The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while .docxteresehearn
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while the role of the follower is often neglected.
1. Using the overview provided in this week’s lecture and readings, how do follower perceptions affect a leader’s style?
2. How might you best assess follower perceptions of your leadership style?
3. What can/should a leader do when the perceptions of the followers are not aligned with the leader’s self-perceptions?
4. Why do you believe this assessment method to be the best option?
Week Four Lecture
Leadership Pipeline
According to Bennis (1989), leaders are made, not born, and "made more by themselves than by any external means" (p. 5). By following leaders at the top of their organizations, Bennis found that "such people have no interest in proving themselves, but an abiding interest in expressing themselves. The difference is crucial, for it's the difference between being driven and leading" (p. 5). With Bennis's work, the age of interviewing top leaders to gain access to how they do their work came into its own.
Charan, Drotter, and Noel's (2001) work supports the idea that a leadership base among its employees will help the organization make its selections to critical executive leadership positions, even in a large, decentralized organization. Their hierarchy is pictured by a pipeline bent in six places, each being a rise in leadership function. At the bottom, the leaders begin with managing self, then managing others, managing managers, managing functions, managing a business, a business group, and ending at managing an enterprise.
The model recognizes several potential leader failures: failing to seek or listen to feedback, identification of failures, leaving the wrong person in the job too long, poor job definition, and selecting the wrong person for the job. Organizations that do not grow their own managers tend not to know their people well enough to understand what risks they are taking when they hire or promote someone, so using a pipeline model would reduce risk in an already volatile environment. One of Northouse's (2007) criticisms of trait theory is that it fails the utility test for leadership training and development. Growing leaders from inside the organization makes sense because it reduces risk for the organization and still allows for application of trait theory in selection of leaders and skill theory in leader development programs.
Followership
Traditional trait and behavior theories assume that a leader adopts a general leadership style that is used with all group members. A more recent approach to leadership behavior research, known as individualized leadership, looks at a specific relationship between leader and each individual member (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002). Individualized leadership is based on the notion that a leader develops a unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the leader behaves for the member and how the member res ...
This document summarizes an article that examines how empowering leadership in management teams relates to knowledge sharing, team efficacy, and team performance. The study surveyed management teams in 102 U.S. hotel properties. The results showed that empowering leadership was positively related to both knowledge sharing and team efficacy within teams, which in turn were both positively related to higher team performance as measured by a time-lagged market-based source. The study aimed to provide greater understanding of how empowering leadership can improve team processes and states that ultimately enhance team performance.
This paper proposes a new theory of team coaching with three distinguishing features: (1) it focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team rather than specific leader behaviors, (2) it identifies when coaching interventions are most effective during the task performance process, and (3) it explains when team-focused coaching is likely to facilitate performance. The paper reviews existing approaches to team coaching and draws on them to develop testable propositions for a comprehensive research-based model of effective team coaching.
How Followers Create Leaders The Impact of Effective FollowerPazSilviapm
This study investigated how effective followership influences leader emergence in self-managing teams. The researchers hypothesized that an individual's leadership behaviors and identity are shaped by the effective followership of their peers. Survey data from 58 student self-managing teams showed that team members were more likely to emerge as leaders when exposed to more effective followership. This provides empirical evidence that followers play an important role in creating leaders through their influence on leadership behaviors and identities.
Assessing the Situational Leadership of Managers in the Mobile Service Indust...Kristen Flores
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the situational leadership styles of managers in the mobile service industry. It reviewed theories of situational leadership, specifically Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) which proposes that leadership style should adapt to the situation. The study aimed to assess leadership styles of Area Service Managers (ASMs) in a mobile company according to SLT and examine how styles may differ by nationality. A literature review covered prior research applying and testing SLT in various contexts. The methodology section indicated this was a descriptive primary research study.
This study examines the relationships between servant leadership, subordinates' trust in their leader, job satisfaction, and organizational tenure. The researchers hypothesized that:
1. Servant leadership would be positively associated with trust in leader and job satisfaction.
2. Trust in leader would mediate the relationship between servant leadership and job satisfaction.
3. The positive effects of servant leadership on trust in leader and job satisfaction would be stronger for subordinates with shorter organizational tenure.
4. Trust in leader would mediate the joint effects of servant leadership and organizational tenure on job satisfaction.
The researchers surveyed 218 employees at a private company in China to test these hypotheses and better understand how servant leadership influences subordinates' attitudes.
1) The document discusses various approaches to leadership in sports, including trait-based approaches, behavioral approaches, and models focusing on coaches, athletes, and relationships.
2) It examines tools for assessing coach and athlete leadership, such as the Leadership Scale for Sports and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.
3) The document also covers characteristics of effective athlete leadership, and notes that developing leadership skills is important for enhancing individual and team performance in sports.
A Methodology Study Of Hersey And Blanchard Situational Leadership TheoryJody Sullivan
1) The document summarizes a study examining situational leadership theory in a distribution corporation. The study aimed to determine leaders' primary and secondary leadership styles, and their style adaptability levels compared to subordinates and peers.
2) Situational leadership theory proposes that effective leaders can accurately diagnose variables in each leadership situation and adjust their style accordingly. The theory was tested using the LEAD instrument to evaluate leaders' self-perceptions and subordinates' perceptions of the leaders' styles.
3) The study had limitations in that it examined leaders and followers at the group level, which may obscure variations in individual readiness levels and behaviors. It also relied on self- and other-reported perceptions of leadership styles.
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while .docxteresehearn
The research and practice of leadership focuses on the leader while the role of the follower is often neglected.
1. Using the overview provided in this week’s lecture and readings, how do follower perceptions affect a leader’s style?
2. How might you best assess follower perceptions of your leadership style?
3. What can/should a leader do when the perceptions of the followers are not aligned with the leader’s self-perceptions?
4. Why do you believe this assessment method to be the best option?
Week Four Lecture
Leadership Pipeline
According to Bennis (1989), leaders are made, not born, and "made more by themselves than by any external means" (p. 5). By following leaders at the top of their organizations, Bennis found that "such people have no interest in proving themselves, but an abiding interest in expressing themselves. The difference is crucial, for it's the difference between being driven and leading" (p. 5). With Bennis's work, the age of interviewing top leaders to gain access to how they do their work came into its own.
Charan, Drotter, and Noel's (2001) work supports the idea that a leadership base among its employees will help the organization make its selections to critical executive leadership positions, even in a large, decentralized organization. Their hierarchy is pictured by a pipeline bent in six places, each being a rise in leadership function. At the bottom, the leaders begin with managing self, then managing others, managing managers, managing functions, managing a business, a business group, and ending at managing an enterprise.
The model recognizes several potential leader failures: failing to seek or listen to feedback, identification of failures, leaving the wrong person in the job too long, poor job definition, and selecting the wrong person for the job. Organizations that do not grow their own managers tend not to know their people well enough to understand what risks they are taking when they hire or promote someone, so using a pipeline model would reduce risk in an already volatile environment. One of Northouse's (2007) criticisms of trait theory is that it fails the utility test for leadership training and development. Growing leaders from inside the organization makes sense because it reduces risk for the organization and still allows for application of trait theory in selection of leaders and skill theory in leader development programs.
Followership
Traditional trait and behavior theories assume that a leader adopts a general leadership style that is used with all group members. A more recent approach to leadership behavior research, known as individualized leadership, looks at a specific relationship between leader and each individual member (Yammarino & Dansereau, 2002). Individualized leadership is based on the notion that a leader develops a unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the leader behaves for the member and how the member res ...
This document summarizes an article that examines how empowering leadership in management teams relates to knowledge sharing, team efficacy, and team performance. The study surveyed management teams in 102 U.S. hotel properties. The results showed that empowering leadership was positively related to both knowledge sharing and team efficacy within teams, which in turn were both positively related to higher team performance as measured by a time-lagged market-based source. The study aimed to provide greater understanding of how empowering leadership can improve team processes and states that ultimately enhance team performance.
This paper proposes a new theory of team coaching with three distinguishing features: (1) it focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team rather than specific leader behaviors, (2) it identifies when coaching interventions are most effective during the task performance process, and (3) it explains when team-focused coaching is likely to facilitate performance. The paper reviews existing approaches to team coaching and draws on them to develop testable propositions for a comprehensive research-based model of effective team coaching.
How Followers Create Leaders The Impact of Effective FollowerPazSilviapm
This study investigated how effective followership influences leader emergence in self-managing teams. The researchers hypothesized that an individual's leadership behaviors and identity are shaped by the effective followership of their peers. Survey data from 58 student self-managing teams showed that team members were more likely to emerge as leaders when exposed to more effective followership. This provides empirical evidence that followers play an important role in creating leaders through their influence on leadership behaviors and identities.
Assessing the Situational Leadership of Managers in the Mobile Service Indust...Kristen Flores
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the situational leadership styles of managers in the mobile service industry. It reviewed theories of situational leadership, specifically Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) which proposes that leadership style should adapt to the situation. The study aimed to assess leadership styles of Area Service Managers (ASMs) in a mobile company according to SLT and examine how styles may differ by nationality. A literature review covered prior research applying and testing SLT in various contexts. The methodology section indicated this was a descriptive primary research study.
This study examines the relationships between servant leadership, subordinates' trust in their leader, job satisfaction, and organizational tenure. The researchers hypothesized that:
1. Servant leadership would be positively associated with trust in leader and job satisfaction.
2. Trust in leader would mediate the relationship between servant leadership and job satisfaction.
3. The positive effects of servant leadership on trust in leader and job satisfaction would be stronger for subordinates with shorter organizational tenure.
4. Trust in leader would mediate the joint effects of servant leadership and organizational tenure on job satisfaction.
The researchers surveyed 218 employees at a private company in China to test these hypotheses and better understand how servant leadership influences subordinates' attitudes.
1) The document discusses various approaches to leadership in sports, including trait-based approaches, behavioral approaches, and models focusing on coaches, athletes, and relationships.
2) It examines tools for assessing coach and athlete leadership, such as the Leadership Scale for Sports and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.
3) The document also covers characteristics of effective athlete leadership, and notes that developing leadership skills is important for enhancing individual and team performance in sports.
A Methodology Study Of Hersey And Blanchard Situational Leadership TheoryJody Sullivan
1) The document summarizes a study examining situational leadership theory in a distribution corporation. The study aimed to determine leaders' primary and secondary leadership styles, and their style adaptability levels compared to subordinates and peers.
2) Situational leadership theory proposes that effective leaders can accurately diagnose variables in each leadership situation and adjust their style accordingly. The theory was tested using the LEAD instrument to evaluate leaders' self-perceptions and subordinates' perceptions of the leaders' styles.
3) The study had limitations in that it examined leaders and followers at the group level, which may obscure variations in individual readiness levels and behaviors. It also relied on self- and other-reported perceptions of leadership styles.
After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new
model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that
coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership
styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when
coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) explicates
the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to
facilitate performance.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Leadership styles and its effectiveness on employees' job commitmentAlexander Decker
- The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between leadership styles (transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire) and employee commitment in a Nigerian organization.
- The study found that transformational leadership was the most common style used by managers and that there was a significant relationship between leadership styles and employee job commitment.
- Transactional and transformational leadership styles can impact employee performance and commitment, with transformational leadership tending to foster more development and commitment among employees.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the metho.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders tak.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the m.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders t.
leadership in teams:a functional approach to understanding leadership struct...mahmood khan
This document discusses leadership in teams and identifies key leadership functions during different phases of team performance cycles. It notes that team performance cycles have transition and action phases. During the transition phase, important leadership functions are composing the team, defining the mission, establishing expectations and goals, structuring and planning, training and developing the team, sense making, and providing feedback. During the action phase, key leadership functions are monitoring the team, managing team boundaries, challenging the team, performing the team task, solving problems, providing resources, encouraging team self-management, and supporting the social climate. The document provides details on each of these leadership functions and their importance for increasing team effectiveness and improving performance.
REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVE.pptxMuhammad Saqib
Presentation Slides on Research Article: " REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVEOF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES: AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON MANAGERS IN MANUFACTURING FIRMS"
Author: Bülent AKKAYA;
Publisher: Journal of Administrative Sciences; 01.2020
Education at a Glance OECD 20113 s2.0-b9780080448947004310-mainJohn Taylor
This document summarizes research on transformational school leadership. It begins by discussing the roots of transformational leadership theory in the work of James McGregor Burns and Bernard Bass. It then reviews evidence that transformational leadership has positive effects on teachers and school organizations, including teacher commitment, satisfaction, classroom practices, and school culture. The document outlines a school-specific model of transformational leadership with four dimensions: setting directions, developing people, redesigning the organization, and managing instruction. It provides details on the leadership practices within each dimension, such as building a shared vision, fostering group goals, and developing capacity in teachers.
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum Read InstructionsTeam LeadershipDioneWang844
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum: Read Instructions
Team Leadership/Management Style
Part 1:
According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Part 2:
DeRue, Barnes, and Morgeson (2010) found that team leadership style effectiveness depended on the level of charisma exhibited by the leader. Drawing from the article and the textbook, have you ever worked for a charismatic leader? What style (coaching or directing) did that leader administer? Was he or she effective in leading you as part of the team?
Specific Instructions:
Read and respond to three (3) of your classmates’ posts. See posting/discussion requirements.
Be sure to support your work with specific citations from this week's Learning Resources and any additional sources.
Read a selection of your colleagues' postings.
Respond to at least 3 your colleagues' posts in one or more of the following ways:
• Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, evidence or research.
• Share an insight from having read your colleagues' postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
• Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own research
• Validate an idea with your own experience and additional research.
• Make suggestions based on additional evidence drawn from readings or after synthesizing multiple postings.
• Expand on your colleagues' postings by providing additional insights or contrasting perspectives based on readings and evidence.
respond to three (3) of your classmates’
class mate 1:
Part 1: According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O'Connor have clarified the team leader management style authority ideas in an all-around refined route as for the leadership attributes in the objective way hypothesis. In light of an examination from new item improvement (NPD) team. Team leader management authority speaks to a normal for effective team execution. Many teams in the organization contain certain people who are essentially in charge of characterizing team objectives and for creating and organizing the team to achieve these missions. These jobs exist in self overseeing teams in spite of the fact that the direct of positions of authority in such teams changes impressively from comparative jobs in more conventional teams. Notwithstanding, the accomplishment o ...
For the Good or the Bad Interactive Effects of Transformation.docxAKHIL969626
For the Good or the Bad? Interactive Effects of Transformational
Leadership with Moral and Authoritarian Leadership Behaviors
Sebastian C. Schuh • Xin-an Zhang •
Peng Tian
Received: 16 July 2012 / Accepted: 7 September 2012 / Published online: 24 September 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Although the ethical aspects of transformational
leadership have attracted considerable attention, very little is
known about followers’ reactions to the moral and immoral
conduct of transformational leaders. Against this background,
this study examined whether and how transformational lead-
ership interacts with moral and authoritarian leadership
behaviors in predicting followers’ in-role and extra-role
efforts. Building on attribution theory, we hypothesized that
the positive and negative effects of these leadership behaviors
would be particularly pronounced for highly transformational
leaders given that this leadership style elicits strong attention
and sense-making efforts among followers. We tested our
model in a sample of 228 individuals comprising 114 leader–
follower dyads from a wide range of organizations and
industries. In line with our hypotheses, results revealed that for
highly transformational leaders, moral leadership behaviors
related positively to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts
whereas authoritarian leadership behaviors related negatively
to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts. In contrast, moral
and authoritarian leadership behaviors did not significantly
affect followers’ reactions to leaders low in transformational
leadership. Taken together, these findings suggest that trans-
formational leadership, contrary to its largely positive per-
ception in the literature, can be a rather mixed blessing.
Implications for theory, future research, and managerial
practice are discussed.
Keywords Authentic transformational leadership �
Authoritarian leadership � Extra-role performance �
In-role performance � Moral leadership �
Pseudo-transformational leadership
When it comes to severe wrongdoings in the organizational
domain, it is not uncommon that leaders who had been
praised as visionary and transformational play a crucial
role (Bass 2008). Indeed, whereas transformational lead-
ership has often been regarded as a leadership behavior that
considers and emphasizes ethical standards (Burns 1978),
several scholars have questioned its inherent morality
(Bass and Steidlmeier 1999; Conger and Kanungo 1998;
Price 2003). Specifically, they have pointed out that
transformational leadership behaviors (e.g., vision, inspi-
ration, and role modeling; Bass 1985) do not have to be
applied in the interest of the common good. Indeed, these
behaviors seem to be equally effective in pursuing immoral
purposes and to increase the personal power and status of
the leader. As Price (2003) posited, transformational
behaviors are ‘‘morally neutral’’ (p. 70) and whether they
are used ...
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching inTimes of Organisational.docxtodd701
This study examined the impact of executive coaching on 31 executives during a period of organizational change at a global engineering firm. The executives participated in executive coaching sessions over 4 months. The study found that executive coaching was associated with:
1) Increased goal attainment, enhanced solution-focused thinking, and a greater ability to deal with change.
2) Increased leadership self-efficacy and resilience and a decrease in depression.
3) Positive impacts that generalized to non-work areas like family life.
The study provides empirical evidence that executive coaching can help executives develop skills needed to navigate organizational change.
Athletes Satisfaction As Mediator Of Transformational Leadership Behaviors O...Kate Campbell
This study examined the relationship between high school football coaches' transformational leadership style and players' sport commitment in Iran. It hypothesized that player satisfaction would mediate this relationship. 280 high school football players aged 15-20 completed surveys measuring coaches' transformational leadership, player satisfaction, and sport commitment. Structural equation modeling found a positive relationship between transformational leadership and player satisfaction, and between satisfaction and sport commitment. Player satisfaction was shown to partially mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and sport commitment. The results suggest that when Iranian high school football coaches display transformational leadership behaviors, it increases player satisfaction and in turn increases players' commitment to sport.
The document discusses various factors that influence team effectiveness, including group psychological traits like cohesion, norms, affects, cognition, certainty, and attribution biases. It examines Belbin's team role theory and describes different types of teams. The conclusion is that cognitive and affective dimensions impact outcomes differently and that factors influencing effectiveness depend on the type of team.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
The purpose of the article is to explore business leadership changes and developments in parallel with business leader’s changes and developments, the relationship between them and how could we bridge them to fit the best business leadership to the best business leader.
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
Vol.(0123456789)1 3 journal of business ethics (2019) 160ojas18
This document presents a study examining how leader character strengths relate to ethical leadership and leader outcomes. The study tests a model showing that the character strengths of honesty/humility, empathy, and moral courage are associated with ethical leadership for leaders with high self-control, and that ethical leadership is then associated with higher psychological flourishing and in-role performance for leaders. The study uses data from 218 US Air Force officers, their subordinates, and superiors to provide initial support for the model.
Enterprise Key Management Plan An eight- to 10-page double.docxbudabrooks46239
This document outlines an enterprise key management plan and policy. The plan requires an 8-10 page document in APA format that describes the strategy but excludes tables, figures, and citations. A shorter 2-3 page policy document in Word format is also required to govern key management.
English IV Research PaperMrs. MantineoObjective To adher.docxbudabrooks46239
English IV Research Paper
Mrs. Mantineo
Objective:
To adhere to the rules of MLA format while using a variety of sources to write a research paper which focuses on a literary topic.
Requirements:
- Your paper must be persuasive in nature, but focus on a literary topic. This paper is worth 3 Essay
Grades. This paper is worth a significant amount of your 4th MP grade so I suggest you take this paper seriously.
- Your topic will focus on
1984
. I will be providing you with an official list of topics to choose from. You will
not
be allowed to create your own topic.
The final draft will be
3-5 pages
in length. (Times New Roman, 12 pt. font, double spaced). A Works Cited page is required and does not count towards your number of pages.
You are required to use
4
approved, academic references: 2 web based articles from credible sources, 1 printed book (This would be the novel
1984
), and one primary source document. You may use more than 4 sources, although you must first meet the minimum requirements for types of sources. You must use all 4 sources in your final draft.
ABSOLUTELY NO LATE PAPERS WILL BE ACCEPTED. No exceptions! If you are absent, you are still responsible for getting me the paper on time. Your paper must be submitted to turnitin.com by 11:59 PM.
If you do not submit your paper to Classroom by 11:59 p.m. you will receive a zero.
Extra help is available, please make an appointment.
Essay Topics:
The Loss of Individual Rights in
1984
:
Personal privacy and space is never granted throughout
1984
. Every person is always subject to observation, even by their own family members and friends. Furthermore, since Big Brother is always watching and the Thought Police are always on the lookout, it is impossible for any kind of individualism to flourish. For this essay you can look at the ways this occurs and how various characters attempt (successfully or not) to subvert it. Then move out to consider how this lack of privacy (and by proxy, individualism) influences individuals and society as a whole in the present day. How does the present US Government subvert the rights of the individual and how does this compare to the novel?
Fear of Technology
: During WWII, technology was primarily developed for military purposes, specifically for the surveillance of the enemy. People are generally resistant to technology that they believe can be used against them. George Orwell’s novel
1984
plays on this inherent fear of technology. Discuss the role of technology in Oceania. In what areas is technology highly advanced, and in what areas has its progress stalled? Why? How is it used against the people? To control them? How does this reflect the human fear of technology during the time the novel was written? How does this fear carry over in the modern world? Is it valid? How can technology be used against the common man to violate individual rights? How does this compare to the novel?
Historical Analysis
.
After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new
model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that
coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership
styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when
coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) explicates
the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to
facilitate performance.
Dwight
Evaluation
Leadership style assessments certainly have a place within the organization. The effectiveness of a leadership style assessment will depend on what type of assessment and what the organizational needs are. Multi-source feedback assessments are supposed to give a 360 degree look at a leader and give the organization a valuable outcome in the evaluation of the leader (MacKie, 2015). Using multi-source feedback assessments can be extremely beneficial as long as the assessment is properly paired with the organizational goals and needs. Assessing a leader from multi perspectives is truly a holistic approach. But, organizations need to recognize that no leadership style assessment is not without its limitations.
Next, the behavior approach is one of four approaches to leadership. Three of which all have weaknesses; traits, skills, and behavior. But the fourth approach to leadership, the situational approach demonstrates the flexibility of a leader (Northouse2016, 2016). In today’s dynamic and complex business environment, flexible leaders bring the most value to an organization. The situational approach allows the leader to apply the other three approaches given the circumstances. As an Army leader I found this approach to be extremely effective while leading in combat and non-combat situations.
Explanation of Usefulness
Of equal importance is the usefulness leadership style assessments and the behavior approach have on an organization. Once an organization has clearly defined the goals and purpose of conducting an assessment, and then subsequently the correct assessment is used, the results will certainly help the organization. In this case, using an assessment to evaluate the benefits of a behavior approach to leadership will allow the organization to determine what needs to be done, how it needs to be done, and how fast it needs to be done (Saxena, 2014). Additionally, the behavior approach (if the relationship behavior is used), can give subordinates the motivation needed to achieve the desired outcome through a better understanding of themselves.
Explanation of Impact
The impact of leadership assessments on an individual can be positive or negative. Again, this directly correlates to the goals and expectations of the organization when the assessment is implemented. For the individual, it could potentially identify strengths and weaknesses. Thus, giving the individual the opportunity to grow and learn from the assessment. Simultaneously, the organization discovers how these strengths and weaknesses fit into the organization’s goals. Once they have identified where and how an individual nest into the organization, a holistic approach to achieving those goals can be developed (Northouse2016, 2016). In comparison, using a behavior approach assessment will yield valuable information about subordinates’ behavior patterns. Which equates to the organization knowing and understanding their employees. Understanding behavio.
Leadership styles and its effectiveness on employees' job commitmentAlexander Decker
- The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between leadership styles (transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire) and employee commitment in a Nigerian organization.
- The study found that transformational leadership was the most common style used by managers and that there was a significant relationship between leadership styles and employee job commitment.
- Transactional and transformational leadership styles can impact employee performance and commitment, with transformational leadership tending to foster more development and commitment among employees.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the metho.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders tak.
1LEADERSHIP THEORIES Leadership approaches describe the m.docxhyacinthshackley2629
1
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership approaches describe the methods and the different models that are adopted in the managerial process by the managers who act as the leaders of the organization. The styles range from small businesses to huge and wide businesses. The contingency and the path theories are ways taken up in the analyzing leadership. Which analyze and describe the different models taken up by leaders and the followers and the strategies that are taken up. The relationship between the leaders the followers as well as the main basics taken up also are defined in the models of the leadership.
The contingency theory is a behavioral theory which is based on the view that there is not a specific best way to lead an organization make a decision or to organize cooperation. The theory must take account of the situations in which the leaders operate (Paulsen, 2013). The theory spells that the moves and decisions as well as the leadership systems are influenced by both the external and the internal factors. Basically there is no single theory of contingency management rather there are certain important contingencies for organizations which are the technology, customers and competitors, suppliers, distributers the government (Quader, 2011). In addition the decision making process for any organization is determined by a variety of factors. These factors range from the importance of the decision, the amount and nature of the available information, the likelihood of the decision to be accepted by the subordinates to how well the employees are motivated. This theory proposes that a person’s actions cannot be predetermined. However they are dependent on the situation at that moment and instance.
The contingent theory of management emphasizes that the effectiveness of leadership is dependent on the combination and the matching between the leadership style and the situation. Hereby the situation is defined in terms of the relation between the leader and the member; measure of the leadership acceptance between the different hierarchies in the organization, the task structure; a measure of the clarity of the tasks or projects as well as the positional power which measures the amount of authority the leader has to influence the productivity of the followers.
The leaders style is defined as either task or relations oriented. These tasks are simply the projects that are taken up and the relations are defined as the different relations that exist between the leaders and the followers (McShane & Glinow, 2014). The contingency theory is one of the more common leadership theories. Its basis is that leadership emerges when different kinds of people are encased in different kinds of situations.
The path goal theory of leadership was developed to describe the way that the leaders encourage and support their followers in the achievement of the goals set by setting up a clear and easy path to be taken in the goal attainment process (Quader, 2011). The leaders t.
leadership in teams:a functional approach to understanding leadership struct...mahmood khan
This document discusses leadership in teams and identifies key leadership functions during different phases of team performance cycles. It notes that team performance cycles have transition and action phases. During the transition phase, important leadership functions are composing the team, defining the mission, establishing expectations and goals, structuring and planning, training and developing the team, sense making, and providing feedback. During the action phase, key leadership functions are monitoring the team, managing team boundaries, challenging the team, performing the team task, solving problems, providing resources, encouraging team self-management, and supporting the social climate. The document provides details on each of these leadership functions and their importance for increasing team effectiveness and improving performance.
REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVE.pptxMuhammad Saqib
Presentation Slides on Research Article: " REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP STYLES IN PERSPECTIVEOF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES: AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON MANAGERS IN MANUFACTURING FIRMS"
Author: Bülent AKKAYA;
Publisher: Journal of Administrative Sciences; 01.2020
Education at a Glance OECD 20113 s2.0-b9780080448947004310-mainJohn Taylor
This document summarizes research on transformational school leadership. It begins by discussing the roots of transformational leadership theory in the work of James McGregor Burns and Bernard Bass. It then reviews evidence that transformational leadership has positive effects on teachers and school organizations, including teacher commitment, satisfaction, classroom practices, and school culture. The document outlines a school-specific model of transformational leadership with four dimensions: setting directions, developing people, redesigning the organization, and managing instruction. It provides details on the leadership practices within each dimension, such as building a shared vision, fostering group goals, and developing capacity in teachers.
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum Read InstructionsTeam LeadershipDioneWang844
Lesson 1 Discussion Forum: Read Instructions
Team Leadership/Management Style
Part 1:
According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Part 2:
DeRue, Barnes, and Morgeson (2010) found that team leadership style effectiveness depended on the level of charisma exhibited by the leader. Drawing from the article and the textbook, have you ever worked for a charismatic leader? What style (coaching or directing) did that leader administer? Was he or she effective in leading you as part of the team?
Specific Instructions:
Read and respond to three (3) of your classmates’ posts. See posting/discussion requirements.
Be sure to support your work with specific citations from this week's Learning Resources and any additional sources.
Read a selection of your colleagues' postings.
Respond to at least 3 your colleagues' posts in one or more of the following ways:
• Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, evidence or research.
• Share an insight from having read your colleagues' postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
• Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own research
• Validate an idea with your own experience and additional research.
• Make suggestions based on additional evidence drawn from readings or after synthesizing multiple postings.
• Expand on your colleagues' postings by providing additional insights or contrasting perspectives based on readings and evidence.
respond to three (3) of your classmates’
class mate 1:
Part 1: According to the Sarin and O’Connor (2009) article, certain style and goal structures of team leaders have a strong influence on internal team dynamics. Based on your research within the article and textbook, as well as your own experience, what team leader management style would be most effective in leading a team in which you were a member?
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O'Connor have clarified the team leader management style authority ideas in an all-around refined route as for the leadership attributes in the objective way hypothesis. In light of an examination from new item improvement (NPD) team. Team leader management authority speaks to a normal for effective team execution. Many teams in the organization contain certain people who are essentially in charge of characterizing team objectives and for creating and organizing the team to achieve these missions. These jobs exist in self overseeing teams in spite of the fact that the direct of positions of authority in such teams changes impressively from comparative jobs in more conventional teams. Notwithstanding, the accomplishment o ...
For the Good or the Bad Interactive Effects of Transformation.docxAKHIL969626
For the Good or the Bad? Interactive Effects of Transformational
Leadership with Moral and Authoritarian Leadership Behaviors
Sebastian C. Schuh • Xin-an Zhang •
Peng Tian
Received: 16 July 2012 / Accepted: 7 September 2012 / Published online: 24 September 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Although the ethical aspects of transformational
leadership have attracted considerable attention, very little is
known about followers’ reactions to the moral and immoral
conduct of transformational leaders. Against this background,
this study examined whether and how transformational lead-
ership interacts with moral and authoritarian leadership
behaviors in predicting followers’ in-role and extra-role
efforts. Building on attribution theory, we hypothesized that
the positive and negative effects of these leadership behaviors
would be particularly pronounced for highly transformational
leaders given that this leadership style elicits strong attention
and sense-making efforts among followers. We tested our
model in a sample of 228 individuals comprising 114 leader–
follower dyads from a wide range of organizations and
industries. In line with our hypotheses, results revealed that for
highly transformational leaders, moral leadership behaviors
related positively to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts
whereas authoritarian leadership behaviors related negatively
to employees’ in-role and extra-role efforts. In contrast, moral
and authoritarian leadership behaviors did not significantly
affect followers’ reactions to leaders low in transformational
leadership. Taken together, these findings suggest that trans-
formational leadership, contrary to its largely positive per-
ception in the literature, can be a rather mixed blessing.
Implications for theory, future research, and managerial
practice are discussed.
Keywords Authentic transformational leadership �
Authoritarian leadership � Extra-role performance �
In-role performance � Moral leadership �
Pseudo-transformational leadership
When it comes to severe wrongdoings in the organizational
domain, it is not uncommon that leaders who had been
praised as visionary and transformational play a crucial
role (Bass 2008). Indeed, whereas transformational lead-
ership has often been regarded as a leadership behavior that
considers and emphasizes ethical standards (Burns 1978),
several scholars have questioned its inherent morality
(Bass and Steidlmeier 1999; Conger and Kanungo 1998;
Price 2003). Specifically, they have pointed out that
transformational leadership behaviors (e.g., vision, inspi-
ration, and role modeling; Bass 1985) do not have to be
applied in the interest of the common good. Indeed, these
behaviors seem to be equally effective in pursuing immoral
purposes and to increase the personal power and status of
the leader. As Price (2003) posited, transformational
behaviors are ‘‘morally neutral’’ (p. 70) and whether they
are used ...
The Efficacy of Executive Coaching inTimes of Organisational.docxtodd701
This study examined the impact of executive coaching on 31 executives during a period of organizational change at a global engineering firm. The executives participated in executive coaching sessions over 4 months. The study found that executive coaching was associated with:
1) Increased goal attainment, enhanced solution-focused thinking, and a greater ability to deal with change.
2) Increased leadership self-efficacy and resilience and a decrease in depression.
3) Positive impacts that generalized to non-work areas like family life.
The study provides empirical evidence that executive coaching can help executives develop skills needed to navigate organizational change.
Athletes Satisfaction As Mediator Of Transformational Leadership Behaviors O...Kate Campbell
This study examined the relationship between high school football coaches' transformational leadership style and players' sport commitment in Iran. It hypothesized that player satisfaction would mediate this relationship. 280 high school football players aged 15-20 completed surveys measuring coaches' transformational leadership, player satisfaction, and sport commitment. Structural equation modeling found a positive relationship between transformational leadership and player satisfaction, and between satisfaction and sport commitment. Player satisfaction was shown to partially mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and sport commitment. The results suggest that when Iranian high school football coaches display transformational leadership behaviors, it increases player satisfaction and in turn increases players' commitment to sport.
The document discusses various factors that influence team effectiveness, including group psychological traits like cohesion, norms, affects, cognition, certainty, and attribution biases. It examines Belbin's team role theory and describes different types of teams. The conclusion is that cognitive and affective dimensions impact outcomes differently and that factors influencing effectiveness depend on the type of team.
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Gr.docxoreo10
The relationship between Transformational Leadership and Work Group Performance
1.0 The Study Objective:
The study aims to examine the following research Hypothesis:
Transformational leadership positively predicts work group performance.
2.0 Theoretical Background
2.1 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a process that changes and transforms people, and comprises an exceptional form of influence, resulting in the achievement of higher levels of performance amongst followers than previously thought possible (Bass, 1990). People who exhibit transformational leadership often have a strong idealised influence (charisma), as well as a strong set of internal values and ideas. In addition, they are effective at motivating followers in ways that promote the greater good, as opposed to their own self-interest (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass and Avolio (2000) identify five components of transformational leadership traits and behaviours, which are theoretically and empirically related (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Those components are:
a. Idealised influence (attributed) is the degree to which leaders behave in a charismatic way, which subsequently causes followers to admire, respect and trust them. Charismatic leaders excite, arouse and inspire their followers to the point that the relationship between the leader and the follower becomes one based on personal understanding, as opposed to one based on formal rules, regulations, rewards or punishments. The leader shares risk with followers, and is consistent in conducting with underlying values and principles. However, Bass (1985) considers charisma a necessary but not sufficient condition for transformational leadership.
b. Idealised influence (behavioural) refers to the charismatic actions of the leader, whereby followers transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organisation and accordingly develop a collective sense of mission and purpose.
c. Inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ behaviours to motivate those around them through the provision of meaning and the articulation of appealing visions. Inspirational leaders demonstrate self-determination and commitment to attain objectives and thereby achieve their vision. Such leaders provide an emotional appeal to increase awareness and an understanding of mutually desired goals amongst their followers.
d. Intellectual stimulation is the degree to which leaders stimulate their followers to think critically and to be innovative and creative. Such leaders do not criticise individual members’ mistakes; rather, they provide followers with challenging new ideas. As a result, followers become critical in their problem-solving and tend to have enhanced thought processes.
e. Individualised consideration is the degree to which leaders pay attention to followers’ needs, provide support and encouragement, act as mentors or coaches, and listen to followers’ concerns. A leader displaying individualised considera ...
The purpose of the article is to explore business leadership changes and developments in parallel with business leader’s changes and developments, the relationship between them and how could we bridge them to fit the best business leadership to the best business leader.
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
Vol.(0123456789)1 3 journal of business ethics (2019) 160ojas18
This document presents a study examining how leader character strengths relate to ethical leadership and leader outcomes. The study tests a model showing that the character strengths of honesty/humility, empathy, and moral courage are associated with ethical leadership for leaders with high self-control, and that ethical leadership is then associated with higher psychological flourishing and in-role performance for leaders. The study uses data from 218 US Air Force officers, their subordinates, and superiors to provide initial support for the model.
Enterprise Key Management Plan An eight- to 10-page double.docxbudabrooks46239
This document outlines an enterprise key management plan and policy. The plan requires an 8-10 page document in APA format that describes the strategy but excludes tables, figures, and citations. A shorter 2-3 page policy document in Word format is also required to govern key management.
English IV Research PaperMrs. MantineoObjective To adher.docxbudabrooks46239
English IV Research Paper
Mrs. Mantineo
Objective:
To adhere to the rules of MLA format while using a variety of sources to write a research paper which focuses on a literary topic.
Requirements:
- Your paper must be persuasive in nature, but focus on a literary topic. This paper is worth 3 Essay
Grades. This paper is worth a significant amount of your 4th MP grade so I suggest you take this paper seriously.
- Your topic will focus on
1984
. I will be providing you with an official list of topics to choose from. You will
not
be allowed to create your own topic.
The final draft will be
3-5 pages
in length. (Times New Roman, 12 pt. font, double spaced). A Works Cited page is required and does not count towards your number of pages.
You are required to use
4
approved, academic references: 2 web based articles from credible sources, 1 printed book (This would be the novel
1984
), and one primary source document. You may use more than 4 sources, although you must first meet the minimum requirements for types of sources. You must use all 4 sources in your final draft.
ABSOLUTELY NO LATE PAPERS WILL BE ACCEPTED. No exceptions! If you are absent, you are still responsible for getting me the paper on time. Your paper must be submitted to turnitin.com by 11:59 PM.
If you do not submit your paper to Classroom by 11:59 p.m. you will receive a zero.
Extra help is available, please make an appointment.
Essay Topics:
The Loss of Individual Rights in
1984
:
Personal privacy and space is never granted throughout
1984
. Every person is always subject to observation, even by their own family members and friends. Furthermore, since Big Brother is always watching and the Thought Police are always on the lookout, it is impossible for any kind of individualism to flourish. For this essay you can look at the ways this occurs and how various characters attempt (successfully or not) to subvert it. Then move out to consider how this lack of privacy (and by proxy, individualism) influences individuals and society as a whole in the present day. How does the present US Government subvert the rights of the individual and how does this compare to the novel?
Fear of Technology
: During WWII, technology was primarily developed for military purposes, specifically for the surveillance of the enemy. People are generally resistant to technology that they believe can be used against them. George Orwell’s novel
1984
plays on this inherent fear of technology. Discuss the role of technology in Oceania. In what areas is technology highly advanced, and in what areas has its progress stalled? Why? How is it used against the people? To control them? How does this reflect the human fear of technology during the time the novel was written? How does this fear carry over in the modern world? Is it valid? How can technology be used against the common man to violate individual rights? How does this compare to the novel?
Historical Analysis
.
Enter in conversation with other writers by writing a thesis-dri.docxbudabrooks46239
Enter in conversation with other writers by writing a thesis-driven essay that responds to 3 readings selected by your instructorYour essay should include
all
of the following:
A precise thesis, or main claim
Supporting details or evidence for your claim
A clearly defined audience
An outline of the "conversation" begin by the 3 assigned articles
Direct reference (through quotation, summary, or paraphrase) to the 3 assigned articles
"Beyonce' and Social Media..." by Melissa Avdeef
"Not so Busy" by William Power
"Growing up Tethered" by Sherry Turkle
Length/Due Date
: approximately 800-1,000 words, Use 12 point, Times New Roman font, double-spaced.
Use 1-inch margins top, bottom, and sides.
.
English II – Touchstone 3.2 Draft an Argumentative Research Essay.docxbudabrooks46239
English II – Touchstone 3.2 Draft an Argumentative Research Essay
Peter Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Hi Peter! I’ll be reviewing your essay today.
English Composition II
Touchstone 3.2 Draft an Argumentative Research Essay
July 16, 2020
Recent pandemic, commonly referred to as COVID 19, has changed the world dynamics. This disease has not just crashed the world health system but has also impacted the global education system. COVID 19 has made our daily routine vulnerable. Still, the precautionary measures such as social distancing have not just impacted the social life of human beings. Still, they have also altered the Present and the future of the global learning system. According to the UNESCO report, the nationwide termination of educations institutes has obstructed over 60% of the world's learner’s populace, with approximately 1.53 billion learners out of learning institutes. Many educationists believe that with the current circumstance, the drop-out rate of students across the globe will increase in the near future because of the disruption in the system. Though many parents and institutes are still in denial of the changes that have occurred due to the pandemic, educationists and research indicate that the current alteration in the global education system will not be short-lived and will have a profound impact on the future means of education. Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Write smoothly: this sentence is awkward. Try reading your writing aloud to see if it sounds natural. Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Use specific language: what do you mean by “crashed?” Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Avoid repetition in your essay: here, beginning two sentences in a row with “still” weakens your writing. Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Cite all outside information in APA format. You can find information on it here: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Look out for odd word choices throughout your paper. Write clearly, directly, and concisely. Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: Important: improve this thesis. Your thesis statement must be argumentative: it must take a side and state what should be done What exactly are you arguing for?
Education System during Pandemic Comment by Kvinge, Krystal: If you are going to use headings, use them throughout the paper, including for your Introduction and Conclusion.
The recent survey shows that around 22 countries in three continents have closed their learning system on local and state levels because of COVID 19. Such massive disruption has pushed educators and institutions to opt for new means of education, such as online learning and instructional tutoring. However, such means of education has also exposed other crucial factors, such as inconsistent resource allocation and social and economic differences. The historical research on the impact of school closure depicts that even a brief intervention in school activities has a h.
English 3060Spring 2021Group Summary ofReinhardP.docxbudabrooks46239
English 3060
Spring 2021
Group Summary of
Reinhard
Please work with your group (or individually) to summarize Reinhard’s article. Your summary should be two pages long, in MLA format, listing the name of each participant in your breakout room who attended and contributed for the entire session.
To begin your summary, tell who wrote the essay, the name of the essay, and what the writer’s main point or project is. As with McDonald’s you should be able to do this is one short paragraph. (
For example: In his essay, “ Disgrace and the Neighbor: An Interchange with Bill McDonald,” Coetzee scholar Kenneth Reinhard responds to Bill McDonald’s essay, arguing against McDonald’s thesis that David Lurie changes. It is Reinhart’s thesis that David Lurie does not undergo significant change in the novel. In answering McDonald, Reinhard analyzes each of Lurie’s changed vision in the context of two sets of questions—one regarding the redemptive potential of change in vision and the second regarding what it means to love one’s neighbor.
Reinhard devotes the first 1 ½ pages to this contextualization. In the middle of page 2, he announces his own project: he will respond to McDonald by questioning the redemptive nature of vision AND also questioning neighbor love. Reinhard then sets about defining and contextualizing the significance of erotic vision. On page 96, he begins his analysis of the three visions set forth by McDonald, addressing the limitations of each vision to indicate real change in Lurie. This might be the heart of your summary.
Reinhard moves from his analysis of the three visions to an analysis of neighborly love in Disgrace and the problems of living side-by-side with those whose presence may be a challenge. He places his case for the novel’s redemption in Lucy and her “blindness” to the evils she has suffered.
Once again your summary should be 2 pages long, double-spaced in MLA format.
.
English 102 Essay 2 First Draft Assignment Feminism and Hubris.docxbudabrooks46239
English 102 Essay 2 First Draft Assignment: “Feminism and Hubris”
MLA format
Write an essay in which you compare and contrast the play
Oedipus Rex
by Sophocles with the play
Trifles
by Susan Glaspell. You should focus on 3 or more of the following elements in your essay:
theme, character, setting, dialogue, stage directions, plot, and structure.
Please consider 1 or more of the following questions in your essay:
How is
Oedipus Rex
an example of ancient Greek drama, and how is
Trifles
an example of modern drama? Ancient Greek drama is often characterized by a ritualistic tone. The presence of a chorus is an example of this tone.
Is Susan Glaspell's
Trifles
an example of a feminist play? In a feminist story or play, the female characters typically struggle to assert their rights in a society dominated by men.
The title character in Sophocles’ play
Oedipus Rex
is often referred to as a tragic hero. A tragic hero or heroine begins the play as a well-loved person of stature, but that stature disappears, because of a tragic set of circumstances that (a) is foretold, (b) is inevitable, and (c) is brought about by the hero’s or heroine's own actions. Compare and contrast Oedipus, Creon, or another character from
Oedipus Rex
with Minnie Foster or another character from
Trifles.
Is Minnie a tragic heroine? Is Minnie’s tragic circumstance (being arrested for and possibly convicted of murder after killing her husband) foretold, inevitable, and brought about by her own actions, like Oedipus’s circumstance?
The final draft of your essay should be 5 to 7 double-spaced pages (and 1,200 to 1,500 words) in length, plus a works cited page. Your essay should have a
title
as well as a
thesis statement.
You must support each of your claims with quotations from the play(s) you choose to write about. After answering the above questions as part of the prewriting process, develop a Thesis Statement. Please consult the sample essay on drama in our literature book (in the chapter entitled “Writing about Plays”) for help on formatting in-text citations for plays (such as
Oedipus Rex
) that are divided into acts and scenes. Please study the sample works cited page below. Relax and have fun with this assignment!
Works Cited
Glaspell, Susan.
Trifles.
Literature: A Portable Anthology.
Ed. Janet E. Gardner, et al. 4th ed.
Bedford, 2016. pp. 909-920.
Sophocles.
Oedipus Rex.
Literature: A Portable Anthology.
Ed. Janet E. Gardner, et al. 4th ed.
Bedford, 2016. pp. 707-750.
.
English 102 Essay 2 Assignment Feminism and Hubris”Write a.docxbudabrooks46239
English 102 Essay 2 Assignment: “Feminism and Hubris”
Write an essay in which you compare and contrast the play
Oedipus Rex
by Sophocles with
the play
Trifles
by Susan Glaspell. You should focus on 3 or more of the following elements
in your essay:
theme, character, setting, dialogue, stage directions, plot, and structure.
Please
consider 1 or more of the following questions in your essay:
How is
Oedipus Rex
an example of ancient Greek drama, and how is
Trifles
an example
of modern drama? Ancient Greek drama is often characterized by a ritualistic tone. The
presence of a chorus is an example of this tone.
Is Susan Glaspell's
Trifles
an example of a feminist play? In a feminist story or play, the
female characters typically struggle to assert their rights in a society dominated by men.
The title character in Sophocles’ play
Oedipus Rex
is often referred to as a tragic hero. A
tragic hero or heroine begins the play as a well-loved person of stature, but that stature
disappears, because of a tragic set of circumstances that (a) is foretold, (b) is inevitable,
and (c) is brought about by the hero’s or heroine's own actions. Compare and contrast
Oedipus, Creon, or another character from
Oedipus Rex
with Minnie Foster or another
character from
Trifles.
Is Minnie a tragic heroine? Is Minnie’s tragic circumstance (being
arrested for and possibly convicted of murder after killing her husband) foretold,
inevitable, and brought about by her own actions, like Oedipus’s circumstance?
The final draft of your essay should be 5 to 7 double-spaced pages (and 1,200 to 1,500
words) in length, plus a works cited page. Your essay should have a
title
as well as a
thesis
statement.
You must support each of your claims with quotations from the play(s) you choose to
write about. After answering the above questions as part of the prewriting process, develop a
Thesis Statement. Please consult the sample essay on drama in our literature book (in the chapter
entitled “Writing about Plays”) for help on formatting in-text citations for plays (such as
Oedipus
Rex
) that are divided into acts and scenes. Please study the sample works cited page below.
Relax and have fun with this assignment!
Works Cited
Glaspell, Susan.
Trifles.
Literature: A Portable Anthology.
Ed. Janet E. Gardner, et al.
4th ed.
Bedford, 2016. pp. 909-920.
Sophocles.
Oedipus Rex.
Literature: A Portable Anthology.
Ed. Janet E. Gardner, et al.
4th ed.
Bedford, 2016. pp. 707-750.
.
ENGL112 WednesdayDr. Jason StarnesMarch 9, 2020Human Respo.docxbudabrooks46239
This document discusses how Art Spiegelman and Alison Bechdel both experienced generational trauma through their works "In The Shadow of No Towers" and "Fun Home", respectively. While the scale and time period of their traumas differed, both impacted and changed their behaviors. For Spiegelman, the 9/11 terrorist attacks became a trauma for himself and all Americans, causing anxiety and worry for his family's safety. Bechdel's trauma stemmed from the lack of societal acceptance of homosexuality during her childhood and father's closeted identity. The document analyzes how each author represented and dealt with their generational traumas through their artistic works.
English 101 - Reminders and Help for Rhetorical Analysis Paragraph.docxbudabrooks46239
English 101 - Reminders and Help for Rhetorical Analysis Paragraphs
1. Remember the “Rule of Thirds” for Body Paragraphs (Besides BP1 on Essay II)
Top 1/3 of Paragraph (about 4-5 sentences) – your development of an idea stated through a clear topic sentence and a group of follow up sentences that explain and ‘analyze’ the point.
-(P) main point of paragraph in the topic sentence
-(I) follow up and explanation of the idea, how it is true and its importance
Middle 1/3 of paragraph (4-5 sentences) – this section should be focused on ‘support’ of your that will in a sense prove the idea presented
-(E) Use of a specific example/evidence from the text or perhaps a ‘universal’ example to display and ‘show’ your audience what you mean or perhaps a secondary source
Final 1/3 (4-5 sentences) – summarize and reassert your main point in a fresh way.
-(S) Returning to your main point – you may have to transition out of your example to return back to your main idea. Be sure to restate it and perhaps change the context to analyze it in a new way.
2. Help Developing Main Points – Rhetorical Analysis
The I and S sections carry a lot of ‘weight’ because they are the areas where a student writer can show the depth of their thinking and comprehension of the idea presented. This is especially true with rhetorical analysis paragraphs: Target Audience, Message, Manipulation/Persuasion, Effectiveness, and/or Effect (an indiv. essay will not have all of these).
Asking questions of your main point is a great way to ‘dig’ for development of your idea. Here are some example questions for each RA paragraph that may help you plan/develop your I and S sections:
A. Target Audience (TA) – Why has this audience been chosen by the ‘company’/advertiser/text? What does knowing this TA tell you about the ad’s purpose/message? Why/how is this audience susceptible to the purpose/message of text.
B. Message – Why is this message being used by the ‘text’? How/why is this message meaningful to the audience? What is the message trying to make the audience feel or believe?
C. Manipulation/Persuasion – Explain a specific method/way the text tries to persuade the audience. How does this method of persuasion ‘work’ within the text? More generally, why is this approach to manipulation/persuasion used?
D. ***Effectiveness*** (prob. a paragraph only for ads) – How/why does the ad succeed or fail in its purpose? What could be done to make the ad more effective?
E. Effect – How does the add connect to, support, or create a problem in the real world? How/why does ad have this impact? How does the ‘effect’ benefit or damage the real life of audience?
English 101 - Essay II – Assignment
Texts Covered to Prepare for EII:
-“Why Good Advertising Works (Even When You Think It Doesn’t)” – Nigel Hollis
-“How Advertisers Are Manipulating You in Ways You Don’t Even Know” – video link provided on Canvas
-“Backpacks vs. Briefcases” - Laura Bolin Carroll
-“How Advertising Has Become an Agent o.
ENGL 301B Sections 12 & 15
Prof. Guzik Spring 2020
Assignment #2: Mis and Dis
Purpose and Logistics:
Normally, as we work on assignment #2 in ENGL 301B we would be revisiting key structural elements of essays more advanced than the Five-Paragraph-Style (FPS) Essay. However, many of the lessons that I usually use for this assignment to focus on global organization are activities that (despite my best efforts) are activities that I don’t have an easy fix for to convert them to activities that can be done at home or online. So this is going to be a bit awkward.
Instead, we’ll drill down on paragraph development and strategies for introductory paragraphs and concluding paragraphs.
Moreover, since many (but not all) of you are taking the class C/NC instead of for a letter grade, some of you will only plan to write two out of class essays instead of all three.
This assignment topic should be completed by all students taking the class who DO NOT plan to use A1 in the final portfolio. It’s another argumentative, thesis-driven essay, and every passing portfolio should have one. A3 is a more narrative topic (although it does involve some heavy-duty analysis.)
However, I am mindful that even though this assignment has two topic options, both of them may be close enough to current events that students who either struggle with issues of anxiety or who are easily distracted by news in our current study and work environments might find this assignment hard to complete, even if you choose to focus on political mis and dis instead of public health mis and dis. (Those terms will make sense soon.)
To that end, I am posting the materials for A2 and A3 at the same time and asking students to make the choices that work best for them when selecting which assignment to work on next.
When we hold online classes, we may divide up into A2 and A3 groups to discuss the topics. Stay tuned for details.
Readings:
Truth Decay: An Initial Exploration of the Diminishing Role of Facts and Analysis in American Public Life by Jennifer Kavanagh and Michael D. Rich (you are only required to read the summary and the introduction of this book-length report. If you choose to use this as a reading for your essay, you are welcome to draw on other parts of the text, but in no way required to.)
“Why We Believe Lies” by Cailin O’Connor and James Owen Weatherall. (This article was published in Scientific American but is locked behind a paywall if you try to google the article. I suggest using the Academic Search Complete database, which has the HTML version of the article. It was published in the September 2019 edition.)
“YouTube, The Great Radicalizer” by Zeynep Tufekci from The New York Times
“Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning” the executive summary published by the Stanford History Education Group in 2016.
“Misinformation Telephone” by Renee Diresta from Slate
Background:
Current events have driven home yet again that the infras.
ENGL 102Use the following template as a cover page for each writ.docxbudabrooks46239
ENGL 102
Use the following template as a cover page for each written essay:
Title of Assignment
COURSE # and TITLE_________________________________________
(e.g., ENGL 102: Literature and Composition)
SEMESTER OF ENROLLMENT_______________________
(e.g., Fall D 2017)
NAME_________________________________________ID #____________
WRITING STYLE USED_____________________________________________________
(e.g., MLA)
Page 1 of 1
ENGL 102
Research Paper Grading Rubric
Criteria
Levels of Achievement
Points Earned
Excellent/Good
Fair/Competent
Deficient
Development
(CCLO #2)
65 to 75 points
· Major points are stated clearly and are well-supported.
· Content is persuasive and comprehensive.
· Content and purpose of the writing are clear.
· Thesis has a strong claim.
· Audience is clear and appropriate for the topic.
· Supportive information (if required) is strong and addresses writing focus.
51 to 64 points
· Major points are addressed, but clarity or support is limited.
· Content is somewhat persuasive or comprehensive.
· Content is inconsistent (lack of clear purpose and/or clarity).
· Thesis could be stronger.
· Supportive information (if required) needs strengthening or does not address writing focus.
0 to 50 points
· Major points are unclear and/or insufficiently supported.
· Content is missing essentials.
· Content has unsatisfactory purpose, focus, and clarity.
· Supportive information (if required) is missing.
Organization and Structure
(CCLO #1)
65 to 75 points
· Writing is well-structured, clear, and easy-to-follow.
· Introduction is compelling and forecasts the topic and thesis.
· Each paragraph is unified and has a clear central idea.
· Transitional wording is present throughout the writing.
· Conclusion is a logical end to the writing.
· Word count is at least 1,500 words.
51 to 64 points
· Paper is adequately organized, but some areas are difficult to follow.
· Introduction needs to provide a stronger gateway into the writing.
· Some paragraphs lack unity and coherence.
· Better transitions are needed to provide fluency of ideas.
· Conclusion is trite or barely serves its purpose.
· Word count almost meets requirement.
0 to 50 points
· Organization and structure detract from the writer’s message.
· Introduction and/or conclusion is/are incomplete or missing.
· Paragraphs are not unified (e.g. more than 1 topic is included, missing or inadequate controlling and concluding sentences).
· Transitions are missing.
· Conclusion, if present, fails to serve its purpose.
· Word count does not meet requirement.
Grammar and Diction
(CCLO #1, #3)
65 to 75 points
· The writing reflects correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling standards.
· Language is accurate, appropriate, and effective.
· The writing’s tone is appropriate and highly effective.
· 51 to 64 points
· The writing contains some grammar, punctuation, and/or spelling errors.
· Language is unclear, awkward, or inappropriate in parts.
· The writing’s tone is gener.
ENGL2310 Essay 2 Assignment Due by Saturday, June 13, a.docxbudabrooks46239
ENGL2310: Essay 2 Assignment Due by Saturday, June 13, at 11:59pm Central
The Essay 2 assignment builds on the analytical skills you displayed in Essay 1, asking you to deepen those skills by applying two lenses to the readings. We’re also adding in our Weeks 5 and 6 reading, Heart of Darkness, a work of 20th-century literature. Exploring the intersection of two different themes is an opportunity to narrow your scope even further, giving you a stronger foundation for analysis.
For this assignment, you have the option to submit the essay as a normal Word document or as a digital text called a Sway. This is a chance to get experience with digital writing before the Final Project. (Here’s an example of a Sway that introduces postcolonial theory.) A multimodal approach with Sway opens many creative possibilities, but those should all be in service of enhancing a deep analysis.
Whichever mode of delivery you choose, the essay should have the elements of a scholarly literary analysis: APA or MLA citation style (you can skip the abstract!); a narrow, arguable thesis statement; separate supporting ideas with topic sentences/transitions; and a dynamic conclusion.
In this essay, you are expected to do the following:
1. Select two of the themes of postcolonial theory that you would like to explore. These will be the lenses through which you look at the literature. You’re more than welcome to stick to the same initial theme you chose for Essay 1 and add in a new one, or you could choose two entirely new themes to apply.
2. Describe the lenses and explain how/why they represent a promising combination. Why are they worthwhile to discuss in relationship to one another? How do they inform one another? How does the combination limit your approach in helpful, constructive, or opportune ways? Be specific.
3. Apply that lens to The Epic of Gilgamesh, The Tempest, and Heart of Darkness. This should be the bulk of your writing. How do the themes function within the story? What specific moments in the story are valuable for drawing deeper insights about the intersection between the two themes? Include balanced textual evidence, not simply general statements about the plot elements or characters. Ultimately, the analysis should answer this question: what do these three stories reveal about how these themes combine? What insight(s) can we take from the readings that apply beyond the literature?
Additional advice:
Your essay should be a postcolonial analysis, not just a character study or a general discussion of symbols in the literature. The focus on colonial relationships should not be difficult to maintain, especially as we’re tying in 20th-century literature that’s directly tied to actual colonial events. Don’t hesitate to reach out if you’re having trouble working through ideas or weighing your options.
As you can see in the rubric, a specific length is not part of the grading criteria, but successful essays are generally bet.
ENGL 151 Research EssayAssignment DetailsValue 25 (additio.docxbudabrooks46239
ENGL 151 Research Essay
Assignment Details
Value: 25% (additional 5% for Draft/Peer Review)
Due Date: Draft—Jun 10
Final—June 19
Length: 1500 words (does not count the references list)
Instructions
Write a 1,500 word argumentative essay in which you communicate and defend a thesis about a specific topic you have begun researching over the first four weeks of the term.
While your essay is based on your own opinion about a topic, the strength of your essay will depend on your ability to anticipate objections/questions from critical readers and address them by collecting and integrating supporting evidence from other texts. As always, I expect your argument to be thorough, well-reasoned, and concise. Don’t waste space with empty words.
Your analysis should have a strong, clear structure. As a guide, consider our standard conceptualization of essay format:
· Introduction paragraph containing (among other things) a clear thesis
· Body paragraphs discussing one aspect of the argument to support your thesis
· Conclusion paragraph that reminds readers of the thesis and major supporting ideas
Your essay must be formatted according to APA 7th edition guidelines, and you must cite both quotations and paraphrasing in APA style, which includes a References list.
Research
You must incorporate information from a minimum of five reliable and appropriate sources in your essay, at least one of which must be a scholarly article from the Camosun library database. Texts providing only general information (eg. dictionaries, encyclopedias, wikis) are not appropriate sources. Web resources from reliable sources (eg. American Medical Association, Statistics Canada) can be valuable, but extreme caution should be used when defining “reliable”. If you’re in doubt, discuss with other students and/or contact me.
Academic Honesty
Remember, plagiarism is a very serious offence. All borrowed material must be cited using APA style, and any paraphrasing must be significantly re-worded from the original material.
I expect you to limit the length of your quotations (all under 40 words long).
Essay Draft: Process and Grading
1. On Wednesday, June 10, before 12:00pm (noon), you will submit a draft of your research essay to the Essay Draft Drop Box on our D2L page. Your draft should be
· a complete essay that may lack the polish of a final draft
· fully cited in APA style, including in-text citations and a references list
· formatted in APA style (see sample on D2L)
· submitted without your name on it (don’t include it on the title page)
2. I will email you another student’s draft by 5:00pm the same day, and you will use the Peer Review Guide to give feedback on the student’s essay. The review process should only take 60 minutes max (that’s how long I give my students when we do this in class).
3. You will submit your feedback to the Peer Review Drop Box on D2L before Thursday, June 11, at 5:00pm.
The draft will be graded on a pass/fail basis. Failing to su.
ENGL 140 Signature Essay Peer Review Worksheet
AssignmentDirections: Your task is to provide high level feedback to at least one of your fellow classmates that should help them improve their final essay. You will need to complete, in its entirety, this peer review worksheet to help your fellow student.
PART ONE: DEMOGRAPHICS
Name of the student whose essay you reviewed:
Your Name: Daniel Placeres
PART TWO: ANALYSIS
Summarize, in three to five sentences, the overall argument being made in this essay. Share your opinion on how well you think this draft meets the assignment requirements.
INPUT: The overall argument mentions the association between bad health and low income. Daniel argues that poverty increases the risk of poor hygienic and health related issues. Mentioned, is the fact that without the proper income healthcare services are limited or not accessible to those in need.
I feel the draft does need more revision, but does meet the requirements provided to our class. I have a clear understanding of the link between poor health and poverty and believe we can make this a great paper.
PART THREE: CONTENT
Address each of the following questions, using complete sentences and specific examples when possible. Remember that you can give both positive and negative answers here to help highlight both the best aspects of the essay and address those areas that need revision.
Format
YES
NO
1
Does the essay use appropriate APA formatting, including double spacing, Times New Roman 12 point. Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and appropriate paragraph indentations?
N
2
Can you identify any areas where outside source information appears to be used when no in-text citations are included? Provide specific examples:
N
3
When in-text citations are used, do they follow APA formatting?
Y
4
Does the essay include the required 8 sources?
Y
5
Can you identify any issues with the references page? If so, please provide specific examples: hyperlinks, capitalizations (review “Poverty and health: thirty years of progress?”),
Y
Content
YES
NO
1
Can you identify the main argument being made?
Y
2
Can you identify the thesis statement? Does it make a claim that can be argued and clearly take a stance?
Y
3
Do each of the paragraphs in the essay work to directly support the argument being made in the essay?
Y
Organization
1. How effectively does the introduction engage the reader while providing an overview of the main controversy being addressed?
Introductory paragraph flows, however, his argument needs to be more clear. Before mentioning his point of view on poor health care linked to political injustice, he mentions a point on education, which weakens his argument by diverting the subject. Although I believe this is the argument he was attempting to make, he then begins the body of his essay by discussing correlations between poverty, healthcare, and lifestyle (e.g., diets), which once again scatters his topic.
2. How easily .
ENGINEERING ETHICSThe Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster.docxbudabrooks46239
ENGINEERING ETHICS
The Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster
Department of Philosophy and Department of Mechanical Engineering
Texas A&M University
NSF Grant Number
DIR-9012252
Instructor's Guide
Introduction To The Case
On January 28, 1986, seven astronauts were killed when the space shuttle they were piloting, the Challenger,
exploded just over a minute into the flight. The failure of the solid rocket booster O-rings to seat properly
allowed hot combustion gases to leak from the side of the booster and burn through the external fuel tank. The
failure of the O-ring was attributed to several factors, including faulty design of the solid rocket boosters,
insufficient low- temperature testing of the O-ring material and the joints that the O-ring sealed, and lack of
proper communication between different levels of NASA management.
Instructor Guidelines
Prior to class discussion, ask the students to read the student handout outside of class. In class the details of the
case can be reviewed with the aide of the overheads. Reserve about half of the class period for an open
discussion of the issues. The issues covered in the student handout include the importance of an engineer's
responsibility to public welfare, the need for this responsibility to hold precedence over any other responsibilities
the engineer might have and the responsibilities of a manager/engineer. A final point is the fact that no matter how
far removed from the public an engineer may think she is, all of her actions have potential impact. Essay #6,
"Loyalty and Professional Rights" appended at the end of the case listings in this report will be found relevant for
instructors preparing to lead class discussion on this case. In addition, essays #1 through #4 appended at the end
of the cases in this report will have relevant background information for the instructor preparing to lead
classroom discussion. Their titles are, respectively: "Ethics and Professionalism in Engineering: Why the Interest in
Engineering Ethics?;" "Basic Concepts and Methods in Ethics," "Moral Concepts and Theories," and
"Engineering Design: Literature on Social Responsibility Versus Legal Liability."
Questions for Class Discussion
1. What could NASA management have done differently?
2. What, if anything, could their subordinates have done differently?
3. What should Roger Boisjoly have done differently (if anything)? In answering this question, keep in mind
that at his age, the prospect of finding a new job if he was fired was slim. He also had a family to support.
4. What do you (the students) see as your future engineering professional responsibilities in relation to both
being loyal to management and protecting the public welfare?
The Challenger Disaster Overheads
1. Organizations/People Involved
2. Key Dates
3. Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) Joints
4. Detail of SRB Field Joints
5. Ballooning Effect of Motor Casing
6. Key Issues
ORGANIZATIONS/PEOPLE INVOLV.
Engaging Youth Experiencing
Homelessness
Core Practices and Services
National Health Care for the Homeless Council
January 2016
DISCLAIMER
This project was supported by the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) of the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) under grant number U30CS09746,
a National Training and Technical Assistance Cooperative Agreement for $1,625,741, with 0%
match from nongovernmental sources. This information or content and conclusions are those of
the author and should not be construed as the official position or policy of, nor should any
endorsements be inferred by HRSA, HHS or the U.S. Government.
All material in this document is in the public domain and may be used and reprinted without
special permission. Citation as to source, however, is appreciated.
Suggested citation: National Health Care for the Homeless Council (January 2016). Engaging
Youth Experiencing Homelessness: Core Practices & Services [Author: Juli Hishida, Project Manager.]
Nashville, TN: Available at: www.nhchc.org.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are owed to the National Health Care for the Homeless Clinicians’ Network (CN)
Steering Committee, the CN Engaging Homeless Youth advisory work group, and the individual
clinicians, administrators, and consumers interviewed for this project. Without their willingness to
share valuable information about their organization and their experiences this publication would
not be possible. Additional thanks to Council staff members who reviewed and contributed to the
research process and this publication.
Engaging Homeless Youth Advisory Work Group Members:
Amy Grassette
Consumer Advisory Board Chair
Community Healthlink
Bella Christodoulou, LCSW
Social Worker
Tulane Drop-In Health Services
Brian Bickford, LMHC
Director of Primary Care and Homeless Svcs
Community Healthlink
Cicely Campbell, BS
Volunteer Coordinator
Tulane Drop-In Health Services
Debbian Fletcher-Blake, APRN, FNP
Assistant Executive Director, Clinic
Administrator
Care for the Homeless
Deborah McMillan, LSW
Assistant Vice President of Social Services
Public Health Management Corporation
Eowyn Rieke, MD, MPH
Physician
Outside In
Heather McIntosh, MS
Research Project Coordinator
University of Oklahoma School of
Community Medicine
Heidi Holland, M.Ed
Program Manager
The National LGBT Health Education
Center
Mark Fox, MD
Medical Director/ Associate Dean for
Community Health and Research
Development
Street Outreach Clinic/ University of
Oklahoma School of Community Medicine
Mollie Sullivan, LMHC
Licensed Mental Health Counselor
Health Care for the Homeless/ Mercy
Medical Center
Rachael Kenney, MA
Associate
Center for Social Innovation
Ric Munoz, JD
Assistant Clinical Professor of Social Work
University of Oklahoma School of Social
Work
Robin Scott, MD
Pediatrician
Community Health Center of South Bronx .
Engaging Families to Support Indigenous Students’ Numeracy Devel.docxbudabrooks46239
Engaging Families to Support Indigenous Students’ Numeracy Development
Abstract
Indigenous children are performing poorly in mathematical skills compared to their non-indigenous counterparts in the classroom. Reasons such as unequal education opportunities and socio-economic factors have been put forward by education scholars to justify this statement. This paper will look at some of the learning and teaching strategies that can be used in Australian education to help indigenous students in improving their numeracy skills. https://yourhomeworkaide.info/2021/06/02/briefly-describe-an-organization-with-which-you-are-familiar-describe-a-situati/ The teaching and learning skills will revolve around engaging the families, improving the relationship between home and school, and bridging the cultural gap. The parents, the community and the educators have crucial roles in implementing these learning and teaching strategies.
Introduction
Numeracy skills have been an issue in the academic endeavors of many students in Australia. More so the numeracy skills are relatively poor in indigenous students compared to non-indigenous; the achievement gap between indigenous and non-indigenous widen over time and there is worrying evidence that the size of gap in recent years has been increasing (Klenowski, 2009). Indigenous people have not been recognized in the constitution therefore they are living as immigrants in their own mother land; this means they have been sidelined in national development activities, such as education, making it difficult to close the achievement gap between them and non-indigenous people.
Many people use the word numeracy interchangeably with mathematical skills, even though related, numeracy is a broad field that involves mathematical skills, problem solving and communication skills. Numeracy goes beyond the learning process that is mainly employed in a school setting; numeracy involves the understanding of quantitative techniques that are used to communicate, solve problems, respond to issues and help in the day to day undertakings. It is almost next to impossible to achieve numeracy skills without literacy.
Indigenous students have poor numeracy skills that are as a result economic, policy and pedagogical issues. The high levels of truancy and low performance can be attributed to the economic challenges that indigenous students undergo. Educational policies have not been able to provide a level playing grounds for indigenous and non-indigenous children, there has been unequal opportunities in terms of financing, tutelage and the curriculum. All these issues can be solved by engaging the parents and communities in the decision making processes on education issues especially those regarding indigenous students. https://intellectualessay.com/2021/05/08/mgmt2021-business-law-legal-systems-in-the-caribbean/
Literature Review
Pre-schooling
In order to improve the numeracy achievement gap between non-indigenous and indigenous s.
Endocrine Attendance QuestionsWhat is hypopituitarism and how .docxbudabrooks46239
Endocrine Attendance Questions
What is hypopituitarism and how is it managed?
Compare and contrast the pathophysiology of Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH) and Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
Discuss the pathophysiology of Graves disease and include signs and symptoms associated with this disorder.
Discuss the pathophysiology of congenital hypothyroidism and the therapeutic management
Discuss the therapeutic management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
.
ENG 130 Literature and Comp ENG 130 Research Essay E.docxbudabrooks46239
ENG 130: Literature and Comp
ENG 130: Research Essay
Essay ENG 130: Research Essay
This assignment focuses on your ability to: evaluate researched source materials to be
academic, valid, and reliable; to incorporate research fluidly into an essay format; to cite researched
information properly in APA format.
The purpose of completing this assignment is: learning how to research valid and reliable
sources is an important lifelong skill for school, career, and personal life. You will need to know how
to synthesize researched information and present it effectively. As a student of Post, please be sure
you use this assignment to solidify your mastery of APA text citations. Ask your instructor questions!
______________________________________________________________
Prompt (what you are writing about):
Who is August Wilson and how do his plays in The Pittsburgh Cycle—particularly Fences—
reflect the society in which they are set?
Instructions (How to get it done):
Research August Wilson, his life, The Pittsburgh Cycle of plays, and how they reflect the eras
in which the plays are set.
You must have at least four outside sources that are academic and reliable.
Create an essay that is 2 to 3 pages and relates the following information:
o August Wilson’s life and accomplishments
o The plays that are included in Wilson’s The Pittsburgh Cycle including brief summaries
each play.
o Research on the era and location in which Fences is set.
This is a research essay and not an argumentative essay.
Include direct quotes and paraphrases from your researched information
Be sure that you have in text citations and corresponding reference citations for all quoted
material, paraphrased material, and newly researched material.
Requirements:
Length and format: 2-3 pages.
The title page and reference page are also required, but they should not be factored into the
2-3 page length of the essay.
It should also be double spaced, written in Times New Roman, in 12 point font and with 1 inch
margins. Essay should conform to APA formatting and citation style.
Use the third-person, objective voice, avoiding personal pronouns such as “I,” “you,” “we,” etc.
Please use the above source and at least four outside sources to create a properly-formatted
APA reference page.
Use APA format for in-text citations and references when using outside sources and textual
evidence.
Please be cautious about plagiarism. Make sure to use in-text citations for direct quotes,
paraphrases, and new information.
Source: Fences by August Wilson (pages 1270-1331)
Research Essay Rubric
Does Not Meet
Expectations
0-11
Below
Expectations
12-13
Needs
Improvement
14-15
Satisfactory
16-17
Meets
Expectations
18-20
Organization Many details are
not in a logical or
expected order.
The paper does
not use
paragraphs.
Writing may have
little discernible
.
ENG 201 01 Summer I Presentation Assignment· Due , June 7, .docxbudabrooks46239
ENG 201 01 Summer I Presentation Assignment
· Due: , June 7, at 1:00 p.m. EST
· Length: 5-7 minutes
· Format: MLA or APA style (including in-text citations and list of Works Cited/References)
· Submit to: Moodle
· Prompt: Your presentation will focus on the author of your selected book. The goal of the presentation is to inform your audience about the author’s life and literary career. Here are some questions to consider:
What are their most important publications?
What awards have they won?
How have critics and the public received their work?
Has their work generated any controversy?
Who are their literary influences?
Incorporate multi-modal elements (handout, audio/visual clip, PowerPoint, etc.) in your presentation. It is imperative that you work on this assignment consistently throughout the term.
· When doing research to learn more about the author and text, be sure to use scholarly sources. There is information about distinguishing between scholarly and popular sources here:
http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/peabody/tutorial_files/scholarlyfree/
. A good database to begin your research with is the Literary Reference Center Plus (access available through TU’s library website). Here is a link to the library’s website:
http://www.tiffin.edu/library/
.
·
Authors:
Al-Sanea, Rajaa (
Girls of Riyadh
)
.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
2. about the
conditions under which coaching versus directive forms of team
leader-
ship are more effective, or the processes through which team
leadership
styles influence team outcomes. In the present study, the
authors found that
coaching leadership was more effective than directive
leadership when the
team leader was highly charismatic and less effective than
directive leader-
ship when the team leader lacked charisma. Directive leadership
was more
effective than coaching leadership when team members were
high in
self-efficacy and less effective than coaching leadership when
team members
lacked self-efficacy. The moderating effects of leader charisma
and team
member self-efficacy were mediated through motivational
pathways involving
team member effort.
Keywords
teams, leadership, motivation
A growing body of research highlights how important leader
behaviors are
for team performance (DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, &
Humphrey, in press;
622 Small Group Research 41(5)
3. Druskat & Wheeler, 2003; Durham, Knight, & Locke, 1997). In
fact, Zaccaro,
Rittman, and Marks (2001) suggest that effective leadership is
one of the
more important factors in the success of organizational teams.
Yet at the same
time, we still have a limited understanding of how leaders
create and manage
effective teams (Burke et al., 2006; Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, &
Cannon-
Bowers, 1996; Zaccaro et al., 2001).
Research indicates that team leaders engage in a variety of
behaviors
aimed at facilitating team functioning and performance
(Morgeson, DeRue,
& Karam, 2010). One approach involves encouraging the team
to manage its
own affairs and developing the team’s capacity to function
effectively with-
out direct intervention from the team leader. First identified by
Manz and
Sims (1987), and later analyzed by many other scholars (e.g.,
Hackman &
Wageman, 2005; Morgeson, 2005; Wageman, 2001), this form
of leadership
focuses on coaching the team and empowering its self-
management. This
coaching form of leadership is particularly important given that
team leaders
are sometimes external to a team and not involved in its daily
task activities.
Using in-depth interviews and survey-based research, Manz and
Sims found
that team leaders who encourage and coach team self-
management via self-
4. observation, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement were more
effective than
leaders who did not. Likewise, other researchers have found that
supportive
coaching by a team leader can lead to more effective group
processes, such as
learning and adaptation, and ultimately to higher levels of team
performance
(e.g., Edmondson, 1999; Wageman, 2001). In fact, coaching has
been estab-
lished as an important team leadership behavior in a broad array
of contexts,
including nursing (Hayes & Kalmakis, 2007), sports (Amorose
& Horn,
2000; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004), and group therapy
(Cohen,
Mannarino, & Knudsen, 2005).
In contrast to the coaching form of leadership, some team
leaders engage
in a more directive style by actively intervening in a team
(Morgeson, 2005).
This approach involves setting clear expectations and goals,
providing
instructions to team members, monitoring team member
performance, and
directly implementing corrective actions in the team. Research
indicates that
this more directive form of leadership can also enhance team
performance.
For example, in their study of team self-management, Manz and
Sims (1987)
also examined more directive forms of leadership and found
these directive
leader behaviors led to positive team leader evaluations.
Likewise, Pearce
5. and Sims (2002) showed that directive leader behaviors can lead
to higher
team performance.
In their meta-analytic summary, Burke et al. (2006) showed that
these dif-
ferent leadership styles (coaching vs. directive) can both have
positive effects
DeRue et al. 623
on team performance. But at the same time, there is an emerging
recognition
in the team leadership literature that the relative effectiveness
of these different
styles may depend on other factors. For example, Kozlowski,
Gully, Salas,
et al. (1996) discussed how leader behaviors interact with a
team’s stage of
development to shape team processes and performance. In their
model,
effective leaders focus on coaching team members and building
shared affect
and attitudes during early stages of team development but then
shift their
attention to applying and directing team capabilities later on.
Other scholars
have argued that the effectiveness of team leader behaviors
depends on the
nature of a team’s context (e.g., novel events that disrupt team
functioning;
Morgeson, 2005) and such team design features as task
interdependence,
team size, and resource availability (Wageman, 2001). It seems
6. likely that the
relationship between leader behaviors and team performance is
contingent on
a variety of factors.
Although they recognize the importance of such contingencies,
existing
models of team leadership suffer from three important
limitations. First, the
discussion of contingencies in these models is generally limited
to factors
that are external to the team’s members (e.g., task
characteristics, team size,
event types). A notable exception can be found in a recent study
by Yun,
Faraj, and Sims (2005), who showed that coaching leadership is
more effec-
tive for highly experienced teams, but directive leadership is
more effective
for less experienced teams. This suggests that the characteristics
of team
members can shape how they respond to coaching and directive
behaviors by
a leader. We believe that models of team leadership need to
incorporate other
team member characteristics as potential contingency factors.
A second limitation in existing models of team leadership is
that they
rarely consider characteristics of the leader and how such
characteristics can
shape the relationship between leader behaviors and team
performance. This
is an important theoretical gap because leader characteristics
likely influence
how effective team leaders are at engaging in different types of
7. behaviors.
For example, coaching leadership is aimed at developing team
member
capabilities and helping team members learn to work together
effectively.
Leader characteristics (e.g., charisma, social influence skills)
that enable
someone to be more effective at motivating team members to
embrace change
should thus enhance the degree to which coaching leadership
facilitates team
performance.
Finally, existing models of team leadership stop short of
identifying the
underlying mechanisms that explain any contingencies in the
link between
leader behavior and team performance. In their review of the
team leadership
literature, Burke et al. (2006) noted that a key “line of inquiry
[for future
624 Small Group Research 41(5)
research] concerns the identification of the underlying
mechanisms via which
leadership in teams contributes to both team performance and
performance
outcomes” (p. 302).
The purpose of our study is to address these limitations by
developing a
motivationally based contingency model of team leadership. In
our model,
8. the relationship between a leader’s behaviors and team
performance is con-
tingent on the leader’s charisma and the efficacy of his or her
team members.
We consider two specific behavioral approaches to team
leadership: a coach-
ing approach and a directive approach. Our focus on coaching
and directive
leadership draws on and extends prior research that
conceptualizes team
leadership along these two dimensions (Burke et al., 2006; Yun
et al., 2005).
Adopting a motivational perspective, we then theorize that
coaching and
directive leader behaviors interact with leader charisma and
team member
self-efficacy to differentially affect team performance. We
argue that these
contingencies operate through their effects on team member
motivation,
especially the amount of effort that team members devote to
their tasks. Thus,
not only does our theorizing identify new contingencies in team
leadership,
but it also extends current theory by offering insight into the
underlying
motivational mechanisms that explain the team performance
implications of
complex interactions among team leader behaviors, leader
characteristics,
and team member characteristics.
Coaching and Directive Forms
of Team Leadership
Behavioral perspectives on leadership have flourished since the
mid-20th
9. century, and so by now, there are numerous systems for
classifying leader
behaviors (see Fleishman et al., 1991 for a review). Despite the
proliferation
of these classification systems, recent reviews suggest there are
two basic
behavioral approaches to team leadership: a coaching (or
developmental),
person-focused approach and a directive, task-focused approach
(Burke
et al., 2006; Pearce et al., 2003).
Leaders engage in coaching behaviors to develop a team’s
capacity to
perform key functions. They do this by encouraging team
members to take
responsibility for, and work together to fulfill, such functions.
Coaching leaders
help team members (when needed) to make coordinated and
task-appropriate
use of their collective resources, and they help team members
through any
performance problems that arise (Hackman & Wageman, 2005).
Coaching
leaders refrain from actively intervening in and assuming
responsibility for
the day-to-day tasks assigned to team members. When
performance problems
DeRue et al. 625
occur, coaching leaders leverage these episodes as learning and
developmental
opportunities for team members, rather than directly intervening
10. in the task.
Such leaders consistently encourage team members to assume
responsibility
for their own actions and performance.
In comparison, directive leadership represents a more active and
intrusive
approach to team leadership (Pearce et al., 2003). Directive
leaders set the
team’s direction, assign goals for the team and team members,
and give team
members specific instructions about their tasks, including what
is expected of
them, how it should be done, and when it must be completed. A
directive
leader sets clear expectations for the team and then monitors
events to make
sure the team is performing according to plan. When team
members are not
performing well, directive leaders not only point out the
performance prob-
lems, but also direct poorly performing team members, telling
them what to
do and how to do it.
In our study, we examined the conditions under which each of
these
approaches to team leadership is most effective. Existing
research does not
sufficiently consider possible contingencies in team leadership
or the under-
lying mechanisms that explain these relationships. We theorized
that the
effectiveness of coaching versus directive leadership depends
on the charac-
teristics of both a team’s leader and those of the team’s
11. members. In other
words, either a coaching or a directive approach to leadership
can be effective
when employed by the right leader, in the right context. In the
next section,
we identify two important contingency factors and explain how
they can
influence team performance through their impact on the efforts
of team
members.
Contingencies in Team Leadership:
A Motivational Perspective
In our contingency model of team leadership, we posit that team
member
motivation is one mechanism through which coaching and
directive leadership
affect team performance. Given our interest in motivational
factors, we
focused on leader charisma as a leader attribute that can
moderate how direc-
tive and coaching team leadership influence team performance.
Charisma is
important because it is one of the key resources that leaders can
use to moti-
vate their followers (Bass, 1985; Ilies, Judge, & Wagner, 2006).
We also
focused on the moderating effects of team members’ perceptions
of self-
efficacy. Efficacy beliefs are important because they represent
an underlying
source of effort among team members that can be directed at a
team’s task
(Bandura, 1997). In this sense, leader charisma and team
member self-efficacy
12. 626 Small Group Research 41(5)
serve as distinct contingency factors that originate from
different sources, but
may operate through a common motivational pathway. An
illustration of our
model is presented in Figure 1.
Leader Charisma
Charismatic leaders are those who “by the force of their
personal abilities are
capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on
followers” (House
& Baetz, 1979, p. 399). Charismatic leaders are often seen as
agents of
change who are particularly skilled at improving the
performance of followers
and seeking radical reforms in them to achieve a vision or goal
(Conger &
Kanungo, 1987). In essence, charisma is a resource that can
enable leaders
to be more effective at facilitating change by developing
followers’ beliefs
and actions in ways that ultimately produce more effective
methods for
accomplishing an objective. The potential for leader charisma to
positively
affect group outcomes has been illustrated across several
studies done in
many organizational contexts (Bass, 1990; Dvir, Eden, Avolio,
& Shamir, 2002;
Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).
First, we focus on how leader charisma affects coaching
13. behaviors. For
coaching leaders, the primary aim is to develop team members’
individual
capabilities and their ability to work together effectively. As
Hackman and
Wageman (2005) note, coaching leaders “help members learn
new and more
effective team behaviors” (p. 270). Coaching leaders help team
members
Team Leader Behavior
(Coaching/Directive)
Team Member
Self-Efficacy
Leader
Charisma
Team
Performance
Team Member
Motivation
Figure 1. Contingencies in team leadership: A motivational
perspective
DeRue et al. 627
align their performance behaviors with the demands of the task
environment
and seek to foster the development of team members’ skills and
knowledge
14. related to the team task (Hackman & Wageman, 2005;
Kozlowski, Gully,
McHugh, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1996; Schwartz, 1994). So,
coaching
leaders who are charismatic should be more effective at
fostering change and
developing their teams. In contrast, coaching leaders who lack
charisma may
find it difficult to inspire team members in ways that foster
development and
encourage the team to find ways to perform its tasks better.
Whereas high
levels of charisma are an asset for coaching leaders, low levels
of charisma
are a liability.
We posit that charisma is an asset for coaching leaders because
charisma
affects team members’ motivation. Theories of charismatic
leadership often
emphasize motivational factors (Bass, 1985; House, 1977), and
research
suggests that charismatic leaders produce heightened levels of
activation in
followers, which lead in turn to increased levels of effort and
motivation
(Ilies et al., 2006; Shamir, Zakay, Breinin, & Popper, 1998).
In contrast to coaching leadership, directive leadership is much
less about
developing team members’ capabilities. Directive leaders
provide team mem-
bers with a clear course of action by communicating
expectations, goals, and
specific task instructions. As some have argued, in the
substitutes for leader-
15. ship literature (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater & James, 2002;
Kerr & Jermier,
1978), team members with a clear course of action have less to
gain from the
inspirational actions of charismatic leaders. There is simply less
need for
leadership because the team understands its mission and the
path required
for achieving that mission. The expectations and goals set by a
directive
leader help team members to focus their efforts. Thus, whereas
a lack of
charisma can be a liability for coaching leaders, it may not be a
problem for
directive leaders.
Thus, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 1: The relationship between team leader behaviors
and
team performance will be moderated by leader charisma such
that
(a) when leader charisma is high, coaching team leadership will
be
more effective than directive team leadership and (b) when
leader
charisma is low, directive team leadership will be more
effective
than coaching team leadership.
Hypothesis 2: The moderating effect of leader charisma on team
leader
behaviors will be mediated by team member effort.
16. 628 Small Group Research 41(5)
Team Member Self-Efficacy
Theories of leadership in general (e.g., Hersey & Blanchard,
1982), and of
team leadership in particular (e.g., Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, et
al., 1996),
often claim that the appropriateness of leader behaviors depends
on the fol-
lowers. Of particular importance is what followers believe about
their ability
to accomplish the task at hand. These beliefs determine how
much task-
related effort followers will expend and how long that effort
will be sustained
in the face of challenging situations (Bandura, 1986; Dweck,
1986; Farr,
Hofmann, & Ringenbach, 1993). Moreover, team members often
have diffi-
culty focusing on team goals and developing appropriate team
strategies,
until they are sure that they can perform their own roles
effectively (Kozlowski,
Gully, Nason, & Smith, 1999). Self-efficacy embodies beliefs
relevant to
these issues. Self-efficacy is defined as “people’s judgments of
their capabili-
ties to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated
types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Individuals
who perceive
themselves as efficacious can muster sufficient effort to
produce successful
outcomes. Individuals who do not perceive themselves as
efficacious are less
17. likely to muster and sustain such effort. Meta-analytic evidence
supports
these claims (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).
We theorize that the impact of directive and coaching leadership
on team
performance will depend on the average level of team member
self-efficacy.
This is different than collective efficacy, which focuses on
beliefs shared
among team members about their team’s ability to achieve its
overall objec-
tives (DeRue, Hollenbeck, Ilgen & Feltz, 2010; Gully,
Incalcaterra, Joshi, &
Beaubien, 2002; Tasa, Taggar, & Seijts, 2007). We focus on
self-efficacy
because we believe that individual beliefs about personal
abilities, as opposed
to any collective beliefs about a team, will be more predictive
of team
members’ motivational reactions to team leader behaviors. This
is because
motivation and reactions to leader behaviors are individual
processes and not
the property of a team.
Directive leaders facilitate team performance by setting
expectations,
giving team members specific instructions, and then monitoring
team mem-
bers’ performance for any problems that need to be corrected.
When team
members have high self-efficacy, the directive leader’s
expectations and
task-specific instructions provide a target toward which team
members can
18. direct the effort and motivation that comes from feeling
efficacious.
Compared with team members with low self-efficacy, those with
high self-
efficacy are more likely to feel that they can accomplish task
objectives. As
a result, they are more likely to put forth effort and persist until
those
DeRue et al. 629
objectives are accomplished. Thus, directive leaders have a
much greater
pool of team member motivation to draw on when team member
self-efficacy
is high.
If team members suffer from low self-efficacy, however, then
we expect
them to respond to directive leadership negatively. Less
efficacious team
members will feel that they cannot meet the leader’s
expectations or effec-
tively carry out the leader’s instructions, and so they will be
less likely to put
forth the effort required to accomplish task objectives. In other
words, direc-
tive leaders are attempting to set expectations and give specific
instructions
to people who already have low expectations regarding task
performance,
and who lack the motivation necessary to persist when task
objectives are not
initially met. As Kozlowski, Gully, Salas, et al.’s (1996) model
19. of team lead-
ership suggests, it is more appropriate for leaders who have
followers with
low self-efficacy to employ a coaching approach. When
coaching their
followers, such leaders should try to develop the capacity of
team members
in ways that enhance their capacity to perform effectively. By
taking a coaching
approach, a team leader can sometimes build team members’
sense of
efficacy and reshape their expectancies regarding task
performance in ways
that increase their motivation and capacity to perform.
Thus, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 3: The relationship between team leader behaviors
and
team performance will be moderated by team member self-
efficacy
such that (a) when team member self-efficacy is low, coaching
team
leadership will be more effective than directive team leadership
and
(b) when team member self-efficacy is high, directive team
leader-
ship will be more effective than coaching team leadership.
Hypothesis 4: The moderating effect of team member self-
efficacy on
team leader behaviors will be mediated by team member effort.
Method
Research Participants and Task
20. Research participants were 400 upper-level undergraduate
students enrolled
in an introductory management course at a large Midwestern
university.
Their average age was 21.8 years; 53.8% of the participants
were male. Each
student was part of a team that consisted of four regular
members and one
leader, resulting in a total of 80 teams. All individuals were
randomly
630 Small Group Research 41(5)
assigned to teams and all teams were randomly assigned to
experimental
conditions. In return for their participation, the students
received class credit
and were eligible for a cash prize. At the end of each
experimental session,
the top performing team based on overall team performance was
awarded
$10 per team member.
Participants engaged in a dynamic, networked, military
command-and-
control simulation. The task was a modified version of a
simulation called
Dynamic Decision Making (DDD; see Hollenbeck et al., 2002
and Moon et al.,
2004 for details) that was developed to study team behavior.
This version of
the simulation was suitable for teams with little or no military
experience. In
our study, each team engaged in two 30-minute simulation
21. exercises that
were the same across all teams. In each exercise, team members
were charged
with keeping unfriendly targets from moving into a restricted
geographic
space while allowing friendly targets to travel freely throughout
that space.
Each team member had four vehicles that he or she could use to
travel through
and monitor the space.
This task required a high degree of interdependence among team
mem-
bers. For instance, each member was stationed at a single
computer terminal
and could only monitor a specific portion of the geographic
space from that
terminal. Individually, no team member could monitor all the
targets in the
space, but collectively, the team could monitor the entire space
and all of the
targets. Furthermore, each team member had only a single type
of vehicle
(four in total), and the vehicles differed in their speed and
power. Certain
targets could only be disabled by certain types of vehicles.
Thus, team mem-
bers had to work together in order to identify the targets as
either friendly or
unfriendly and then to successfully engage all the unfriendly
targets. Together,
these features of the task ensured that team members were
interdependent,
which met the common definition of teams in the literature
(Kozlowski &
Bell, 2003).
22. The team leader was not positioned at a computer terminal.
Instead, he or
she was free to move around and interact with team members.
This provided
the team leader with several unique abilities. For example, the
leader was the
only person who could monitor the entire geographic space.
This allowed the
leader to monitor team members’ actions, identify opportunities
and threats
for the team, and facilitate team member coordination and
communication.
Moreover, the team leader was free to interact with team
members in ways
that were consistent with the leadership manipulation. For
example, if the
leader needed to coach team members, provide them with
instructions, or
implement corrective actions, then he or she was free to do so.
DeRue et al. 631
Procedure
Each team was scheduled for a 3-hour session. Roles within the
teams were
randomly assigned. The leader role was assigned first; then the
leader was
given private instructions according to the experimental
condition.
Subsequently, the team member roles were assigned.
All individuals and teams, regardless of experimental condition,
23. next
received (the same) training on the simulation. This training
consisted of two
separate modules. First, all participants watched a 15-minute
video that intro-
duced them to the simulation. Second, all participants were
given hands-on
instruction and time to practice all the possible tasks in the
simulation. This
second module, which lasted approximately 45 minutes, allowed
participants
to learn the basic computer mouse movements and operations
associated with
the simulation.
After their training was complete, team members completed an
online sur-
vey that included a self-efficacy measure. The trainer then
informed the team
of a performance-based incentive. Teams had an opportunity to
earn up to
$50 based on their overall performance in the simulation. Prior
to the first
simulation exercise, teams were given 5 minutes to discuss their
strategies for
the simulation. Most teams used the entire time exactly in this
way. The teams
then performed the first of two 30-minute simulations. Between
the first and
second simulation, the leader was instructed (privately) to lead
a team discus-
sion session and prepare the team for the next simulation using
behaviors
consistent with the leadership manipulation. Teams were given
approxi-
mately 10 minutes to discuss their performance strategies
24. between the simu-
lations, and again, most teams used the entire time for such
discussions.
Teams then performed the second simulation. After completing
that simula-
tion, team members and their leader completed another survey,
which
included the measure of leader charisma. Teams were then
informed of their
performance relative to other teams in the experimental session,
and the top
performing team was rewarded. To conclude the research
session, partici-
pants were thanked for their participation.
Manipulations and Measures
Team leader behavior. All teams were randomly assigned to one
of two
conditions. In the coaching condition, the leader was instructed
to support the
growth and development of his or her team. In the directive
condition, the
leader was instructed to set the team’s direction and goals,
establish expectations
for the team, and actively direct the actions of team members by
providing
632 Small Group Research 41(5)
explicit instructions, monitoring team performance for
opportunities to make
corrective actions, and then implementing those corrective
actions. The spe-
25. cific instructions given to team leaders can be found in
Appendix A.
We assessed the effectiveness of this manipulation by
measuring the
degree to which team members perceived their leader as
engaging in direc-
tive leader behaviors. Two items were used for this
manipulation check:
“When it comes to my team’s work, my team leader gave
instructions on how
to carry it out” and “My team leader set challenging and
realistic goals.”
Ratings of each item were made using a 5-point scale (1 =
strongly disagree;
5 = strongly agree). The two ratings made by each person were
averaged
together to produce a single index (coefficient alpha was .82,
indicating that
the index had good reliability). We expected team leaders in the
directive
condition to earn higher index scores than team leaders in the
coaching con-
dition, and that is in fact what occurred. The mean index score
for leaders in
the directive condition (M = 3.77) was significantly higher than
the mean
score for leaders in the coaching condition (M = 3.53), t(df) =
1.81(79), p <
.05, one-tailed. To see whether team members agreed in their
assessments of
the leader, we computed the intraclass correlation coefficient
(ICC) as a test
of intermember reliability. James (1982) recommends using the
ICC as a cri-
terion for aggregation, and in this case, we found support for
26. aggregation
(ICC
1
= .29; ICC
2
= .62; p < .01). These results provided evidence supporting
the validity of our leader behavior manipulation.
Leader charisma. After the second simulation, but before team
results were
shared, team members were asked to rate the leader’s charisma
using Yukl and
Falbe’s (1991) measure. This measure included three items (see
Appendix B for
the actual items). On each item, participants made a rating on a
5-point scale
(1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Once again, an
index was created
by averaging the ratings together. The coefficient alpha for that
index was .88,
indicating that it had good reliability, and aggregation analyses
again sug-
gested that team members agreed in their assessments of the
leader (ICC
1
=
.30; ICC
2
= .63; p < .01). We also asked team leaders to rate their own
cha-
27. risma using the same three items, which were also averaged to
produce an
index of leader charisma (α = .92). These self-ratings converged
with the team
member ratings (r = .33; p < .05), providing additional support
for the cha-
risma measure.
Team member self-efficacy. After the training session, but
before the first
simulation exercise, each team member completed Quinones’s
(1995) mea-
sure of self-efficacy. This measure included 10 items (see
Appendix B). Team
members rated each item on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly
disagree; 5 = strongly
agree). Ratings across the 10 items were averaged together to
produce an
DeRue et al. 633
index. The coefficient alpha for that index was .92, indicating
that it had good
reliability. To obtain an aggregate assessment of team members’
self-efficacy,
we calculated the mean score for the team. Agreement was
unnecessary in
this case because we are focused on team members’ self-
efficacy ratings and
therefore used an additive model (Klein & Kozlowski, 2000) for
operational-
izing the construct.
Team member effort. To assess team member effort, we
28. measured how
quickly team members identified and engaged targets. Speed of
identification
and speed of engagement (two separate variables) provide good
measures of
effort because all the tasks involved a simple point-and-click
operation of the
computer mouse, making it unlikely that any skill or ability-
related differ-
ences among team members would affect how quickly members
identified or
engaged targets. Speed of identification was operationalized as
the number of
seconds that elapsed between the time a target appeared in the
geographic
space and the time that target was identified by a team member.
Speed of
engagement was operationalized as the number of seconds that
elapsed
between the time a target appeared in the geographic space and
the time that
target was engaged by a team member. Because a greater
number of seconds
reflected slower play, and thus less effort, we reverse-coded
each measure so
that higher numbers reflected more effort. To obtain an
assessment of team
members’ effort, we calculated the mean score for the team
across both simu-
lation exercises. The correlation between speed of identification
in the first
and second simulations was .74 (p < .01); the correlation
between speed of
engagement in the first and second simulations was .69 (p <
.01). The correla-
tion between the overall team member effort in the first and
29. second simula-
tions was .71 (p < .01). ICC
1
and ICC
2
values for team member effort across
the two simulations were .42 and .59, respectively (p < .01). So,
there was
justification for using the mean index across simulations.
Team performance. Teams started each simulation with 50,000
defensive
points and 1,000 offensive points. Teams could not gain
defensive points, but
they could lose defensive points if unfriendly targets entered the
restricted
geographic space. Teams gained offensive points for each
unfriendly target
that was destroyed in that space but lost offensive points for
mistakenly
destroying targets outside the restricted space or destroying
friendly targets
anywhere. Thus, for each simulation exercise, teams had both an
offensive
and a defensive score. To assess aggregate team performance,
we standard-
ized the data by subtracting the sample mean from each datum,
summed the
offensive and defensive scores for each simulation, and then
took the mean
score across both simulations. The correlation for offensive
scores across the
two simulations was .49 (p < .01), and the correlation for
30. defensive scores
634 Small Group Research 41(5)
across simulations was .71 (p < .01). The correlation between
overall team
performance in the first and second simulation was .59 (p <
.01). ICC
1
and
ICC
2
values for team performance across the two simulations were
.59 and
.74, respectively (p < .01).
Data Analyses
To examine the contingencies associated with team leader
behaviors, leader
characteristics, and team member characteristics, we used
moderated regres-
sion analyses. To begin, we dummy coded the team leader
behaviors, using
coaching behavior as the referent condition (coaching = 0;
directive = 1). All
the measured variables were centered by subtracting the
variable’s mean
from each datum, which helps reduce multicollinearity among
the variables
and their interaction terms (Cohen, Cohen, Aiken, & West,
2003). With team
31. performance as the dependent variable, we then entered team
leader behav-
iors, leader charisma, and team member self-efficacy in the first
step of the
regression. Next, two interaction terms were created by
multiplying the
leader behavior dummy code by the leader charisma and by the
team member
self-efficacy index scores, and then entering these two
interaction terms in
the second step of the regression. To determine the variance in
team perfor-
mance explained by each interaction, we also conducted
separate moderated
regression analyses for leader charisma and team member self-
efficacy.
Moderated regression analysis was used for testing Hypotheses
1 and 3. To
test Hypotheses 2 and 4, which suggested that team member
effort would
mediate the moderating effects of leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy, we used Muller, Judd, and Yzerbyt’s (2005)
methodology for testing
mediated moderation.
Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and
correlations for all the
variables. Based on these data, there were moderate levels of
leader charisma
and team member self-efficacy in our sample. On average,
teams required
104 seconds to identify and engage targets in the simulation,
which is gener-
ally equivalent to the performance levels observed in previous
32. pilot tests
with similar ad hoc groups. Our manipulation of team leadership
had no
significant effect on team member effort or team performance,
and probably
because of random assignment of leader behavior conditions,
was not related
to leader charisma or team member self-efficacy. So, any
differential effects
of coaching versus directive team leadership had to be
contingent on other
DeRue et al. 635
factors. Both leader charisma and team member self-efficacy
were positively
related to team performance (also see Table 2, Model 1), and
team member
effort was positively related to team performance. These results
offered pre-
liminary evidence that a motivational pathway may be the
mechanism that
links leadership with team performance.
Hypotheses 1a and 1b predicted that a leader’s behavioral style
(coaching,
directive) would interact with leader charisma to affect team
performance.
Specifically, when leader charisma was high, we expected
coaching leader-
ship to be more effective than directive leadership (Hypothesis
1a). But
when leader charisma was low, we expected directive leadership
to be more
33. effective than coaching leadership (Hypothesis 1b). As shown in
Table 2
(Model 2), leader charisma interacted with leadership behavior
in just this
way (β = −.22; p < .05). As an aid in understanding the form of
the interac-
tion, the relationship between team performance and leader
behavior for high
and low levels of leader charisma (defined as +1 and −1
standard deviations
from the mean, respectively; see Aiken & West, 1991) is shown
in Figure 2.
As expected, coaching leaders who were highly charismatic
fostered higher
levels of team performance than did directive leaders or
coaching leaders
who were not very charismatic. Moreover, directive team
leaders fostered
higher levels of team performance than coaching team leaders
who lacked
charisma. We conducted a simple slopes analysis for this
interaction and
found that the difference between coaching and directive team
leaders was
significant for low-charisma leaders (p < .01), but not for high-
charisma ones
(p = .28). Hypotheses 1a and 1b were thus supported.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
Variable Meana SDa 1 2 3 4 5
1. Leader behaviorb 0.48 0.50 —
2. Leader charisma 3.63 0.53 −.04 —
3. Team member
34. self-efficacy
3.58 0.34 −.06 .03 —
4. Team member effort −104.01 18.68 .02 .02 .14 —
5. Team performance 38671.74 3183.21 .00 .22* .22* .61** —
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Unstandardized.
b. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
*p < .05. **p < .01.
636 Small Group Research 41(5)
In Hypothesis 2, we predicted that team member effort would
mediate the
interactive effect of leader charisma and coaching leadership on
team perfor-
mance. To provide evidence of mediated moderation, a set of
data must meet
three conditions (Muller et al., 2005). First, the independent
variable (leader
behavior) must interact with the moderator (leader charisma) to
affect the
outcome of interest (team performance). Our tests of Hypothesis
1 showed
that the data met this first condition. Second, the interaction
between leader
behavior and leader charisma must predict the mediator (team
member
effort). To test this condition, we conducted a separate
hierarchical regression
analysis in which team member effort was predicted from leader
behavior,
leader charisma, and the interaction between those variables. As
35. shown in
Table 3, leader behavior indeed interacted (though the effect
was only
marginally significant) with leader charisma (β = −.20; p < .10)
to influence
team member effort. The data thus met the second condition for
mediated
moderation. The third and final condition required that the
interaction
between leader behavior and leader charisma be reduced in
magnitude (and
become nonsignificant for full mediated moderation) when team
member
–0.5
–0.4
–0.3
–0.2
–0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
36. Low Leader Charisma High Leader Charisma
T
e
a
m
P
e
rf
o
rm
a
n
c
e
Coaching Leadership Directive Leadership
Figure 2. Interactive effects of leader behavior and leader
charisma on team
performance
DeRue et al. 637
effort was included as a predictor of team performance. As
shown in Table 2
(Model 3), the interaction term for leader behavior and leader
charisma
dropped from −.22 to −.11 and became nonsignificant when
team member
37. effort was added to the regression. Thus, team member effort
fully mediated
the interactive effect of leader behavior and leader charisma on
team perfor-
mance, supporting Hypothesis 2.
Hypotheses 3a and 3b suggested that leadership behavior
(coaching vs.
directive) would interact with team member self-efficacy to
influence team
performance. Specifically, when team members were low in
self-efficacy, we
expected coaching leadership to be more effective than directive
leadership
(Hypothesis 3a). In contrast, when team members were high in
self-efficacy,
we expected directive leadership to be more effective than
coaching leadership
(Hypothesis 3b). As shown in Table 2 (Model 2), team member
self-efficacy
indeed interacted with leader behavior (β = .22; p < .05) to
predict team
performance. To help understand the form of this interaction,
the relationship
between team performance and leader behavior for high and low
levels of
team member self-efficacy (defined as +1 and −1 standard
deviations from
Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting
Team Performance
From Leader Behavior, Leader Charisma, Team Member Self-
Efficacy, and Team
Member Effort
β
38. Independent Variable
Model 1:
Main Effects
Model 2:
Moderated Effects
Model 3: Mediated
Moderation Effects
Leader behaviora .03 .03 .01
Leader charisma .22* .23* .21*
Team member self-efficacy .22* .24* .15
Leader behavior × leader
charisma
−.22* −.11
Leader behavior × team
member self-efficacy
.22* .09
Team member effort .54**
R2 .10 .19 .45
∆R2 .09* .26**
F 2.76* 4.18* 34.32**
∆F 1.42* 30.14**
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
*p < .05. **p < .01.
638 Small Group Research 41(5)
39. the mean, respectively; see Aiken & West, 1991) is shown in
Figure 3. This
figure shows that directive leadership produced higher levels of
team perfor-
mance than coaching leadership when team members were high
in self-effi-
cacy. When team members were low in self-efficacy, however,
coaching
leaders produced higher levels of team performance than did
directive leaders.
We conducted a simple slopes analysis for this interaction and
found that the
difference between coaching and directive leaders was
significant when team
member self-efficacy was low (p < .01), but not when it was
high (p = .21).
Hypotheses 3a and 3b were thus supported.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that team member effort would mediate
the inter-
active effect of team member self-efficacy and team leader
behaviors on team
performance. To test for mediated moderation, we again
followed the proce-
dure outlined by Muller et al. (2005). The support we found for
Hypothesis 3
met the first of the three conditions. And as shown in Table 3,
team leader
behavior and team member self-efficacy had no main effects on
team
member effort, but they did have an interactive effect (β = .23;
p < .05), so the
second condition was also met. Finally, when team member
effort was included
41. Figure 3. Interactive effects of leader behavior and team
member self-efficacy on
team performance
DeRue et al. 639
as a predictor of team performance, the interaction between
leader behavior
and team member self-efficacy was reduced in magnitude (from
.22 to .09)
and became nonsignificant (see Model 3 in Table 2). Thus, team
member effort
fully mediated the interactive effect of team leader behavior and
team mem-
ber self-efficacy on team performance, supporting Hypothesis 4.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine selected
contingencies in
the relationship between team leader behaviors and team
performance.
Specifically, we investigated how leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy interact with two different approaches to leadership
(coaching and
directive) to influence team member motivation and overall
team perfor-
mance. Our results suggest that leader charisma and team
member self-
efficacy each have unique effects on the relationship between
team
leadership, team member effort, and overall team performance.
A coaching
approach to team leadership had a stronger positive effect on
42. team perfor-
mance when the leader was highly charismatic, but coaching
leadership was
less effective than directive leadership when leader charisma
was low.
Charisma was thus an important asset for coaching leaders.
Moreover, we
Table 3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting
Team Member Effort
From Leader Behavior, Leader Charisma, and Team Member
Self-Efficacy
β
Independent Variable Main Effects Moderated Effects
Leader behaviora .03 .03
Leader charisma .14 .16
Team member self-efficacy .02 .02
Leader behavior × leader charisma −.20†
Leader behavior × team member
self-efficacy
.23*
R2 .02 .11
∆R2 .09*
F 0.51 3.71*
∆F 3.20*
Note: N = 80 teams.
a. Dummy coded (coaching = 0; directive = 1).
†p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.
43. 640 Small Group Research 41(5)
found that when team member self-efficacy was low, a coaching
approach to
leadership was more effective, but when team member self-
efficacy was
high, a directive approach resulted in higher team performance.
These inter-
actions were mediated by team member effort.
Strengths and Limitations
Our study had several strengths that should be noted. First,
much of the
existing literature on team leadership relies on subjective
measures of team
processes and performance. In contrast, our study uses objective
measures of
team member effort and team performance, which helps avoid
many of the
methodological problems associated with self-report data and
enabled us to
empirically link team leader behaviors with team member effort
and overall
team performance.
A second strength of our study was its ability to assess causal
mechanisms.
We manipulated team leader behaviors and controlled the team
context in
ways that would be nearly impossible in a field setting. For
example, in field
settings, teams often differ on a variety of meaningful factors
(e.g., task char-
acteristics, developmental stages), and these between-team
44. differences would
make it difficult to isolate the motivational and performance
implications of
contingencies associated with directive and coaching form of
team leader-
ship. By conducting a controlled experiment, we were able to
isolate the
effects of team leadership and rule out other factors as potential
explanations
for our results.
Finally, the importance of contingencies is well-documented in
the leader-
ship literature (see Vroom & Jago, 2007 for a review).
However, scholars
often note how rarely researchers have studied the underlying
theoretical
mechanisms that explain these contingencies. In our study, we
used mediated
moderation analyses (Muller et al., 2005) to show empirically
that team
member motivation mediates key contingencies in team
leadership.
Notwithstanding these strengths, our study also had some
limitations
that should be noted and might guide future research. First, we
tested our
hypotheses via a laboratory experiment with college students, so
it is not
clear to what extent our findings will generalize beyond this
setting. For this
reason, we encourage researchers to test our theoretical
propositions in other
contexts, and examine whether our findings generalize to field
settings where
45. team leaders must adapt to changing work demands and may
have a harder
time assessing the efficacy of individual team members.
Another potential
limitation of our study concerns the manipulation of team
leadership. Because
leaders were selected randomly and leader behaviors were
manipulated, it is
DeRue et al. 641
not clear if leaders selected through natural organizational
processes or lead-
ers whose behaviors vary more naturally would display the same
pattern of
relationships found in our study. Also, leaders selected at
random might not
have the same credibility with followers, or identify as strongly
with the lead-
ership role, as leaders formally appointed to leadership roles by
an organiza-
tion (DeRue & Ashford, in press; DeRue, Ashford, & Cotton,
2009). These
credibility and identification processes may influence how our
findings gen-
eralize to field settings. We also tried to minimize (within
conditions) any
variability in leadership behaviors. As a result, our
manipulation may have
produced even stronger effects than one would observe in field
settings. And
we encourage other researchers to focus not only on the actual
behavior of
leaders, but also on the intentions underling that behavior. It
46. would also be
interesting to explicitly model and test the impact of blended
leadership
behaviors that mix the coaching and directive approaches.
Finally, we encourage
researchers to consider the possibility that our model may be
recursive—the
efforts and performance of team members may influence leader
behaviors.
Implications for Theory and Practice
Our study contributes to the understanding of team leadership in
several
unique ways and thus has important implications for both theory
and prac-
tice. First, current theory and research on leadership has
generally considered
a limited set of contingencies, focusing primarily on features of
the situation
(e.g., event types) or on a team’s task (e.g., task
interdependence). Contrary
to traditional leadership theories (e.g., House & Mitchell,
1974), theories of
team leadership have generally overlooked the issue of whether
the effective-
ness of different team leader behaviors is contingent on the
personal charac-
teristics of the leader or those of team members. In our study,
we extended
existing models of team leadership by showing that both leader
charisma and
team member self-efficacy serve as important boundary
conditions on the
relationship between leader behaviors and team performance.
Our contingency model of team leadership has several important
47. implica-
tions for managerial practice in organizations. For one thing,
team leaders
must find a match between their behavioral approach to
leadership, their own
personal characteristics, and the characteristics of their team’s
members.
Only when a match occurs will team leaders be able to
effectively facilitate
key team processes and generate high levels of team
performance. Thus, our
findings suggest that it might be important for team leaders to
adapt their
behavioral approach to circumstances over time. In particular,
as team mem-
bers develop a stronger sense of self-efficacy, team leaders
should try to
642 Small Group Research 41(5)
adapt their behavior accordingly. For example, coaching
leadership will help
develop team member self-efficacy, but as team member
efficacy grows,
directive leadership will be necessary to focus that efficacy and
the resulting
effort toward task accomplishment. One implication of this
finding is that
leaders must be able to accurately identify team members’ self-
efficacy
beliefs. Although our study did not explicitly examine
adaptations in leader-
ship behavior over time, or the ability of leaders to identity
team members’
48. efficacy beliefs, our results imply that moving from a coaching
to a directive
form of leadership as a team develops should (if it can be done)
be helpful.
Interestingly, this conclusion runs counter to suggestions that
leaders
should act in a less directive manner as a team develops
(Kozlowski, Gully,
Salas, et al., 1996) and its members acquire a clearer
understanding of perfor-
mance demands. One way to reconcile this apparent
contradiction is to rec-
ognize that directive forms of team leadership do not
necessarily imply
micromanagement. An important role of team leaders is to help
provide
broader strategic direction and help establish challenging team
goals, two
forms of direction that do not require strong hierarchical
control. Future
research should investigate the extent to which team leaders can
effectively
adapt their behavioral approach to leadership and how that
adaptation pro-
cess influences team functioning, particularly as the team
develops.
Finally, the contingencies identified in our study offer insight
into how
organizations might select and assign team leaders. For
example, if a par-
ticular team needs coaching and development, then our results
suggest that a
team leader should be selected who has the charisma necessary
to motivate
49. team members to embrace learning and development. Less
charismatic
leaders in this situation would be unable to facilitate the
necessary develop-
mental processes, and team performance would suffer as a
result.
Considering the many traits and attributes that have been
theorized to
influence leadership processes and outcomes (see Zaccaro,
Kemp, & Bader,
2004 for a review), our study also opens up a multitude of
avenues for future
research on how team leader behaviors interact with leader and
team member
characteristics to affect team performance. We were particularly
interested in
the motivational implications of team leadership, and so we
chose to focus on
leader charisma and team member self-efficacy as potential
moderators of the
relationship between leadership behaviors and team
performance. However,
future research might adopt alternative perspectives that lead to
the discovery
of other important leader and team member characteristics. For
example,
whereas we examined team member self-efficacy, future
research might
consider collective efficacy (DeRue et al., 2010). Future
research might also
embrace an information-processing perspective (e.g., Hinsz,
Tindale, &
50. DeRue et al. 643
Vollrath, 1997) and examine how the cognitive abilities of a
team’s leader, or
the cognitive abilities of its members, can shape the behaviors
that team
leaders use to manage information within the team, and how
such behaviors
influence team processes and performance. For example, team
members with
greater cognitive ability may be more efficient and accurate at
processing
information related to team functioning, which would reduce the
need for a
leader to monitor and process information for them.
We also encourage researchers to heed the advice of Zaccaro
(2007) and
integrate situational perspectives on team leadership with the
trait or attribute-
oriented approach used in this study. For example, certain
characteristics of
work tasks (e.g., autonomy) foster higher levels of motivation
(Campion &
Thayer, 1985; Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Morgeson &
Humphrey, 2006).
Future research might examine the motivational and
performance implica-
tions of team leader behaviors when both task characteristics
and the charac-
teristics of a team’s leader and its members are considered
simultaneously.
For example, autonomy (a task characteristic) may be
particularly motivating
when team members are experienced with a task, but
demotivating other-
51. wise. Examining potential contingency factors in this way
would yield a
more integrative contingency theory of team leadership than any
of those that
now exist.
Another important contribution of our study is its emphasis on
the under-
lying motivational mechanisms that explain contingencies in
team leader-
ship. Prior research on such contingencies has generally fallen
short of
identifying these mechanisms. We theorized about the
motivational implica-
tions of contingencies in team leadership and then provided
empirical
evidence for how team member motivation serves as a mediator
of the link
between team leader behaviors and team performance. That
finding has
important implications for current theory because this is the
first study to
document team member motivation as a mechanism through
which team
leader behaviors affect team performance. Future research
should extend this
motivational perspective by exploring other mediational
mechanisms that
could explain important contingencies in team leadership. For
example,
researchers might explore how leader behaviors influence
intrinsic or extrin-
sic motivation or explore such nonmotivational processes as
identification
with the leader. In addition, given the emergence of affective
events theory
52. (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) as a way of analyzing the impact
of discrete
events on individual psychological processes, future research
might try to
extend that theory to the team level and build on existing
research that
suggests a key function of team leaders is to manage events that
occur in the
team context (Morgeson, 2005; Morgeson & DeRue, 2006).
Drawing from
644 Small Group Research 41(5)
affective events theory and research on affect in teams (George,
1990), we
believe that the nature of team events, and the ways in which
team leaders go
about managing those events, could influence team functioning
through
affective pathways such as affective tone (Sy, Cote, &
Saavedra, 2005) and
collective emotion (Barsade, Ward, Turner, & Sonnenfeld,
2000; Bartel &
Saavedra, 2000; Ilies, Wagner, & Morgeson, 2007). These
extensions of our
theory and empirical findings would go a long way toward
enhancing under-
standing of team leadership and the contingencies that explain
how leader-
ship processes influence team performance.
Appendix A
Instructions Provided to Leaders in the Directive Condition
53. Prior to the first simulation. As the leader, your job is to direct
this team. You
should set the team’s direction and give specific instructions
regarding what
individual members should be doing and when they should be
doing it.
Ensure that your team members stick to your plan for
accomplishing your
objectives. Monitor your team members’ actions, and correct
them when they
are not following your plan. Tell them not only when they are
wrong, but
what they should be doing instead. It is important that you are
clear and direc-
tive in your leadership.
Between the first and second simulation. You will now have 10
minutes to
discuss Game 1 and prepare for Game 2. Your job will be to
direct the discus-
sion. Make sure you clearly communicate your observations
about the first
game to your team members. Additionally, make sure you
clearly state your
goals and plans for the second game. It is important that you
direct the discus-
sion so as to obtain maximum performance in the second game.
Instructions Provided to Leaders in the Coaching Condition
Prior to the first simulation. As the leader, your job is to coach
this team. You
should support their growth and learning so that your team will
fulfill its
potential. Help your members make coordinated and task-
54. appropriate use of
their collective resources in accomplishing the team’s work.
Monitor your
team members, encouraging them when they have difficulties
and praising
them when they do well. Provide aid when requested, and make
sure your
team members have the information that they need. It is
important that you
take this coaching-like approach in your leadership.
(continued)
DeRue et al. 645
Between the first and second simulation. You will now have 10
minutes to
discuss Game 1 and prepare for Game 2. Your job will be to
serve as a coach
during the discussion. Make sure your team members share their
observa-
tions about the first game. Additionally, make sure your team
members create
plans for the second game. It is important that you serve as a
coach during the
discussion so as to obtain maximum performance in the second
game.
Appendix B
Leader Charisma (Yukl & Falbe, 1991)
1. He/she knows how to appeal to the emotions and values of
people.
55. 2. He/she is the type of person that I would like to have as a
close
friend.
3. He/she has the ability to communicate a clear vision of what
our
team could accomplish or become.
Team-Member Self-Efficacy (Quinones, 1995)
1. I feel confident in my ability to perform this task effectively.
2. I think I can reach a high level of performance in this task.
3. I am sure I can learn how to perform this task in a relatively
short
period of time.
4. I don’t feel that I am as capable of performing this task as
other
people. (reverse-scored)
5. On the average, other people are probably much more
capable of
performing this task than I am. (reverse-scored)
6. I am a fast learner for these types of tasks, in comparison
with other
people.
7. I am not sure I can ever reach a high level of performance in
this
task, no matter how much practice and training I get. (reverse-
scored)
8. It would take me a long time to learn how to perform this
56. task effec-
tively. (reverse-scored)
9. I am not confident that I can perform this task successfully.
(reverse-
scored)
10. I doubt that my performance will be very adequate in this
task.
(reverse-scored)
Appendix A (continued)
646 Small Group Research 41(5)
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Sean Burke and Carrie Beia for their
support in collecting
data for this study.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no conflicts of interest with respect to
the authorship and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
We would like to thank the Eli Broad College of Business for
its financial support.
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Bios
D. Scott DeRue is an assistant professor of management and
organizations at the
University of Michigan’s Stephen M. Ross School of Business.
His research focuses
on leadership and team dynamics, with a particular interest in
understanding how
leaders and teams in organizations adapt, learn, and develop
over time.
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Center of Excellence
for the Professional Military Ethic, United States Military
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Valade Research
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leadership in self-
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design of work,
including team-based designs.
First among Equals: The Effect of Team Leader Characteristics
on the Internal Dynamics of Cross-Functional Product
Development Teams
�
Shikhar Sarin and Gina Colarelli O’Connor
Drawing on the path-goal theory of leadership, the present study
examines the effect
of team leader characteristics on an array of conflict resolution
behavior, collab-
oration, and communication patterns of cross-functional new
product development
(NPD) teams. A hierarchical linear model analysis based on a
survey of 246 mem-
bers from 64 NPD teams suggests that participative management
70. style and initi-
ation of goal structure by the team leader exert the strongest
influence on internal
team dynamics. Both these leadership characteristics had a
positive effect on func-
tional conflict resolution, collaboration, and communication
quality within the NPD
team while discouraging dysfunctional conflict resolution and
formal communica-
tions. Comparatively, team leader’s consideration, initiation of
process structure,
and position had a surprisingly weak effect on internal team
dynamics. Further, the
findings underscore the differential effects on various
dimensions of team dynamics,
the importance of controlling for project and team
characteristics, and the use of
multilevel modeling for studying nested phenomena related to
NPD teams. Impli-
cations of these findings are discussed.
Introduction
R
ecognizing the long-term competitive advan-
71. tage offered by successful new product
development (NPD), organizations are rely-
ing heavily on cross-functional teams to improve their
NPD processes (Barczak and Wilemon, 1992; Griffin,
1997; McDonough, 2000; Sarin and Mahajan, 2001;
Sarin and McDermott, 2003; Ulrich and Eppinger,
1995; Wind and Mahajan, 1997). Typically these
teams, composed of individuals drawn from a variety
of functional specialties within the organization, are
responsible for taking a product from conceptualiza-
tion to commercialization.
Growing popularity and anecdotal evidence notwith-
standing, the results achieved from the use of cross-
functional teams in NPD efforts have been decidedly
mixed (Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; Katzenbach and
Smith, 1993; Sarin and Mahajan, 2001). Among other
reasons, this lack of consistent success has been at-
tributed to poor project leadership, which often fails
72. to appreciate the diversity of cross-functional teams
and mismanages team dynamics—essential compo-
nents to the performance of any NPD team (Henke,
Krachenberg, and Lyons, 1993; Parker, 1994; Robbins
and Finley, 1995).
Effective project leadership has been identified as
one of the most important mechanisms not only for
managing team dynamics but also for steering the
teams successfully and efficiently through the new prod-
uct development process (McDonough and Griffin,
�
The authors are grateful to Tony Di Benedetto for processing
this
manuscript. They would also like to thank Robert Baron and
Stacey
Hills for their help on an earlier version of this manuscript.
Address correspondence to: Address correspondence to: Shikhar
Sarin, College of Business and Economics, Boise State
University,
Boise, ID 83725. Tel.: (208) 426-2721. Fax: (208) 426-5384. E-
mail:
[email protected]
J PROD INNOV MANAG 2009;26:188–205
r 2009 Product Development & Management Association
73. i:/BWUS/JPIM/345/[email protected]
1997). Team leaders coach team members, help de-
velop their capabilities, foster interactions and learning
within the team, and champion the team’s activities
to others in the organization (Ancona and Caldwell,
1992a; Barczak and Wilemon, 1992; McDonough and
Barczak, 1991; McDonough and Griffin, 1997; Sarin
and McDermott, 2003). Nurick Thamhain (2006) sug-
gest that effective project team leaders are social ar-
chitects who understand the interaction between
organizational and behavioral variables; suggesting
that such team leaders should be able to minimize
dysfunctional conflict and to foster a climate of active
participation.
Despite the focused attention from the academic
community, much of the past research in the NPD
literature is based largely on anecdotal data (e.g.,
74. Jassawalla and Sashittal, 2000), case studies (e.g.,
Hershock, Cowman, and Peters, 1994), or qualitative
data (e.g., Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; Donnellon,
1993). Although some studies (e.g., McDonough,
1993; Norrgren and Schaller, 1999) have explored
NPD team leadership empirically, these studies were
limited in their scope by the univariate analyses em-
ployed. Moreover, when empirical examinations were
undertaken, few studies controlled for the character-
istics of the team or the project, which could have
profound effects on how team leadership effects the
internal dynamics and performance of the NPD teams
(Ancona and Caldwell, 1992b; Griffin, 1979; Sarin and
Mahajan, 2001; Sarin and McDermott, 2003). The
NPD literature lacks a comprehensive and robust em-
pirical examination of the influence of team leadership
on the dynamics and performance of cross-functional
new product development teams. The present study
75. addresses this void in the NPD literature by empiri-
cally examining the effect of team leaders’ manage-
ment styles and position on an array of internal NPD
team dynamics. Such a comprehensive examination
is critical for understanding the inherent trade-offs
and synergies involved between various dimensions of
team dynamics.
Drawing on the path-goal theory of leadership
(e.g., Evans, 1970; House, 1971), this study focuses
on the team leader’s management style in terms of his
or her interactions with team members, style prefer-
ences for organizing work, and position and power in
the organization (Yukl, 1994). The effects of these
team leader characteristics on three broad areas of
internal team dynamics are examined: (1) conflict res-
olution behavior; (2) collaboration; and (3) commu-
nication behavior. In addition, the study controls for
key NPD team characteristics such as team size and
76. functional diversity and for project characteristics in-
cluding project length, complexity, and risk. Hierar-
chical linear modeling (HLM) is used to analyze the
data, which affords a number of analytical and inter-
pretive advantages over methods previously employed
in research on NPD teams.
Theoretical Background
Team Leader Characteristics
The team leader plays a pivotal role in setting the
work climate within the team, motivating team mem-
bers and affecting their behavior (Burke et al., 2006;
Norrgren and Schaller, 1999). Team leaders direct the
manner in which the NPD team presents itself and its
ideas to achieve personal and organizational goals
(Barczak and Wilemon, 1989; McDonough, 2000;
Sarin and McDermott, 2003).
Yukl (1994) suggests that leaders’ effectiveness is
derived from four sources: (1) the level of power and
77. influence possessed by the leader; (2) how the leader
interacts with others; (3) the leaders’ personal quali-
ties; and (4) the situation in which the leader is asked
to lead. Given their managerial controllability, this
research focuses on the first two sources of leader
effectiveness: (1) the NPD team leader’s power and
influence (as reflected by position in the organization);
and (2) interactions with the members of the NPD
team, as reflected by his or her management style
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES
Dr. Shikhar Sarin is the Kirk and Marsha Smith Professor of
Mar-
keting at Boise State University. His research and teaching
interests
include marketing strategy, new product development,
marketing of
high-tech products, and electronic commerce. He has published
in
the Journal of Marketing, Decision Sciences, Journal of the
Academy
of Marketing Science, Journal of Product Innovation
78. Management,
Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Theory
and
Practice, and Engineering Economist.
Dr. Gina Colarelli O’Connor is associate professor of marketing
at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Lally School of Management
and
Technology. She previously worked for McDonnell Douglas
Cor-
poration and Monsanto Chemical Company. Her teaching and
re-
search efforts focus on how large established firms link
advanced
technology development to market opportunities, how they
create
new markets, and how they develop sustainable capabilities for
breakthrough innovation. Dr. O’Connor has published more than
30 articles in refereed journals and is coauthor of the book
Radical
Innovation, How Mature Firms Can Outsmart Upstarts (Harvard
Business School Press, 2000) and Grabbing Lightning: Building
a
79. Capability for Breakthrough Innovation (Jossey-Bass, 2008).
TEAM LEADER CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERNAL
DYNAMICS J PROD INNOV MANAG
2009;26:188–205
189
(Muczyk and Reimann, 1987; Sarin and McDermott,
2003). The path-goal theory of leadership (e.g., Evans,
1970; House, 1971) is used to help explain the
dynamics of these effectiveness dimensions.
The basic premise of the path-goal theory of lead-
ership is that a primary function of the leader involves
clarifying and outlining the kinds of paths and be-
haviors that will lead to goal attainment and valued
rewards (Griffin, 1979). Four distinct characteristics
or behaviors of the team leader related to his or her
management style can be identified based on this
framework (Antonioni, 1996; Burke et al., 2006;
Evans, 1970; House, 1971; Griffin, 1979; Yukl, 1994):
80. 1. Participative leadership or participation: Participa-
tion is the degree to which the team leader invites
members’ involvement in the decision-making pro-
cess. Participative leaders consult with the mem-
bers of their teams, solicit their input, and take
these suggestions into account when making deci-
sions. Participation represents the way the leader
behaves toward others as well as his influence over
the team members.
2. Supportive leadership or consideration: Consider-
ation is the degree to which the team leader is
friendly and approachable and demonstrates inter-
est in the well-being of the team members. It indi-
cates his or her respect for others and conveys cues
about his or her own personal qualities. By treating
others with respect considerate team leaders create
a pleasant work environment.
3. Achievement-oriented leadership or initiation of goal
81. structure: Goal structuring is the degree to which
the team leader conveys to the members what out-
come or objective is expected of them. By goal
structuring team leaders set challenging goals for
the team members, expecting them to assume re-
sponsibility and perform to their highest level.
Through the use of such behavior team leaders
show confidence that the members of the team will
put forth the level of effort necessary to attain the
goals set for them.
4. Directive leadership or initiation of process struc-
ture: Process structuring is the degree to which the
team leader organizes and directs the activities of
team members. Process structuring by team leaders
gives specific guidance to the team members re-
garding what needs to be done and how it should
be done. The team leader schedules the work to be
done, lays out the rules and regulations to be fol-
82. lowed, and maintains standards of performance.
Finally, an additional source of team leaders’ effec-
tiveness identified by Yukl (1994) is considered: the
level of power/influence possessed by the leader:
5. Team leader’s position: The team leader’s position
is a measure of the formal as well as informal
power and influence enjoyed by the team leader
within the organization. Team leaders in high po-
sition enjoy a high stature in the organization and
are well respected for their management or techni-
cal skills. Such leaders tend to be politically savvy
and well networked within the organization. As a
result they are able to acquire needed resources, to
promote the team’s project within the organiza-
tion, and to shield the team from unwanted inter-
ference and pressures when needed.
Following Sarin and McDermott (2003), these five
team leader characteristics were considered because
83. they are not only managerially controllable but also
are strongly supported by established theoretical
frameworks (Evans, 1970; House, 1971; Yukl, 1994).
Internal Dynamics of NPD Teams
Healthy internal dynamics are essential for effective
cross-functional NPD teams and, consequently, for
the successful development of new products (e.g.,
Burke et al., 2006). Specifically, the conflict resolu-
tion behaviors (e.g., Pinto, Pinto, and Prescott, 1993;
Song, Xie, and Dyer, 2000), collaboration (e.g., Jassa-
walla and Sashittal, 1998; Pinto et al., 1993), and com-
munication behaviors (e.g., Ancona and Caldwell,
1992b; Griffin and Hauser, 1992) of cross-functional
NPD teams have been shown to have a tremendous
impact on their performance. However, the misman-
agement of these internal dynamics is among the most
often cited barriers to effective NPD team functioning
(Henke et al., 1993). In the present study three types
84. of internal team dynamics is considered: (1) conflict
resolution strategies; (2) collaboration; and (3) com-
munication behaviors.
Conflict resolution strategies. Individuals from
different functional backgrounds develop different
thought worlds and perspectives (Dougherty, 1992;
Maltz and Kohli, 1996; Sarin and McDermott, 2003).
Besides developing different worldviews, differences
can also result from variety in procedures or termi-
nology followed by each functional area, differences in
information processing techniques used, or differences
190 J PROD INNOV MANAG
2009;26:188–205
S. SARIN AND G. C. O’CONNOR
in task/role ambiguity tolerated (Kolb and Rubin,
1990). These differences may create conflict, which is
inherent in all cross-functional teams (Parker, 1994;
85. Sarin and Mahajan, 2001). It is not the existence of
conflict, per se, but rather the mechanisms used to
resolve it that is of interest in terms of the effective
functioning of NPD teams (Amason, 1996; Pinto
et al., 1993).
Research on conflict management (e.g., Blake and
Mouton, 1964; Song et al., 2000; Thomas, 1977) iden-
tifies different mechanisms for resolving conflicts:
� Confronting: open discussion of the disagreement.
� Compromising: mutual bargaining amongst the
disagreeing parties; smoothing, meaning building
on the areas of agreement.
� Forcing: the coercive imposition of a solution by
an individual or a group on others.
� Withdrawal: refusal to deal with the conflict.
Cross-functional NPD teams may exhibit all of
these forms of conflict resolution to varying de-
grees.
Amason (1996) suggests that depending on how it is
resolved, conflict can either be functional (productive)
86. or dysfunctional (disruptive). Dysfunctional forms of
conflict resolution such as forcing or withdrawal com-
pel one disagreeing party to concede, either involun-
tarily or under duress, to eliminate further conflict.
Such a win–lose situation is ineffective and can de-
crease team morale, productivity, and satisfaction
(Muczyk and Reimann, 1987; Thomas, 1977). The
preferred or more functional mechanisms for resolv-
ing conflict include confronting, compromising, and
smoothing. These may enhance team operations by
bringing together the ideas of all parties and may aid
in reaching a solution that satisfies or benefits all par-
ties involved in the conflict (Kolb and Rubin, 1990;
Song et al., 2000; Thamhain and Nurick, 1994).
Collaboration. Collaboration is defined as the de-
gree to which the members of the NPD team work
together to accomplish specific tasks (Jassawalla and
Sashittal, 1998; Pinto et al., 1993). Collaboration is
87. indicative of effective team dynamics and an anteced-
ent to improved team performance (Ancona and
Caldwell, 1992a; Pinto et al., 1993). Although some
researchers (e.g., Thomas, 1977) consider collabora-
tion as yet another form of functional conflict reso-
lution strategy, others (e.g., Jassawalla and Sashittal,
1998; Pinto et al., 1993) suggest that it as a much
broader construct indicative of general integrative and
supportive interpersonal cooperation among team
members. Though some overlap is expected with func-
tional conflict resolution strategies, collaboration is
considered to be a distinct but related component of
the internal dynamics of NPD teams.
Communication. Poor communication among
team members has long been considered a detriment
to effective operation (Wilemon and Thamhain, 1983;
Henke et al., 1993), whereas effective communication
among team members has been linked to greater NPD
88. productivity and performance (Ancona and Caldwell,
1992b; Griffin and Hauser, 1992). Much of the focus
in the extant literature has been on the frequency of
communication between team members, with the gen-
eral consensus being that higher communication
frequency is positively associated with NPD perfor-
mance (e.g., Ancona and Caldwell, 1992b; Gladstein,
1984). Maltz (2000), however, notes that there is an
inherent and erroneous assumption in the NPD liter-
ature that all types of cross-functional communication
are equally important or that increased communica-
tion frequency equals good information quality.
Meanwhile, the focus on communication frequency
has resulted in other important dimensions of com-
munication remaining underexplored (Maltz, 2000;
Van de Ven and Ferry, 1980).
Although important, frequency is not the only rel-
evant aspect of NPD team communication that needs
89. to be considered. Team communication is a broad
concept that encompasses additional attributes. For
example, communication quality has been suggested
as a critical element in improving communication
(Bauer and Green, 1996), especially across different
functional areas (Maltz, 2000). Communication qual-
ity can be measured in terms of its accuracy, clarity,
detail, relevance, and timeliness (Van de Ven and
Ferry, 1980).
Similarly, information exchanges take place not
only through formally designated channels (e.g.,
meetings, memos, letters) but also through informal
mechanisms (e.g., impromptu meeting, hall talk)
(Maltz and Kohli, 1996; Van de Ven and Ferry,
1980). Maltz and Kohli (1996) suggest that although
informal communication may be more timely, formal
communication tends to be more accurate and detail
oriented. Therefore, in instances where speed and in-
90. novation are important, more informal channels of
communication may be desirable, whereas in other
cases where adherence to budget and schedule and
product quality are important, more formal channels
TEAM LEADER CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERNAL
DYNAMICS J PROD INNOV MANAG
2009;26:188–205
191
of communication might be preferable. As such, com-
munication formality may be regarded as another
appropriate indicator of team interaction and com-
munication (Kezsbom, 2000).
What is needed in the literature is an examination
of a broad set of leader characteristics on a compre-
hensive array of conflict resolution behaviors, collab-
oration, and communication behaviors of NPD teams
to gain insights that can translate to actionable pre-
scriptions for NPD managers. Particularly, the simul-
91. taneous consideration of a variety of internal dynamics
can help understand how the characteristics of the
NPD team leaders differentially affect various aspects
of internal team dynamics.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework proposed in this study
is shown in Figure 1. The following section discusses
the effects of specific team leader characteristics
on the internal dynamics of cross-functional NPD
teams.
The Effect of Team Leader Participation and
Consideration on Internal Team Dynamics
Participation and consideration are perhaps the most
visible indicators of a team leader’s management style.
Participative team leaders consult their team mem-
bers, solicit their input, and involve them in the deci-
sion-making process (Antonioni, 1996; Burke et al.,
2006; Evans, 1970; House, 1971; Griffin, 1979; Yukl,
92. 1994). Thomas (1977) suggests that the key to resolv-
ing conflicts in a group is to understand the underly-
ing power structure within the group. A participative
team leader creates an environment in which power is
dispersed more evenly among the team members.
Such power equity limits the ability of individuals or
subgroups to unduly dominate the conflict resolution
process in the team at the expense of others, thereby
creating a more open and productive approach to
resolving conflicts as they occur (Burke et al., 2006;
Norrgren and Schaller, 1999). Participation sets the
tone in which the leader exerts his or her influence
over the team and has been shown to be positively
related to learning within NPD teams (Sarin and
McDermott, 2003). Thus participative leadership in
NPD teams should therefore be positively related to
the use of functional conflict resolution strategies and
negatively related to the use of dysfunctional conflict
93. resolution strategies within the team.
Studies of high-involvement leadership suggest that
when leaders delegate decision-making authority,
team members become more actively engaged in dis-
cussions and communication among them improves
(Kidd and Christy, 1961; Wilemon and Thamhain,
1983). In contrast, low-involvement or autocratic
leaders discourage team members from actively
communicating and participating in team activities
(Bolman and Deal, 1993; Stewart and Manz, 1995).
When a team leader actively engages team mem-
bers in the decision-making process, members have an
opportunity to make a contribution to how a new prod-
uct development project should proceed (McDonough,
2000). As they seek to make their contributions in a
well-informed manner, the relevance and reliability of
the information exchanged increases (Kidd and
Christy, 1961; Peterson, 1997), increasing the com-
94. munication and cooperation within the team (Maltz,
2000). Participation by the team leader sets a more
inclusive work environment, which encourages team
members to interact with each other using informal
rather than formal channels of communication.
Therefore participative behavior by team leaders is
likely to be related to greater frequency and quality of
communication within NPD teams and greater team
collaboration. Greater participation is also likely to
be associated with the use of less formal channels of
communication.
Considerate team leaders demonstrate concern and
interest for the well-being of their team members.
They are friendly and approachable and treat others
with respect. In so doing, they not only convey cues
about their own personal qualities but also create a
pleasant work environment in general (Antonioni,
1996; Burke et al., 2006; Evans, 1970; House, 1971;
95. Conflict Resolution Behavior
• Confronting
• Compromising
• Smoothing
• Forcing
• Withdrawal
Collaboration
Communication Behavior
• Frequency
• Formality
• Quality
Participation
Consideration
Initiation of Goal
Structure
Initiation of Process
Structure
Team Leader Position
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Effect of Team Leader
Characteristics on the Internal Dynamics of NPD Teams
192 J PROD INNOV MANAG
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S. SARIN AND G. C. O’CONNOR