrocketed in recent years

Thousand Million US$
Investment in Sustainable Energy
250

+540%
since 2004
200

150

100

50

Source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

The greening of the energy sector—moving away from carbon-intensive energy sources and improving efficiency—is a
rapidly growing business. Global investment in renewable power and fuels set a new record in 2010, and the margin
over totals for previous years was wide. Investment totaled US$ 211 thousand million in 2010, up 32% from US$ 160
thousand million in 2009, and nearly five and a half times the 2004 figure. For the first time, new investment in utility-scale
renewable energy projects and companies in developing countries surpassed that of developed economies (UNEP 2011d).

80

As of mid-2011, there are nuclear power plants 437
around the world, and 60 more under construction

The number of nuclear power Number
Nuclear Power Plants
plants has increased by over 20% 500

since 1992, rising from 360 to
almost 440 in mid-2011. This is the
equivalent of nearly four new plants +21%
450
a year, although growth levelled off since 1992

somewhat in recent years. In some
countries, nuclear power is seen
as a unique opportunity to meet 400

the growing demand for energy.
In addition to its 14 operational
plants, China is constructing 25 new 350
ones with more to start soon (WNA
2011). Globally, there are 60 plants
under construction, 155 planned
Source: WNA
and 339 proposed (WNA 2011b). 300
1992 1997 2002 2007 2011

“In the 30 countries that have
nuclear power generation capacity, % of Total
Electricity Production & Nuclear Share PWh
the percentage of electricity coming Energy Production
20 24
from nuclear reactors ranges from
78% in France to just 2% in China” Total (PWh)

(IAEA 2008). The global average
15 18
share lies at 13.5% in 2008, down
from 17.5% in 1992, although total Nuclear Share

production grew by almost 30%
(2.7 PWh in 2008). 10 12

5 6

Nuclear (PWh)

0 0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2008

81

T
The rising price of oil has created an investment
boom in the oil sands of Alberta, Canada


The Athabasca Oil Sands region of Alberta, Canada forms the second-largest deposit of recoverable oil in the world after
Saudi Arabia (CAPP n.d.). The energy and environmental costs of recovering the low quality oil, however, limited its
development for decades. As the price of oil has risen there has been a rush to exploit the deposits lying under parts of
Canada’s boreal forest (Williams 2010). As seen in this image pair, the bright footprint of the strip-mined areas has expanded
dramatically into the forest since 1992. An estimated US$ 40 thousand million was invested in 2010 alone (CAPP n.d.).

82

Industry, Transport & Tourism

Neville Mars/Flickr.com
83

Basic construction materials serve an
ever-increasing demand for the building sector

Cement & Steel Production
Million Tonnes Cement
3 000
+ 170%
since 1992

2 000

Steel
+ 100%
since 1992

1 000

Source: USGS, World Steel Association
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

The growing global population and rapidly advancing economies in particular need construction materials to build housing,
major roads and other infrastructure. The demand for cement and steel has risen steeply since 1992, from around 1 100
million tonnes of cement and 720 million tonnes of steel to more than 3 000 million tonnes of cement (in 2009) and 1 400
million tonnes of steel (in 2010). This represents annual growth rates of 6% for cement and 3.8% for steel, the majority of
which is used in Asia (nearly 60% for steel in 2008). Production of cement and steel is responsible for about 6% of global
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (IEA 2010).

84

The number of passenger trips by airplane
has doubled since 1992

Air Transport
Index, 1992=100
350
+ 230%
since 1992

300

Air transport, freight (tonne-km)
250

200 Air transport, passengers carried
+ 100%
since 1992

150

100

Source: World Bank
50
1992 1997 2002 2007 2009

Since 1992, there has been a steady increase in the number of passengers transported by air, an average 4% per year and
reaching a total of 2 270 million passengers in 2009. Freight transport has followed a similar trend (7.3% growth rate per
year) with a stunning rise since 2008, when enterprises restocked their inventories following the economic crisis (IATA
2010) and surpassing 200 thousand million tonne-kilometres. This huge increase in air travel and shipping of goods is one
of the most notable characteristics of an ever-more “globalised” (interconnected) world.

At the same time, the downside of increased air travel and goods transport is the additional emissions of CO2 as well as
particulates, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and water vapour, which can have more than twice the warming effect of the carbon
dioxide alone (ETA 2011, IPCC 1999). Aviation is responsible for around 5% of anthropogenic climate change (Holmes and
others 2011). Many airlines now allow customers to “offset” the environmental impact of their travel by paying a so-called
“carbon tax”, but the practical effects of such efforts are not yet measurable.

85

Increasing globalisation and higher incomes are driving
a steep increase in international tourism

Million People
International Tourism, Arrivals
1 000

800

+90%
since 1995

600

400 Source: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, WTO
1995 2000 2005 2010

With a surge of 90% between 1995 and 2010, the number of tourist arrivals shows a strong upward trend. Travel and
tourism is the single largest business sector in the world. In 2011 it is responsible for over 250 million jobs (8.8% of total
employment), and nearly US$ 6 thousand million (over 9% of global GDP) (WTTC 2011). If the travel and tourism sector
were a country, it would have the 2nd-largest economy, surpassed only by the United States. It has been growing by over
4% per year, providing an income to many people but also increasing pressure on the environment and natural resources
(UNEP 2005), with signiﬁcant challenges in terms of water consumption, discharge of untreated water, waste generation,
damage to local terrestrial and marine biodiversity, and threats to the survival of local cultures and traditions (UNEP 2009c).
Ecotourism, growing at rates of 20-34% per year and three times faster than the mass-tourist industry (TIES 2006), is less
damaging to the environment and, when well designed, helps in developing local economies and reducing poverty
(UNEP 2011b).

86

87
Technology

NASA Goddard Photo and Video/Flickr.com

The “global village” has developed rapidly
on the basis of new technology

Internet Users & Mobile Phone Subscribers
Million People
6 000

Mobile Phone
+23 000%
since 1992
Subscribers

4 000

Internet
Users
+ 29 000%
2 000 since 1992

Source: World Bank, ITU
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 2010

Use of the Internet and mobile phones has skyrocketed in the last 15 years, revolutionising global interconnectedness and
opening up a true notion of “global commons” for nearly all of the world. The popularisation (and relatively low cost) of
Internet use and mobile phones means that nearly everyone can “stay in touch” and, more importantly, beneﬁt from and
contribute to the global discourse. This also has positive implications for the development of so-called “citizens’ science”
networks for local and instantaneous monitoring of various phenomena. At the same time, a growing obsolescence of
communication and computer devices and other hardware increases the amounts of electronic waste (“e-waste”) containing
hazardous chemical compounds used in the fabrication process. E-waste causes signiﬁcant environmental and human-
health impacts and poses enormous challenges for recycling (UNEP 2005b).

88

The word cloud represents the number of search results in Google for each of the “buzz words” . It helps to visualize the
popularity of certain words or expressions.

Wordle.net was used to generate this word cloud.

89

Epilogue: On the Road to Rio+20
Having chronicled the story of how our environment has persistent environmental problems and emerging issues calls
changed since the first Earth Summit 20 years ago, we have for cooperation, flexibility and innovative solutions.
before us now the task of preserving its viability for future
generations. Careful stewardship of the planet’s natural resources is required
to ensure the health of our environment. As we continue the
With limited progress on environmental issues achieved, and drive for more efficient resource use, it is now widely recognised
few real “success stories” to be told, all components of the that natural resource consumption must be decoupled from
environment—land, water, biodiversity, oceans and atmosphere economic growth, that consumption should conform to, or be
—continue to degrade. And notwithstanding great advances led by, the principles of sustainability, and that new paradigms
in information and communication technologies, we have not and solutions should be applied for progress towards a Green
made such breakthroughs when it comes to assessing the state Economy.
of our environment. Until we apply the same dedication to
this issue as we have to other areas, data gaps and inadequate The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
monitoring will continue to hinder sound ‘evidence-based is an opportunity to redress the deteriorating state of the
policy-making.’ environment and the negative impacts experienced by the
poorest and most vulnerable parts of society. It offers a chance
What can be done? to act on the pledges of the Earth Summit in 1992 and move
further towards their fulfillment. The world will be watching and
The need to focus attention and resources on improved future generations depending on concrete actions stemming
monitoring and environmental data collection at all levels is from the Summit. Finally, with the commitment and involvement
essential in order to provide reliable and relevant information of all stakeholders, the promising words of Agenda 21 can still
for decision-making. A new commitment to deal with become a reality in the decades to come.
Timothy Takemoto/Flickr.com

Eduardo Zárate/Flickr.com

NREL

NREL

90

Data Sources
Population and Human Development Consumption of All Ozone-Depleting Substances: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as
Age Distribution: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD (United Nations compiled from UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
Population Division) Ozone Hole, Area and Minimum Ozone: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Food Supply: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and Agriculture Administration), Ozone Hole Watch. Accessed on Sept 27, 2011 at http://
Organization of the United Nations) – FAOStat ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/meteorology/annual_data.html
Historical World Population: US Census Bureau, International Data Base. Accessed on Ozone Images: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), Accessed on
Apr 19, 2011 at http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/worldpopinfo.php Sept 27, 2011 at http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Human Development Index: UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)
Life Expectancy: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD (United Nations Climate Change
Population Division) Atmospheric CO2 Concentration/Keeling Curve: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled
Megacities: UNPD (United Nations Population Division), World Urbanization from NOAA/ESRL (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Earth
Prospects System Research Laboratory
People Living in Slums: UN-Habitat, Global Urban Observatory (Personal Earth Global Temperature Changes by Latitude: NASA (National Aeronautics and
Communication, June 14, 2011) Space Administration) GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies) Surface
Population Growth Rate: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD (United Temperature Analysis. Global Maps from GHCN Data. Accessed on Mar. 23,
Nations Population Division) 2011 at http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/September Arctic Sea Ice Extent:
Population in China’s Pearl River Delta (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center)
Survey) Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located Global Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
at USGS/EROS, Sioux Falls, SD. http://lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualization by UNEP Administration), NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration),
GRID Sioux Falls. UK-MetOffice
Top 10 Megacities: UNPD (United Nations Population Division), World Urbanization Global Mean Sea Level: University of Colorado, CU Sea Level Research Group.
Prospects Accessed on Aug 9, 2011 at http://sealevel.colorado.edu/content/global-mean-
Total Population: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD (United Nations sea-level-time-series-seasonalsignals-removed
Population Division) Mountain Glacier Mass Balance: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from WGMS
Urban Population: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from UNPD (United Nations (World Glacier Monitoring Service)
Population Division) Ocean Acidification: Feely, R.A., Doney, S.C. and Cooley, S.R. (2009). Oceanography
22(4):36–47, doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.95
Economy Ocean Temperature Deviation: NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
GDP- per Capita (Map): UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, Administration). Accessed on Sept 27, 2011 at ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/
World Development Indicators, UNPD (United Nations Population Division) anomalies/annual.ocean.90S.90N.df_1901-2000mean.dat
GDP per Capita, Change: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, September Arctic Sea Ice Extent (Satellite Image): NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data
World Development Indicators, UNPD (United Nations Population Division) Center)
GDP per Capita, Total: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, World September Arctic Sea Ice Extent: NSIDC (National Snow and Ice Data Center)
Development Indicators, UNPD (United Nations Population Division) Temperature Deviation 2000-2009 vs. 1951-1980 (Map): NASA (National Aeronautics
Global Material Extraction: Krausmann F.; Gingrich S.; Eisenmenger N.; Erb K.-H.; and Space Administration), Earth Observatory. Accessed on Sept 27, 2011 at
Haberl H.; Fischer-Kowalski M. (2009) Growth in global materials use, GDP http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=42392
and population during the 20th century. Ecol. Econ. 2009, 68 (10), 2696–2705. Warmest Years on Record: UK-MetOffice, 2010 – a near record year. JMA (Japan
Per Capita Gross Domestic Product: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Meteorological Agency), Global Temperature in 2010. Accessed online on Mar
Bank, World Development Indicators, UNPD (United Nations Population 23, 2011 at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/releases/archive/2011/2010-
Division) global-go.jp/tcc/tcc/news/tccnews23.pdf temperature and http://ds.data.jma.
Resource Efficiency: SERI (Sustainable Europe Research Institute), material flows
database (www.materialflows.net), June 2011 (Personal Communication, June Forests
14, 2011) Forest Net Change: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and
Trade: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, World Development Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) - Global Forest Resources
Indicators Assessment (FRA2010)
Mangrove Forest Extent: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Environmental Trends Nations) - Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA2010)
Mato Grosso, Amazon Rainforest (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological Survey),
Atmosphere Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located at USGS/
Emissions of CO2 - Total: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC (Carbon EROS, Sioux Falls, SD. http://lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualization- UNEP GRID Sioux
Dioxide Information Analysis Center) Falls
Emissions of CO2 - per Capita: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC Forest Plantation Extent: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and
(Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center) UNPD (United Nations Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) - Global Forest Resources
Population Division) Assessment (FRA)
Emissions of CO2 - Total, by Type: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from CDIAC Roundwood Production: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and
(Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center) Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) - Global Forest Resources
Emissions of CO2 - Change, by Type: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from Assessment (FRA)
CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center) Certified Forest: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FSC (Forest Stewardship
Emissions of CO2 per GDP: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank, Council, PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification)
World Development Indicators. CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis
Center) Water
GHG Emitters by Sector (industry, agriculture etc.): IPCC 2007, Intergovernmental Improved Sanitation & Drinking Water Coverage: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as
Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report. compiled from WHO/UNICEF - Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water
Supply and Sanitation

91

Mesopotamian Marshlands (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), Land Saudi Arabia Irrigation Project (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), Land
Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located at USGS/EROS, Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located at USGS/EROS,
Sioux Falls, SD. http://lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualization- UNEP-GRID Sioux Falls Sioux Falls, SD. http://lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualisation : UNEP/GRID Sioux Falls
Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries, Area: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as
Biodiversity compiled from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
Living Planet Index: WWF/ZSL (World Wildlife Fund/ Zoological Society of London) – FAOStat
Living Planet Report 2010 Selected Crops in Humid Tropical Countries, Change in Area: UNEP GEO Data
Protected Areas, Per Cent: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
(International Union for Conservation of Nature), UNEP/WCMC (United Nations Nations) – FAOStat
Environment Programme/World Conservation Monitoring Center; (2011) The Total Area Equipped for Irrigation: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO
World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA): January 2011. Cambridge, UK, (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) – FAOStat
UNEP-WCMC.
Protected Areas, Total Area: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IUCN Fisheries
(International Union for Conservation of Nature), UNEP/WCMC (United Nations Exploitation of Fish Stocks: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Environment Programme/World Conservation Monitoring Center; (2011) The Nations) – FAOStat
World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA): January 2011. Cambridge, UK, Fish Catch and Aquaculture Production: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from
UNEP-WCMC. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) – FAOStat
Red List Index: Hoffman and others 2010. The Impact of Conservation on the Status of Shrimp and Prawn Aquacultures (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological Survey),
the World’s Vertebrates. Science DOI: 10.1126/science.1194442. Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located at USGS/
EROS, Sioux Falls, SD. http://lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualization: UNEP/GRID Sioux
Chemicals and Waste
Falls
Plastics Production: EuroPlastics, personal communication
Total Fish Catch: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and Agriculture
Tanker Oil Spills: ITOPF (The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation
Organization of the United Nations) – FAOStat
Limited) Accessed on June 14, 2011 at http://www.itopf.com/information-
Tuna Catches: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) –
services/data-and-statistics/statistics/ index.html
FAOStat. Accessed on Sept 28, 2011 at http://www.fao.org/ﬁshery/statistics/
Natural Hazards tuna-catches/en
Floods - Mortality Risk, Exposue and Vulnerability: UNISDR (United Nations
Energy
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) (2011) Global Assessment Report
Biofuels Production: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA (International
on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland
Energy Agency)
Impacts of Natural Disasters: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED (U.S. Foreign Disaster
Electricity Production & Nuclear Share: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
Assistance/Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters) International
(International Energy Agency)
Disaster Database – www.emdat.be – Université Catholique de Louvain –
Electricity Production per Capita: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
Brussels – Belgium
(International Energy Agency), UNPD (United Nations Population Division)
Reported Natural Disasters: EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED (U.S. Foreign Disaster
Electricity Production: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA (International
Assistance/Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters) International
Energy Agency), UNPD (United Nations Population Division)
Disaster Database– www.emdat.be – Université Catholique de Louvain –
Energy Supply per Capita - Growth: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
Brussels – Belgium
Tropical Cyclones - Mortality Risk, Exposure and Vulnerability: UNISDR (United
Energy Supply per Capita - Total: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) (2011) Global Assessment
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. Geneva, Switzerland
Investment in Sustainable Energy: Bloomberg New Energy Finance
Governance Nightlights: NASA
Aid Allocated to Environmental Activities: AidData.org Nuclear Power Plants: WNA (World Nuclear Association). The Guardian. Accessed
Carbon Market Size: World Bank (2011): State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2011 on Sept 28, 2011 at http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2011/mar/18/
Environmental Aid: AidData.org nuclear-reactors-power-stations-world-list-map
ISO 14001 Certiﬁcations: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from ISO (International Oil Sands (Satellite Image): USGS (U.S. Geological Survey), Land Processes Distributed
Organization for Standardization) Active Archive Center (LP DAAC), located at USGS/EROS, Sioux Falls, SD. http://
Multilateral Environmental Agreements, Number and Parties: UNEP GEO Data Portal, lpdaac.usgs.gov; Visualization: UNEP/GRID Sioux Falls
as compiled from various MEA secretariats, IEA (International Environmental Primary Energy Supply: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA (International
Agreements) Database Project Energy Agency), UNPD (United Nations Population Division)
Number of MEAs Signed (Map): UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from various Renewable Energy Supply, Change: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
MEA secretariats (International Energy Agency)
Renewable Energy Supply, Total: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from IEA
Agriculture (International Energy Agency)
Cereal Production, Area Harvested and Fertilizer Consumption: UNEP GEO Data
Portal, as compiled from FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Industry, Transport and Tourism
Nations) – FAOStat Air Transport: World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI-The World Bank)
Food Production Index: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Cement and Steel Production: USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) Cement Statistics,
Nations) – FAOStat World Steel Association
Grazing Animal Herds: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) International Tourism, Arrivals: UNEP GEO Data Portal, as compiled from World Bank,
– FAOStat World
Irrigated Area (Map) : Siebert, S., Döll, P., Feick, S., Hoogeveen, J. and Frenken, K.
Technology
(2007). Global Map of Irrigation Areas. Version 4.0.1. Johann Wolfgang Goethe
Development Indicators (WDI-The World Bank), WTO (World Tourism Organization)
University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany / Food and Agriculture Organization of
Internet Users & Mobile Phone Subscribers: World Bank, World Development
the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Indicators. ITU (International Telecommunications Union)
Organic Farming: Organic World. The World of Organic Agriculture 2011

92

References
Aoki, C. and Kugaprasatham, S. (2009). “Support for Environmental Management FAO (2011b). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. Food and
of the Iraqi Marshlands,” United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP Agriculture Organization, Rome
Publication DTI/1171/JP. Nairobi (Kenya) 2009 FAO (2011c). Fishery Statistics programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of
Arndt, D. S., Baringer, M. O. and Johnson, M. R. (2010). State of the Climate in the United Nations – Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Accessed on Jun 16,
2009. Bulletin American Meteorological Society 91(7), S1-S224 2011 at http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-aquaculture-production/en
Benessaiah, K. (2008). Mangroves, shrimp aquaculture and coastal livelihoods in Feely, R.A., Doney, S.C. and Cooley, S.R. (2009). Ocean Acidifi cation: Present
the Estero Real, Gulf of Fonseca, Nicaragua. Masters Thesis – McGill University, Conditions and Future Changes in a High-CO2 World. Oceanography 22(4),
Geography Department, Montreal, Quebec 36–47
Bindoff, N.L., Willebrand, J., Artale, V. and others (2007). Observations: Oceanic Fearnside, P.M. (2007). Brazil’s Cuiabá- Santarém (BR-163) Highway: The
Climate Change and Sea Level. In Averyt, K., Chen, Z., Manning and others. Environmental Cost of Paving a Soybean Corridor Thorough the Amazon.
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Environmental Management 39:601-614
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Fiala, N. (2008). Meeting the Demand: An Estimation of Potential Future Greenhouse
Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Gas Emissions from Meat Production. Ecological Economics 67, 412-419
Brinkhoff, T. (2011). The Principal Agglomerations of the World. Accessed on Aug 16, Giri, C., Ochieng E., Tieszen, L.L. and others (2010). Status and Distribution of
2011 at http://www.citypopulation.de Mangrove Forests of the World Using Earth Observation Satellite Data. Global
Brown, L. (2011). World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Ecology and Biogeography 20(1), 154-159
Collapse. W. W. Norton & Company, New York Giri, C., Zhu, Z., Tieszen, L., Singh, A., Gillette, S. and Kelmelis, J. (2008) Mangrove
Caldeira, K. and Wickett, M.E. (2003). Anthropogenic Carbon and Ocean pH. forest distributions and dynamics (1975-2005) of the tsunami-affected region of
Nature 425, 365 Asia, Journal of Biogeogrpahy 35(3), 519-528
CAPP (no date). Oil Sand Facts – Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers– Gulfnews (23 April 2009) Saudis renew search for food security. Accessed on Jun
website. Accessed on Jun 21, 2010 at: http://www.capp.ca/avatar/Pages/ 20, 2011 at http://gulfnews.com/business/opinion/saudis-renew-search-for-
OilSandsFacts.aspx#bwyTKBcA4fe8 foodsecurity-1.65122
CBD (2010b). A New Era of Living in Harmony with Nature is born at the Nagoya Hansen, J., Sato, M., Ruedy and others (2006). Global Temperature Change. PNAS
Biodiversity Summit. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 103(39), 14288-14293
United Nations Environment Programme, Montreal Heller, M.C. and Keoleian. G.A. (2000). Life Cycle-based Sustainability Indicators for
CBD (2010). Global Biodiversity Outlook 3. Secretariat of the Convention on Assessment of the U.S. Food System. Report #CSS00-04, 6 December, Center for
Biological Diversity. Montréal Sustainable Systems, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University
Collette, B.B., Carpenter, K. E., Polidoro, B. and others (2011). High Value and of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Long Life—Double Jeopardy for Tunas and Billfi shes. Science DOI: 10.1126/ Hoffmann, M., Hilton-Taylor C., Angulo A. and others (2010). The Impact of
science.1208730 Conservation on the Status of the World’s Vertebrates. Science 330(6010), 1503-
Elhadj, E. (2006). Experiments in Achieving Water and Food Self-Sufficiency in 1509
the Middle East: The Consequences of Contrasting Endowments, Ideologies, Holmes, C., Tang, Q. and M. Prather (2011). Uncertainties in climate assessment for
and Investment Policies in Saudi Arabia and Syria. PhD dissertation, London the case of aviation NO doi: 10.1073/pnas.1101458108 PNAS July 5, 2011 vol.
University, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), 2006 108 no. 27 10997-11002
Enerdata (2011). Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2011. Grenoble Hopewell, J., Dvorak, R. and Kosior, E. (2009). Plastics Recycling: Challenges and
ETA (2011). Air Travel’s Impact on Climate Change. Accessed on Jul 20, 2011 at http:// Opportunities. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B 2009 364, 2115-2126
www.eta.co.uk/env_info/air_travel_climate_change IAEA (2008). Nuclear Power Global Status. International Atomic Energy Agency.
Eurostat (2011). Forestry statistics - Statistics Explained. Accessed on Aug 24, 2011 IAEA Bulletin 49-2
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Forestry_statistics IATA (2010). Air Transport Market Analysis. Air Transport Association (accessed 20
FAO (2006). Livestock Impacts on the Environment. Food and Agriculture July 2010)
Organization, Rome. Accessed on Aug 16, 2011 at http://www.fao.org/ag/ IEA (2010). CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion. International Energy
magazine/0612sp1.htm Agency, Paris
FAO (2008). Current World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2011/12. Food and IEA (2011). Prospect of Limiting the Global Increase in Temperature to 2°C is getting
Agriculture Organization, Rome Bleaker. Accessed on Aug 17, 2011 at http://iea.org/index_info.asp?id=1959
FAO (2010). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. Food and Agriculture ILO (2009). World of Work Report 2009. International Labour Organization, Geneva
Organization, Rome INPE (2010). Specific Data of PRODES/INPE confirms the range of the Amazon
FAO (2010b). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 - Key Findings. Food and deforestation. April 29, 2010. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (National
Agriculture Organization, Rome Institute for Space Research). Accessed on Jun 18, 2010 at: http://www.inpe.br/
FAO (2010c). World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture. Food and Agriculture ingles/news/news_dest117.php
Organization, Rome INPE/DETER (2010) DETER System – real time deforestation data. From Brazilian
FAO (2011). Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Food and Agriculture National Institute for Space Research. Accessed on Sept 28, 2011 at http://www.
Organization, Rome. Accessed on Aug 9, 2011 at http://www.fao.org/tc/resource- obt.inpe.br/deter/
mobilization/ifas/ccrf/en/ IPCC (2007). IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007: The Physical
Science Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, New York

93

IPCC (2007b). IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis NSIDC (2011). National Snow and Ice Data Center – Sea Ice Index data. Accessed on
Report (AR4). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Jun 20, 2011 at ftp://sidads.colorado.edu/DATASETS/NOAA/G02135/
IPCC (2011). Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN). Summary for OECD/IEA (2008). Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency. Key Insights from
Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Paris IEA Indicator Analysis. International Energy Agency, Paris
IPU (2011). Women in National Parliaments. Inter-Parliamentary Union. Accessed on Pandey, K.D., Deichmann, U., Wheeler, D.R. and Hamilton, K.E. (2006). Ambient
July 7, 2011 at http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm Particulate Matter Concentration in Residential and Pollution Hotspot Areas of
ITC (2011). Trade Map. International Trade Statistics. Accessed on July 15, 2011 at World Cities: New Estimates Based on the Global Model of Ambient Particulates
http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Product_SelProduct_TS.aspx (GMAPS). The World Bank Development Economics Research Group and the
Environment Department Working Paper. Washington D.C. Accessed on Sept 28,
ITOPF (2011). Statistics. The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation 2011 at http://go.worldbank.org/3RDFO7T6M0
Limited. Accessed on July 18, 2011 at http://www.itopf.com/information-services/
data-and-statistics/statistics/ Partow, H. (2001). “The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem,”
Division of Early Warning and Assessment, United Nations Environment
ITTO (2011). Survey of World’s Embattled Tropical Forests Reports 50% Increase in Programme, UNEP Publication UNEP/DEWA/ TR.01-3. Nairobi (Kenya), 2001
Areas under Sustainable Management since 2005. International Tropical Timber
Organization, Bern Peters, G., Minx, J., Weber, C. and others (2011). Growth in Emission Transfers via
International Trade from 1990 to 2008. PNAS 108(21), 8903-8908
IUCN (2011). Biodiversity and Protected Areas. International Union for Conservation
of Nature. Accessed on July 12, 2011 http://www.iucn.org/about/union/ Pimentel, D. and Pimentel, M. (1996). Energy Use in Fruit, Vegetable, and Forage
commissions/wcpa/wcpa_what/wcpa_science/biodiversity_and_protected_areas/ Production. Food, Energy, and Society. Third Edition (ed. Pimentel, M. and
Pimentel, D.). CRC Press pp. 121-135
IUCN (2011b). Increased Protection Urgently Needed for Tunas. International Union
for Conservation of Nature. Accessed on Aug 9, 2011 at http://www.iucn.org/ Rahmstorf, S. and Vermeer, M. (2011). Discussion of: Houston, J.R. and Dean, R.G.,
knowledge/news/?7820 2011. Sea-Level Acceleration Based on U.S. Tide Gauges and Extensions of
Previous Global-Gauge Analyses. Journal of Coastal Research 27(3), 409–417
IUCN/UNEP (2011). The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). International
Union for Conservation of Nature. United Nations Environment Programme. REN21 (2011). Renewables 2011 Global Status Report. Renewable Energy Policy
Accessed on July 11, 2011 http://www.protectedplanet.net Network for the 21st Century, Paris

JMA (2011). Global Temperature in 2010. Tokyo Climate Center News – Tokyo Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia (no date). Agriculture and Water. Accessed on Jun
climate Center. Japan Meteorological Agency. Accessed on Mar 23, 2011).http:// 20, 2011 at http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/countryinformation/agriculture_
ds.data.jma.go.jp/tcc/tcc/news/tccnews23.pdf water/

Krausmann, F., Gingrich, S., Eisenmenger, N. and others (2009). Growth in Global Rummukainen, M., Räisänen, J., Björnsson, H. and others (2010). Physical Climate
Materials Use, GDP and Population During the 20th century. Ecological Science since IPCC AR4. A brief update on new findings between 2007 and
Economics 68(10), 2696-2705 April 2010. TemaNord 549

Lewis, S., Brando, P., Phillips, O., van der Heijden, G. and Nepstad, D. (2011) The Satterthwaite, D. (2011). Cities’ Contribution to Global Warming: Notes on
2010 Amazon Drought. Science 331:554 the Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. International Institute for
Environmental Development. Environment and Urbanization 20, 539
Lobell, D.B., Schlenker, W.S., Costa-Roberts, J. (2011). Climate Trends and Global
Crop Production Since 1980. Program on Food Security and the Environment – Siebert, S., Döll, P., Feick, S., Hoogeveen, J. and Frenken, K. (2007). Global Map of
Policy Brief. Standford University, Standford Irrigation Areas. Version 4.0.1. Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt
am Main, Germany / Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Malhi, Y., Aragão, L., Galbraith, D., Huntingford, C., Fisher, R., Zelazowski, P., Sitch, Rome, Italy
S., McSweeney, C and Meir, P. (2009). Exploring the likelihood and mechanism
of a climate-change-induced dieback of the Amazon rainforest. Proceedings of Stroeve, J., Serreze, M., Drobot, S., Gearheard, S., Holland, M., Maslanik, J.,
the National Academy of Sciences 106(49), 20610-20615 Meir, W. and Scambos, T. (2008). Arctic sea ice extent plummets in 2007. Eos,
Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, 89, 13
Molina, M., Zaelkeb, D., Sarmac, K. M. and others (2009). Reducing Abrupt Climate
Change Risk Using the Montreal Protocol and Other Regulatory Actions to Stroeve, J., Serreze, M., Holland, M., Kay, J., Malanik, J. and Barrett, A. (2011.) The
Complement Cuts in CO2 Emissions. PNAS 106(49), 20616-20621 Arctic’s rapidly shrinking sea ice cover: a research synthesis. Climate Change
107(1-2): DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0101-1
NASA (2008). Earth‘s City Lights. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Accessed on Jul 10, 2011 at http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=1438 Sumaila, U.R, Khan, A.S., Dyck, A.J. and others (2010). A Bottom-up Re-estimation
of Global Fisheries Subsidies. Journal of Bioeconomics 12, 201–225
NASA (2011). NASA Research Finds 2010 Tied for Warmest Year on Record. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. Accessed on Mar 23, 2011 at http://www. TIES (2006). TIES Global Ecotourism Fact Sheet. The International Ecotourism Society.
giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20110112/ Washington

NOAA (2011). State of the Climate: Global Analysis for Annual 2010, published Toropova, C., Meliane, I., Laffoley, D., Matthews, E. and Spalding, M. (eds.) (2010).
online December 2010, retrieved on August 18, 2011 at http://www.ncdc. Global Ocean Protection: Present Status and Future Possibilities. Brest, France:
noaa.gov/sotc/global/2010/13 Agence des aires marines protégées, Gland, Switzerland, Washington, DC and
New York, USA: IUCN WCPA, Cambridge, UK : UNEP-WCMC, Arlington, USA:
Nepstad, D., Stickler, C., Soares-Filho and Merry, F. (2008) Interactions among TNC, Tokyo, Japan: UNU, New York, USA: WCS. 96pp
Amazon land use, forests, and climate: prospects for a near-term forest tipping
point. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Scociety-Biological Sciences. UCSUSA (2011). Deforestation Today: It’s Just Business. Union of Concerned
363:1737-1346 Scientist USA. Accessed on Jul 10, 2011 at http://www.ucsusa.org/global_
warming/solutions/forest_solutions/deforestation-today-business.html
NRC (2011). Climate Change and Displacement: 42 million displaced by sudden
natural disasters in 2010. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Accessed on Aug 9, UK-MetOffice (2011). 2010 – A Near Record Year. Accessed on Mar 23, 2011
2011 at http://www.nrc no/?did=9570125 at http://www.metoffi ce.gov.uk/news/releases/archive/2011/2010-global-
temperature

94

UN (2009). World Population Ageing 2009. United Nations, New York UNEP (2011b). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development
UN (2009b). UN-DESA Policy Brief No. 25. United Nations Department of and Poverty Eradication - A Synthesis for Policy Makers. United Nations
Economic and Social Affairs. Accessed on Jun 1, 2011 at http://www.un.org/esa/ Environment Programme, St-Martin Bellevue
analysis/policybriefs/policybrief25.pdf UNEP (2011c). UNEP Yearbook 2011. United Nations Environment Programme,
UN (2010).The Millennium Development Goals. Report 2010. United Nations, New Nairobi
York UNEP (2011d). UNEP Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2011: Analysis
UN (2010b). Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, in Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy. United Nations
Olivier De Schutter. United Nations. Accessed on Aug 17, 2011 at http://www. Environment Programme, Frankfurt
srfood.org/ UNESCO (2001). Securing the Food Supply, World Water Assessment Program.
UN (2011c). Revealing Risk, Redefining Development, the 2011 Global Assessment United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations, Geneva van der Werf, G. R. , Morton, D. C., DeFries, R. S., Olivier, J. G. J., Kasibhatla, P. S.,
UN (2011c). Composition of Macro Geographical (Continental) Regions, Jackson, R. B., Collatz, G. J. and Randerson, J. T. (2009). CO2 Emissions from
Geographical Sub-regions, and Selected Economic and Other Groupings. United Forest Loss. Nature Geoscience 2, 737-738
Nations. Accessed on Jan 1, 2011 at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/ Voiland, A. (2010). 2009: Second Warmest Year on Record. End of Warmest Decade.
m49regin.htm#ftnc NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Accessed on Aug 22, 2011 at http:/
UN (2011). World Population Prospects 2010. United Nations www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/temp-analysis-2009.html

UN (2011b). The Millennium Development Goals. Report 2011. United Nations, Wang, M., and J.E. Overland (2009). A sea ice free summer Arctic within 30 years?
New York Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L07502, doi: 10.1029/2009GL037820

UN-HABITAT (2005). Global Urban Indicators Programme Phase III and United Williams, J. (2010). American Tar: Learning from the Canadian Tar Sands Experience.
Nations, World Urbanization Prospects. United Nations-Habitat, New York Canyonlands Watershed Council. Accessed on Jun 21, 2010 at http://www.
farcountry.org/Resources/OilGas/TarSand/AmericanTarSandsJulianaWilliams2010.
UN-HABITAT (2008). State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009 - Harmonious Cities, pdf
London
WGMS (2008). Fluctuations of Glaciers 2000–2005, Volume IX. (eds. Haeberli, W.,
UN-HABITAT (2009). Cities and Climate Change Initiative Launch and Conference Zemp, M., Kääb, A., Paul, F. and Hoelzle, M.), ICSU(FAGS)/IUGG(IACS)/UNEP/
Report, Oslo UNESCO/ WMO. World Glacier Monitoring Service, Zurich, Switzerland
UNDP (2011). The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development. WGMS (2010). Glacier Mass Balance Data 1980-2009. World Glacier Monitoring
United Nations Development Programme. Accessed on Jul 10, 2011 at http://hdr. Service, Zurich, Switzerland. Accessed on Aug 17, 2011 at http://www.wgms.ch
undp.org/en/mediacentre/summary/
WGMS/UNEP (2008). Global Glacier Changes: Facts and Figures. World Glacier
UNDP (2011b). Bangladesh: Mangrove Forests Provide Protection from Climate Inventory/United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva
Change. United Nations Development Programme. Accessed on Aug 9, 2011 at
http://content.undp.org/go/newsroom/2010/november/bangladesh-mangrove- WMO/UNEP (2010). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 2010. World
forests-provide-protectionfrom-climate-change.en Meteorological Organization. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi

UNEP (2005). Tourism Expansion: Increasing Threats, or Conservation Opportunities? World Bank (2010). State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2010. Washington DC
United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva World Bank (2011). State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2011. Washington DC
UNEP (2005b). E-waste, the Hidden Side of IT Equipment Manufacture and Use. World Bank (2011b). World Development Indicators 2011. Washington DC, USA
United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva WNA (2011). Nuclear Power in China. World Nucleas Association. Accessed on Jun
UNEP (2006). GEO Year Book 2006. United Nations Environment Programme, 23, 2011 at http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf63.html
Kenya WNA (2011b). World Nuclear Power Reactors & Uranium Requirements. World
UNEP (2009). The Environmental Food Crisis – The Environment’s Role in Averting Nucleas Association. Accessed on Aug 23, 2011 at http://www.world-nuclear.org/
Future Food Crises. United Nations Environment Programme, Arendal info/reactors.html
UNEP (2009b). Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing WRI (2011). Reefs at Risk Revisited. World Resources Institute, Washington DC
Biofuels. United Nations Environment Programme, Paris WTO (2011). World Trade Report 2010: Trade in Natural Resources. World Trade
UNEP (2009c). Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers. Organization, Geneva
United Nations Environment Programme, Paris WTTC (2011). World Key Facts at a Glance. World Travel and Tourism Council.
UNEP (2010). The Emissions Gap Report. Are the Copenhagen Accord Pledges Accessed on Jul 8, 2011 at http://www.wttc.org/eng/Tourism_Research/Economic_
Suffi cient to Limit Global Warming to 2° C or 1.5° C? United Nations Research/
Environment Programme, Nairobi WWF (2010). Living Planet Report 2010: Biodiversity, biocapacity and development.
UNEP (2010b). UNEP Emerging Issues: Environmental Consequences of Ocean World Wildlife Fund, Gland
Acidifi ciation: A Threat to Food Security. United Nations Environment Zemp, M., Hoelzle, M. and Haeberli, W. (2009). Six Decades of Glacier Mass-
Programme, Nairobi Balance Observations: A Review of the Worldwide Monitoring Network. Annals
UNEP (2010c). Fisheries Subsidies, Sustainable Development and the WTO (ed. von of Glaciology 50(50), 101-111
Moltke, A.). Earthscan, Oxford pp. 480. United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP (2011). Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from
Economic Growth. United Nations Environment Programme, Paris

95

Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
BC Years before Birth of Jesus Christ ODS Ozone-depleting substances
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity OECD Organisation for Economic
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons Co-operation and Development
CO2 Carbon Dioxide PA Polyamide (known as Nylon)
DEWA Division of Early Warning and pCO2 Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide
Assessment (of UNEP) PEFC Programme for the Endorsement of
EC European Community Forest Certification
FSC Forest Stewardship Council PET Polyethylene terephthalate
GDP Gross Domestic Product pH Defined as measure of the acidity or
basicity of an aqueous solution
GEF Global Environment Facility
PPM Parts Per Million
GEO Global Environment Outlook
PPMV Parts Per Million by Volume
GHG Greenhouse Gases
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms
RLI Red List Index
GRID Global Resource Information Database
(of UNEP/DEWA) TPES Total Primary Energy Supply
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbons UN United Nations
HDI Human Development Index UNCCD United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification
HFC Hydrogen, Flourine, and Carbon
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
IADB Inter-American Development Bank
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction
on Climate Change
and Development
UNSD United Nations Statistical Division
IDA International Development Association
USA United States of America
ISO International Organisation
for Standardization UV Ultra Violet
MDGs Millenium Development Goals WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas
MEAs Multilateral Environmental Agreements World Bank IFC World Bank International
Finance Corporation
MSC Marine Stewardship Council
WSSD World Summit on
N2O Nitrous oxide
Sustainable Development

96

Technical Notes
It was decided to display global values for the indicators selected, with only care should be taken when reading the numbers. General advice—if one
a few exceptions made for regional ones, as the purpose of this document can give it at all—is to consider an approximately 1-5% confidence limit in
is to highlight global trends. Evidently, a global statistical average in some both directions (upwards and downwards) from the lines, but this depends
cases hides major underlying differences, as a country aggregate figure very much on the particular data set.
would do at a national level. In a few cases, it was decided to include either
a comparison with other regions or, more often, a general separation between Due to rounding in some cases of actual data values presented in the text,
developing and developed countries (for such a country breakdown, please there may appear to be slight differences with the reported percentage
see below). For further regional breakdowns, the reader is requested to visit changes through time, as all changes were calculated based on the actual
either the original source or the UNEP GEO Data Portal, where most of the precise data values. Numbers as presented in the text have normally been
data are available for easy display, along with regional breakdowns and rounded (e.g., 657 million tonnes to 660 million tonnes) in order to make
national level-data. for easier reading and to facilitate comparisons.

For the purposes of this document, separation between developed and Data points have been added to a few graphs, where only limited data
developing countries has been made based on a common UN breakdown, were available.
although “there is no established convention for the designation of ‘developed’
The metric of “Constant 2000 US$” enables the comparison of the value of
and ‘developing’ countries or areas in the United Nations system. In common
money over time, as it adjusts to inflation or deflation.
practice, Japan in Asia, Canada and the United States in northern America,
Australia and New Zealand in Oceania, and Europe are considered ‘developed’ GDP is displayed here in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, which
regions or areas...Israel as a developed country; (and) countries emerging adjusts purchasing power differences between currencies, allowing for
from the former Yugoslavia are treated as developing countries” (UN 2011d). economic comparison between countries.
Eastern European countries have also been included as ‘developing’.
Due to differences in the definitions of ‘billion’ and ‘trillion,’ these terms
Data collection, and at a later stage data harmonisation, is a difficult task. are not used. For uniformity, ‘thousand million’ is used to represent
Statistical data are hardly ever correct to the first decimal number. Thus, 1 000 000 000 and ‘million million’ to represent 1 000 000 000 000.

Developing Burundi Ethiopia Jordan Montserrat Saint Kitts and Nevis Trinidad and Tobago Canada
Countries Cambodia Falkland Islands Kazakhstan Morocco Saint Lucia Tunisia Cyprus
Cameroon (Malvinas) Kenya Mozambique Saint Pierre and Turkey Czech Republic
Afghanistan
Cape Verde Faroe Islands Kiribati Myanmar Miquelon Turkmenistan Denmark
Albania
Cayman Islands Fiji Kuwait Namibia Saint Vincent and the Turks and Caicos Finland
Algeria
Central African French Guiana Kyrgyzstan Nauru Grenadines Islands France
American Samoa
Republic French Polynesia Lao People’s Nepal Samoa Tuvalu Germany
Andorra
Chad Gabon Democratic Republic Netherlands Antilles San Marino Uganda Greece
Angola
Chile Gambia Latvia New Caledonia Sao Tome and Ukraine Iceland
Anguilla
China Georgia Lebanon Nicaragua Principe United Arab Emirates Ireland
Antarctic
Christmas Island Ghana Lesotho Niger Saudi Arabia United Republic of Israel
Antigua and Barbuda
Cocos (Keeling) Gibraltar Liberia Nigeria Senegal Tanzania Italy
Argentina
Islands Greenland Libyan Arab Niue Serbia United States Virgin Japan
Armenia
Colombia Grenada Jamahiriya Norfolk Island Seychelles Islands Luxembourg
Aruba
Comoros Guadeloupe Liechtenstein Northern Mariana Sierra Leone Uruguay Malta
Azerbaijan
Congo Guam Lithuania Islands Solomon Islands Uzbekistan Netherlands
Bahamas
Cook Islands Guatemala Madagascar Occupied Palestinian Somalia Vanuatu New Zealand
Bahrain
Costa Rica Guernsey Malawi Territory South Africa Venezuela, Norway
Bangladesh
CÃ´te d’Ivoire Guinea Malaysia Oman Sri Lanka Bolivarian Republic Poland
Barbados
Croatia Guinea-Bissau Maldives Pakistan Sudan of Portugal
Belarus
Cuba Guyana Mali Palau Suriname Viet Nam Republic of Korea
Belize
Democratic People’s Haiti Marshall Islands Panama Svalbard and Jan Wake Island Singapore
Benin
Republic of Korea Holy See Martinique Papua New Guinea Mayen Islands Wallis and Futuna Slovakia
Bermuda
Democratic Republic Honduras Mauritania Paraguay Swaziland Western Sahara Slovenia
Bhutan
of the Congo Hungary Mauritius Peru Syrian Arab Republic Yemen Spain
Bolivia
Djibouti India Mayotte Philippines Tajikistan Zambia Sweden
Bosnia and
Dominica Indonesia Mexico Pitcairn Island Thailand Zimbabwe Switzerland
Herzegovina
Dominican Republic Iran (Islamic Micronesia Puerto Rico The former Yugoslav United Kingdom of
Botswana
Ecuador Republic of) (Federated States of) Qatar Republic of Developed Great Britain and
Brazil
Egypt Iraq Midway Islands Réunion Macedonia Countries Northern Ireland
British Virgin Islands
El Salvador Isle of Man Moldova Romania Timor-Leste United States of
Brunei Darussalam Australia
Equatorial Guinea Jamaica Monaco Russian Federation Togo America
Bulgaria Austria
Eritrea Jersey Mongolia Rwanda Tokelau
Burkina Faso Belgium
Estonia Johnston Atoll Montenegro Saint Helena Tonga

97

Annex for Aid to Environmental Activities
Multiple projects target several sectors, thus impacting the delivery of 41005.01: General environmental protection, activity unspecified
results. This graph reflects the allotment done by AidData.org and the (includes miscellaneous conservation and protection measures
author’s personal judgment based on the description of the projects. not mentioned below) or does not fit under any other
applicable codes
Environmental Sectors (Codes represent data activities downloaded from
AidData.org) 41010.02: Environmental policy, laws, regulations and
economic instruments
Energy Conservation and Renewables
41010.03: Institution capacity building, Environmental protection
23010.05: Energy conservation
41082.02: Environmental impact assessments
23030.01: Power generation/renewable sources, activity unspecified or
does not fit elsewhere in group 41081.01: All environmental education/training activities
23030.02: Hydro-electric power plants 41082.01: All environmental research activities
23030.03: Geothermal energy Natural Resources Management and Biodiversity Protection
23030.04: Solar energy 41020.01: Biosphere protection, activity unspecified or does not fit
elsewhere in group
23030.05: Wind power
41020.02: Air pollution control
23030.06: Ocean power
41030.01: Biodiversity, activity unspecified or does not fit elsewhere
23030.07: Biomass in group
Sustainable Land Management 41030.02: Natural reserves
31130.02: Soil improvement 41030.03: Species protection
31130.05: Land reclamation 41040.01: All site preservation activities
31130.06: Erosion control Water Resources Protection
31130.07: Desertification control 14015.01: Water resources protection, activity unspecified or does not fit
31220.02: Afforestation elsewhere in group

31220.04: Erosion control 14015.02: Inland surface waters

31220.05: Desertification control 14015.03: Water conservation

41050.02: Erosion control 14015.04: Prevention of water contamination

41050.01: Flood prevention/control, activity unspecified or does not fit Waste Management
elsewhere in group 14050.01: Waste management/disposal, activity unspecified or does not fit
41050.03: River or sea flood control elsewhere in group

Marine Protection 14050.02: Municipal and industrial solid waste management

41020.03: Marine pollution control 14050.03: Collection, disposal and treatment

31320.03: Fish stock protection 14050.04: Landfill areas

Environmental Governance 14050.05: Composting and reuse

41010.01: Environmental policy and administrative management, activity
unspecified or does not fit elsewhere in group

98

Acknowledgments
This publication would not have been possible without the advice and inputs of many UNEP colleagues from various
Divisions, as well as key persons at other UN ofﬁces and programmes, particularly the Statistical Division (UNSD) of the
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA) in New York, as well as other independent persons who were
consulted, along with their institutions.

The following is an attempt to name all of those who contributed directly with inputs and/or comments during one phase
or another of this publication’s preparation. We apologise for any omissions, which if they occurred are completely
unintentional.

UNEP: Sophie Bonnard, Kaveh Zahedi (UNEP Climate Change Coordination/DTIE); Silja Halle, Hassan Partow and Cassidy
Travis (DEPI/PCDMB); Johannes Akiwumi, Matthew Billot, Charles Davies, Salif Diop, Peter Gilruth, Tessa Goverse,
Fatoumata Keita-Ouane, Neeyati Patel and Andrea Salinas (DEWA); Andrea de Bono and Pascal Peduzzi (DEWA/GRID-
Geneva); Stephen Armstrong, Yasmin Aziz, Margarita Dyubanova, Olivia Gilmore (DEWA-Washington, D.C.); Derek Eaton
(DTIE/ETB), Mark Radka (DTIE/Energy Branch), Virginia Sonntag-O’Brien (DTIE/Energy Branch); Heidelore Fiedler (DTIE/
Chemicals); Mario Lionetti (UNEP/DTIE); Bastian Bertzky, Charles Besancon, Jorn Scharlemann, Damon Stanwell-Smith,
Matt Walpole (UNEP-WCMC); Janet Macharia (Executive Ofﬁce); Gerald Mutysia (Ozone Secretariat)

UNSD: Esther Horvath, Karen Cassamajor, Elena Montes, Rayen Quiroga and Reena Shah

Others: Jane Barr (independent consultant), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Arshia Chander (SGT, Inc.), Alexander
Gorobets (Sevastopol National Technical University), Jill Jaeger (independent consultant), Pierre Portas (WE 2C); and
Michael Zemp (WGMS-Zurich)

Principal authors: Stefan Schwarzer, Jaap van Woerden and Ron Witt (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Geneva), Ashbindu Singh (UNEP/
DEWA) and Bruce Pengra (ARTS)

Layout: Stefan Schwarzer (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Geneva) and Kimberly Giese (SGT, Inc.)

99

This innovative publication, which is based on statistical evidence, illustrates major
global environmental, economic and social changes since 1992. The numbers tell the
story of how, in twenty years, the world has changed more than most of us could have
ever imagined.

The report has been produced within the framework of UNEP’s fifth Global
Environment Outlook assessment report, which will be published in May 2012 in
advance of Rio+20.

www.unep.org
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: uneppub@unep.org
www.unep.org

ISBN: 978-92-807-3190-3
DEW/1234/NA

Keeping track - UNEP : From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)

More Related Content

What's hot

Viewers also liked

Similar to Keeping track - UNEP : From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)

More from Zoely Mamizaka

Recently uploaded

Keeping track - UNEP : From Rio to Rio+20 (1992-2012)